class notes, M.
Rodwell, copyrighted 2009
ECE145a / 218a
Signal
g Flow Graphs
p
Mark Rodwell
University
y of California, Santa Barbara
class notes, M. Rodwell, copyrighted 2009
Signal Flow Graphs Mason : control system theory
System off equations
i Represent as below :
(example : S - parameters)
b1 = S11a1 + S12a2
b2 = S21a1 + S22a2
Variables represented as nodes :
Value of variable = sum of entering branches
= sum of values of connecting nodes
times weight of branches.
class notes, M. Rodwell, copyrighted 2009
Representation of Generator & Load
V + = TsVgen + ΓsV −
→V + Z 0 = TsVgen Z 0 + ΓsV − Z0
→ a1 = a gen + Γs b1
further : a2 = ΓLb2
Representation :
class notes, M. Rodwell, copyrighted 2009
2nd Example: Cascaded Amplifiers
Circuit
Representation
T = e − jωτ
The signal flow graph compactly and visually represents
the many equations describing the system.
class notes, M. Rodwell, copyrighted 2009
Why Use Signal Flow Graphs ?
Signal flow graphs most heavily used in control system theory :
- Organizes the representation of a set of linear equations
- Lends
L d visual
i l intuition
i i i in i analysis.
l i
- Provides efficient solution through * Mason' s Gain Rules *
S.J. Mason : " Feedback theory − Some Properties of Signal Flow Graphs"
Proc. IRE, 41, p. 1141, Sept. 1953.
or : Many
M ttexts
t on control
t l system
t theory.
th
class notes, M. Rodwell, copyrighted 2009
Manipulating Signal Flow Graphs
Elementary
l manipulati
i l ions :
class notes, M. Rodwell, copyrighted 2009
Reducing a Feedback Loop
System with feedback :
x2 = T12 x1
x1 = a + T12 x2
→ x2 = T12a + T12T21 x2
x2 = T12a + T12T21 x2
T12
→ x2 = a
1 − T12T21
class notes, M. Rodwell, copyrighted 2009
Mason's Gain Rule
Define T = b / a =" transmission"
How do we find T ?
Define a path Pi as any route from a to b which
does not go through any node twice.
Define a loop coefficient Li as the product (T12T23T31 ) of
the transmission coefficients around any closed loop.
class notes, M. Rodwell, copyrighted 2009
Mason's Gain Rule
T= =
[
(1) (1)
]
(2)
[
b P1 1 − ∑ L(1) + ∑ L( 2) − L + P2 1 − ∑ L(1) + ∑ L( 2) − L + L
(2)
]
a 1 − ∑ L(1) + ∑ L(2) − ∑ L(3) + L
Where :
∑ L(1) = sum of all loop coefficients
∑ L(1) (1)
= sum of all loop coefficients for loops
which
hi h do
d not touchh pathh P1
∑ L(2) = sum of all second - order loops
A second - order loop is the product of the coefficients of any pair of
non - touching loops.
∑ L ( 2 ) (1)
= sum off all
ll secondd - order
d loops
l which
hi h do
d not touch
h path
h P1.
etc.
class notes, M. Rodwell, copyrighted 2009
Analysis of Simple Amplifier
Find T = b2 / a gen
T=
[
P1 1 − ∑ L(1)(1) + ∑ L( 2)(1) − L ]
1 − ∑ L(1) + ∑ L(2)
S21
=
1 − Γs S11 − Γl S22 − Γs Γl S21S12 + Γs S11Γl S22
∑ L(1) ∑ L( 2 )
= easy !
class notes, M. Rodwell, copyrighted 2009
Input Reflection Coefficient
Z in − Z 0
Γini =
Z in + Z 0
Overall Representation
class notes, M. Rodwell, copyrighted 2009
Input Reflection Coefficient
Relationship between incident
and reflected waves at input :
b1 S11 [1 − S22 ΓL ] + S21ΓL S12
T = = Γin =
a1 1 − S22 ΓL
S21S12
Γin = S11 + ΓL
1 − S22 ΓL
⎧ impedance ⎫
Input ⎨ ⎬ depends upon
⎩reflection coefficient ⎭
⎧ impedance ⎫
load ⎨ ⎬ unless S12 S21 = 0.
⎩reflection ffi i t ⎭
fl i coefficien
class notes, M. Rodwell, copyrighted 2009
Output Reflection Coefficient
Relationship between incident
and reflected waves at output :
b2 S22 [1 − S11ΓS ] + S21ΓS S12
T= = Γout =
a2 1 − S11ΓS
S21S12
Γout = S22 + ΓS
1 − S11ΓS
⎧ impedance ⎫
Output ⎨ ⎬ depends upon
⎩reflection coefficient ⎭
⎧ impedance ⎫
source ⎨ ⎬ unless S12 S21 = 0.
⎩reflection ffi i t ⎭
fl i coefficien
class notes, M. Rodwell, copyrighted 2009
Implication for Impedance Matching
S21S12 S21S12
Γin = S11 + ΓL Γout = S22 + ΓS
1 − S22 ΓL 1 − S11ΓS
If S12 S21 = 0 , then either S12 = 0 or S21 = 0.
0
In either case, the amplifier cannot pass signals in both directions.
If S12 S21 = 0, the amplifier
p is * unilateral * .
Unilateral amplifiers have Γin = S11 and Γout = S22 .
In this case, tuning the input match does not disturb the output tuning,
nor does tuning the output match disturb the input tuning.
In bilateral amplifiers ( S12 S21 ≠ 0), input and output tuning are interactive.
Interactive tuning → at a minimum : design is more difficult.
If S12 S21 is sufficiently large, we will find that matching is not possible.
class notes, M. Rodwell, copyrighted 2009
Origin of Nonzero S12S21
Reverse coupling in common - source FETs : Cgd
Reverse coupling in common - emitter BJTs : Ccb
Reverse coupling in common - gate FETs : Lg , Cds
Reverse coupling
p g in common - base BJTs : Lb , Cce
Some of these are device parasitics, some arise only
from poor interconnect design near the device terminals.
High reverse isolation (low S12 ) increases amplifier stability
and (usually) increases device maximum stable gain.
gain
class notes, M. Rodwell, copyrighted 2009
Available Source Power
4 ⋅ Re{Z gen }
2
PAV ,G = Vgen
bgen = TsVgen / Z 0 + Γs a gen
bgen = bs + Γs a gen
note that bs is the wave amplitude launched
into a load Z L = Z 0
Now : connect conjugate - matched load
Z L = Z S* i.e. ΓL = ΓS*
class notes, M. Rodwell, copyrighted 2009
Available Source Power
ΓL Γs
2 2
Reverse Power = bs = bs
2 2
[1 − Γ ]
S
2 2
[1 − Γ ]
S
2 2
1
= bs
2
[1 − Γ ]
F
Forward
d Power
P 2 2
S
1
Load Power = Available Power = bs
2
1 − ΓS
2
2
bs
PAVG = where bs is the power delivered to Z L = Z 0
2
1 − ΓS
2
