1) Protocols: To make communication successful between devices, some

rules and procedures should be agreed upon at the sending and receiving
ends of the system. Such rules and procedures are called Protocols.

2) Congestion :Network Congestion occurs when the traffic flowing

through a network exceeds its maximum capacity. In most
cases, congestion is a temporary issue with the network caused due to a
sudden upsurge of traffic, however, sometimes, a network is continually
congested, indicating a deeper problem.

3)Bandwidth: Bandwidth is basically a measure of the amount of data

that can be sent and received at any instance of time. That simply means
that the higher the bandwidth of a network, the larger the amount of data
the network can be sending to and from across its path.

4) Packetizing: packetizing refers to the process of encapsulating data

received from the upper layers of the network (also known as the payload)
into a network layer packet at the source. This packet includes relevant
information such as source and destination addresses.

5) Jitter :Jitter in computer networks refers to the variation in time delay

between when a signal is transmitted and when it's received over a network
connection12. It measures the variability in ping and can be caused by
network congestion, poor hardware performance, and lack of packet
prioritization. Jitter is crucial to consider for real-time applications like
voice or video communication.

6) Latency: Latency is a measurement of delay in a system12. In computer

networks, it is the amount of time it takes for data to travel from one point to
another. Network latency is the delay between when the user takes action
(like clicking on a link) and the moment a reply arrives from the server.

7) Routing: The process of choosing a path across one or more networks is

known as network routing. Any kind of network, including public transit
and phone networks, can use the routing principles. Routing chooses the
routes along which Internet Protocol (IP) packets get from their source to
their destination in packet-switching networks, such as the Internet.
8) Throughput: In computer networks, throughput refers to the rate at
which data is successfully transmitted from one location to another within
a given time frame. It measures the amount of data moved and is typically
expressed in bits per second (bps), such as megabits per second (Mbps) or
gigabits per second (Gbps). Essentially, it quantifies the efficiency of data
transfer in a network. Higher throughput indicates faster and more
efficient data transmission.

9) List the control access protocols.

1. Reservation
2. Polling
3. Token Passing

10) List UDP services.

1. Domain Name Services (DNS).
2. Streaming and Gaming
3. Swift Data Transfer
4. Multicasting
5. Virtual Private Networks (VPNs)

11) Simplex Mode

In simplex mode, Sender can send the data but the sender can’t receive
the data. It is a type of unidirectional communication in which
communication happens in only one direction. Example of this kind of
mode is Keyboard, Traditional Monitors, etc.

12) Half-Duplex Mode

In half-duplex mode, Sender can send the data and also receive the data
one at a time. It is a type of two-way directional communication but
restricted to only one at a time. An example of this kind of transmission is
the Walkie-Talkie, where the message is sent one at a time but in both
directions.

13) Full Duplex Mode

In Full-duplex mode, Sender can send the data and also can receive the
data simultaneously. It is two-way directional communication
simultaneously that is both way of communication happens at a same
time. Example of this kind of transmission is Telephone Network, where
communication happens simultaneously.

14)Difference Between Simplex, Half duplex, and Full Duplex

Transmission Modes.
 Parameters Simplex Half Duplex Full Duplex

Half
Full Duplex
Duplex mode is a
Simplex mode is mode is a two-
The direction of two-way
a uni-directional way directional
communication directional
communication. communication
communication
simultaneously.
but one at a time.

In Half Duplex In Full Duplex

In simplex mode,
mode, Sender mode, Sender
Sender can send
Sender and can send the can send the data
the data but that
Receiver data and also can and also can
sender can’t
receive the data receive the data
receive the data.
but one at a time. simultaneously.

Usage of one Usage of one Usage of two

channel for the channel for the channels for the
Channel usage
transmission of transmission of transmission of
data. data. data.

The simplex Full Duplex

The Half Duplex
mode provides provides better
mode provides
Performance less performance performance than
less performance
than half duplex simplex and half
than full duplex.
and full duplex. duplex mode.

The Half-Duplex
The Full-Duplex
involves lesser
Simplex utilizes doubles the
Bandwidth utilization of
the maximum of a utilization of
Utilization single bandwidth
single bandwidth. transmission
at the time of
bandwidth.
transmission.
15) List comonents of data communication
1. Message
2. Sender
3. Receiver
4. Transmission Medium
5. Set of rules (Protocol)

16) What is data communication.

Communication is defined as a process in which more than one computer
transfers information, instructions to each other and for sharing
resources. Or in other words, communication is a process or act in which
we can send or receive data.

17) List chanelization protocols.

Frequency-Division Multiple Access (FDMA).
Time-Division Multiple Access (TDMA):
Code-Division Multiple Access (CDMA):

18) What is port number.

A port number is a 16-bit numerical value that uniquely identifies a
connection endpoint or a service running on a host. It serves as a virtual
address for programs on devices. Think of it as a miniature-scale version of
an IP address, which represents a device’s location on the internet.

19) Internetworking: Internetworking refers to the practice of connecting

different computer networks or network segments to create a larger and
more extensive network infrastructure.

20)Bluetooth Applications

 In laptops, notebooks and wireless PCs

 In mobile phones and PDAs (personal digital assistant).
 In printers.
 In wireless headsets.
 In wireless PANs (personal area networks) and even LANs (local
area networks)
 To transfer data files, videos, and images and MP3 or MP4.
 In wireless peripheral devices like mouse and keyboards.
 In data logging equipment.
 In the short-range transmission of data from sensors devices to
sensor nodes like mobile phones
21) Differences between OSI Model and TCP/IP Model
Parameters OSI Model TCP/IP Model

TCP/IP stands for

OSI stands for Open
Full Form Transmission Control
Systems Interconnection.
Protocol/Internet Protocol.

Layers It has 7 layers. It has 4 layers.

Usage It is low in usage. It is mostly used.

It is horizontally
Approach It is vertically approached.
approached.

Delivery of the package is

Delivery of the package is
Delivery not guaranteed in TCP/IP
guaranteed in OSI Model.
Model.

Replacement of tools and

Replacing the tools is not
Replacement changes can easily be done
easy as it is in OSI Model.
in this model.

It is less reliable than It is more reliable than OSI

Reliability
TCP/IP Model. Model.
 23) Difference between Fast Ethernet and Gigabit Ethernet:

S.NO Fast Ethernet Gigabit Ethernet

Fast Ethernet provides 100 Gigabit Ethernet offers 1 Gbps

1.
Mbps speed. speed.

Fast Ethernet is simple While Gigabit Ethernet is more

2.
configured. complicated than Fast Ethernet.

Fast Ethernet generate more Gigabit Ethernet generates less

3.
delay comparatively. delay than Fast Ethernet.

The coverage limit of Fast While the coverage limit of

4.
Ethernet is up to 10 km. Gigabit Ethernet is up to 70 km.

While the round-trip delay in

The round-trip delay in Fast
5. Gigabit Ethernet is 4000 bit
Ethernet is 100 to 500 bit times.
times.

24) Write features of ipv6 protocol

1. Expanded Addressing
2. Routing
3. Performance
4. Extensibility
5. Multimedia
6. Multicast
7. Security
8. Auto Configuration
9. Mobility
25 )Differences between TCP and UDP

Transmission Control User Datagram

Basis Protocol (TCP) Protocol (UDP)

TCP is reliable as it The delivery of data to

Reliability guarantees the delivery of the destination cannot
data to the destination router. be guaranteed in UDP.

TCP provides extensive UDP has only the basic

Error checking error-checking mechanisms.
error-checking
mechanism It is because it provides flow mechanism using
control and acknowledgment checksums.
of data.

An acknowledgment segment No acknowledgment

Acknowledgment
is present. segment.

Sequencing of data is a There is no sequencing

feature of Transmission
of data in UDP. If the
Control
Sequence order is required, it
Protocol (TCP). this means has to be managed by
that packets arrive in order at the application layer.
the receiver.

UDP is faster, simpler,

TCP is comparatively slower
Speed and more efficient
than UDP.
than TCP.

26) Port address: A port address, often referred to simply as a “port,” is

a logical address assigned to specific processes or services within a computer
system that uses the internet to send or receive data.
 27) Nyquist’s Formula for a noiseless channel is given by:

Maximum Data Rate (Nyquist Bit Rate)=2×Bandwidth×log2(L)

Shannon’s Formula for a noisy channel, also known as the Shannon

Capacity, is:

Channel Capacity (Shannon Limit)=Bandwidth×log2(1+SNR)

28) Explain Multiplexing & De_multiplexing in transport Layer.

Multiplexing in the transport layer involves combining data from multiple

application processes into a single transport-layer segment. This process
includes gathering data, adding transport headers (which contain source
and destination port numbers), and then sending this combined data to the
network layer.

Demultiplexing, on the other hand, is the reverse process. When the

transport layer receives data from the network layer, it must determine
which application process the data belongs to. It does this by examining the
headers of each segment, specifically the destination port number, and then
delivers the data to the correct application process.

29) What is Taxonomy for Media Access Protocol?

The term “Taxonomy for Media Access Protocol” refers to the
classification system used to organize and categorize different types of
Media Access Control (MAC) protocols. These protocols are essential in
computer networks to manage how data is transmitted between multiple
devices over a shared communication channel.
In the context of computer networking, MAC protocols can be broadly
classified into several categories based on their operational characteristics
and the methods they use to avoid or resolve data collisions.

30) which are the methods of framing.

1. Framing in Data Link Layer:
o In computer networks, framing in the data link layer is essential for
reliable communication. Here are some key aspects:
 Detecting Start of the Frame: Each station must identify the start of a
frame by recognizing a special sequence of bits that marks the beginning.
 Detecting End of Frame: Stations need to know when to stop reading the
frame.
 Handling Errors: Framing errors can occur due to noise or transmission
issues. Error detection mechanisms like Cyclic Redundancy Check
(CRC) ensure frame integrity.
 Framing Overhead: Every frame includes a header and a trailer containing
control information (e.g., source and destination addresses).
 Framing Incompatibility: Different networking devices and protocols may
use varying framing methods, leading to compatibility challenges.
 Framing Synchronization: Stations must be synchronized to avoid
collisions and ensure reliable communication.

31) Write note on UDP.

UDP stands for User Datagram Protocol, a transport layer protocol used
for exchanging messages between devices on a network. It’s part of the
Internet Protocol suite, often referred to as UDP/IP. Unlike its counterpart
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol), UDP is known for being an
unreliable and connectionless protocol. This means it doesn’t establish a
persistent connection before data transfer, leading to lower latency and less
protocol overhead.

UDP is particularly useful for applications that require fast, efficient

communication and can tolerate some degree of data loss. For example, it’s
widely used in real-time applications such as video conferencing, online
gaming, and voice over IP (VoIP).

32) Explain TCP/IP Model in detail.

The TCP/IP model is a conceptual framework for understanding how
different computer systems communicate over a network. It stands for
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol, which are two of the core
protocols that define the internet. Here’s a detailed explanation of each
layer within the TCP/IP model:

1. Application Layer: This is the topmost layer that provides interfaces

and protocols for software applications to communicate over the
network. It includes protocols like HTTP (for web browsing), SMTP
(for email), and FTP (for file transfer).
2. Transport Layer: This layer is responsible for providing
communication services directly to the application processes running
on different hosts. The TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) ensures
reliable, ordered, and error-checked delivery of a stream of bytes
between applications. UDP (User Datagram Protocol) is also used at
this layer but does not guarantee reliability or ordering.
 3. Internet Layer: Also known as the network layer, its main function is
to send packets from any network, and they can arrive at the
destination regardless of the route they take. The IP (Internet
Protocol) is the primary protocol in this layer and is responsible for
routing packets across network boundaries.
4. Network Interface Layer: This layer is concerned with the physical
transmission of the data. It includes the protocols and hardware that
operate at the lowest level of the network, such as Ethernet for local
area networks (LANs) and the ARP (Address Resolution Protocol),
which maps IP network addresses to the hardware addresses used by
a data link protocol.

The TCP/IP model is widely used and has been instrumental in the
development and success of the internet. It allows for the connection of
diverse systems and networks, ensuring that data can be transmitted
reliably and efficiently, regardless of the underlying infrastructure.

33) What is Computer Network? Write any four characteristics of

Computer Network.

A computer network is an interconnection of multiple devices, commonly

termed as hosts, connected using multiple paths for the purpose of
sending/receiving data or media. Here are four key characteristics of
computer networks:

1. Connectivity: This refers to the ability of nodes in the network to

connect and communicate with each other. Effective connectivity is
crucial for data transfer and resource sharing.
2. Scalability: Networks should be able to grow and adapt to the
increasing number of users and devices without a significant drop in
performance or service quality.
3. Security: Networks must have measures in place to protect against
unauthorized access and cyber threats, ensuring the confidentiality,
integrity, and availability of data.
4. Reliability: A reliable network consistently operates as intended, with
minimal downtime, providing dependable communication and
services to its users.

These characteristics ensure that computer networks can serve their

intended functions effectively in various environments, from small home
setups to large enterprise systems.
34) What is LAN? Write any two advantages of LAN.

A LAN, or Local Area Network, is a network that connects devices within a

specific area, such as a home, office, or campus, allowing them to
communicate and share data. Two advantages of a LAN are:

1. Resource Sharing: Devices on a LAN can share resources such as

printers, files, and internet connections, which can lead to cost
savings and increased efficiency.
2. Fast Communication: LANs enable high-speed data transfer within
the network, facilitating quick communication and collaboration
among users.

34) Explain the important design issues of the data link layer.

The data link layer, which is the second layer in the OSI model, deals with
several important design issues to ensure reliable data transfer across the
physical network. Here are the key design issues:

1. Services Provided to the Network Layer: The data link layer offers a
service interface to the network layer. It’s responsible for
transferring data from the network layer of the sending machine to
the network layer of the receiving machine. This includes:
o Unacknowledged and connectionless services.
o Acknowledged and connectionless services.
1
o Acknowledged and connection-oriented services .
2. Frame Synchronization: It involves the packaging of data into frames
with headers and trailers to mark the start and end. This ensures
that the receiving device can recognize and process each frame
correctly1.
3. Flow Control: This prevents the sender from overwhelming the
receiver by sending data frames at a rate faster than the receiver can
process. It ensures a smooth and manageable data flow1.
4. Error Control: This includes error detection and correction. The
data link layer must identify and manage errors that occur during
transmission to ensure that the data received is the same as the data
sent1.
5. Addressing: The data link layer provides the means for addressing
hosts within a network, which is crucial for delivering frames to the
correct recipient.
6. Link Management: This involves establishing and terminating the
data link connections and ensuring that the link is effectively
managed and utilized.
 35) Explain the different services offered by the network layer.

1. Packetizing: This service involves segmenting the data received from

the upper layers into packets. Each packet is then encapsulated with
a network layer header that includes the source and destination
addresses, among other necessary information.
2. Routing: Routing is the process of determining the optimal path for a
packet to travel from its source to its destination. This involves the
use of routing protocols, which help routers communicate and
coordinate the best path across the network.
3. Forwarding: Once the best path is determined, forwarding is the
action taken by routers to send packets towards their destination.
This is done based on a forwarding table, which is created by routing
algorithms.
4. Logical Addressing: The network layer is responsible for translating
logical addresses (like IP addresses) into physical addresses (like
MAC addresses), which are used to identify devices on the network.
5. Traffic Management: It manages traffic problems such as switching
and controlling congestion of data packets to ensure efficient data
flow.
6. Internetworking: This service provides the ability to interconnect
different types of networks, allowing them to communicate with each
other.

36) Write a note on BSS.

In computer networking, BSS stands for Basic Service Set. It’s a term used
to describe the basic building block of a wireless LAN (Local Area
Network). Here’s a short note on BSS:

A Basic Service Set (BSS) is a network topology that enables wireless

devices to communicate with each other through a common medium,
typically an Access Point (AP)1. The AP acts as the central hub through
which all devices, or stations, are connected and managed. This setup is
essential for creating a WLAN, allowing devices to connect to a wired
network and communicate wirelessly within a certain range.

The BSS is identified uniquely by a BSSID (Basic Service Set Identifier),

which is the MAC address of the associated AP1. This identifier is used to
manage the network and ensure that data frames are correctly forwarded
between devices.
37) What are the different layers in the TCP/IP reference model?

1. Application Layer: This is the topmost layer where applications can

access the network services.
2. Transport Layer: This layer provides communication session
management between host computers.
3. Internet Layer: This is responsible for routing the data packets
across network boundaries.
4. Network Access Layer: Also known as the Link Layer, it handles the
physical network connection and the details of the hardware
addresses.

38) Write the different control bits or flags in control field of TCP segment.

 URG (Urgent): This flag is set to 1 if the data in the segment is being
sent out of the usual sequence, indicating that it should be prioritized
and processed immediately1.
 ACK (Acknowledgment): When set to 1, this flag signifies that the
acknowledgment number is valid and that the segment is
acknowledging receipt of data1.
 PSH (Push Function): If set to 1, it instructs the receiving host to
push the data to the receiving application immediately without
buffering it1.
 RST (Reset): This flag is used to reset the connection. It is set to 1 if a
segment arrives that is not intended for the current connection1.
 SYN (Synchronize): The SYN flag is used to initiate a connection. It
is set to 1 in the first packet sent from each end to synchronize
sequence numbers1.
 FIN (Finish): Set to 1 to indicate that the sender has finished sending
data and wants to terminate the connection1.

39) What are the main properties of routing?

Routing is a fundamental process in network communication, ensuring that

data packets are transmitted from their source to their destination
efficiently. Here are the main properties of routing:

1. Path Selection: Routing involves selecting the most optimal path for
data packets to travel across a network1.
2. Routing Table: Routers maintain a routing table that contains
information about various paths and their metrics2.
3. Routing Metrics: Metrics such as hop count, bandwidth, delay, and
load are used to determine the best path2.
 4. Routing Protocols: Protocols help routers communicate with each
other to update and maintain routing tables3.
5. Adaptability: Dynamic routing allows the network to adapt to changes
in topology by finding new paths1.
6. Scalability: Routing protocols are designed to scale from small
networks to the global internet3.
7. Reliability: Proper routing ensures that data packets reach their
destination reliably, even if some network segments fail1.
8. Efficiency: Efficient routing minimizes the use of network resources
and reduces overall traffic congestion1.

40) Explain sliding window in TCP.

The sliding window protocol in TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is a

method used for controlling the flow of data packets between two devices in
a network to ensure reliable and orderly delivery.:

1. Window Size: The “window” refers to the range of sequence

numbers that can be sent at one time. The size of the window
determines how many packets can be sent before needing an
acknowledgment (ACK) from the receiver.
2. Sequence Numbers: Each data packet is assigned a unique sequence
number, which helps the receiving device to place data in the correct
order and identify any missing packets.
3. Flow Control: The sliding window allows the sender to transmit
multiple frames at a time and controls the rate at which the data is
sent to match the receiver’s ability to process the information without
overwhelming its buffer.
4. Dynamic Adjustment: The size of the window can be adjusted
dynamically based on network conditions and the receiver’s capacity.
If the receiver’s buffer is getting full, it can advertise a smaller
window size to slow down the incoming data rate.
5. Retransmission: If a packet is lost or arrives corrupted, the sender
will retransmit that packet. Depending on the specific sliding window
protocol used (Go-Back-N ARQ or Selective Repeat ARQ), the
sender may need to resend a sequence of packets or just the missing
ones.
6. Efficiency: By allowing multiple packets to be in transit at the same
time, the sliding window protocol makes efficient use of the network
bandwidth and reduces the waiting time for ACKs.
41) Write note on Bus topology.
Bus topology is a type of network topology where all devices are connected
to a single cable, called the bus or the backbone. The cable runs linearly
and each device taps into it through a connector. Data transmitted by one
device is accessible to all devices on the network, but only one device can
send data at a time. Bus topology is simple and inexpensive, but it is not
very reliable or scalable. If the cable is damaged or disconnected, the whole
network fails. Also, the network performance decreases as more devices are
added to the bus.

41) Write note on Star topology.

star topology is one of the most common network setups.

Every node connects to a central network device in this configuration, like
a hub, switch, or computer. The central network device acts as a server,
and the peripheral devices act as clients. In a star topology setup, either
a coaxial or a network cable with an RJ-45 connector is used, depending on
each device's network card type. The image shows how this network setup
gets its name, as it is shaped like a star. There technically is no limit to how
many computers can connect in a star topology. However, network
performance can decrease as more computers are connected, resulting in
slower network speeds.