Computer Science Federal Board Class-12

Chapter
04 Data and Analysis
SHORT QUESTION AND ANSWERS
1. What is a data type in programming?
Ans: A data type defines the type of value a variable can store (e.g., number, text)
and the operations allowed on it (e.g., addition, concatenation). It helps the
computer allocate memory and interpret data correctly.
2. What are the basic (primitive) data types?
Ans: Common primitive data types include:
 Integer: Whole numbers (e.g., 42, -10).
 Float/Double: Decimal numbers (e.g., 3.14, -0.001).
 Character: Single letters or symbols (e.g., 'A', '#').
 Boolean: True or false values.
 String: Sequence of characters (e.g., "Hello")—sometimes considered non-
primitive in some languages.
3. What is the difference between integer and float data types?
Ans: An integer represents whole numbers without decimals (e.g., 5, -3), using less
memory. A float represents numbers with decimal points (e.g., 5.0, -3.14),
requiring more memory and supporting fractional values.
4. What is a string data type?
Ans: A string is a sequence of characters (letters, digits, or symbols) used to
represent text (e.g., "Hello, World!"). Strings support operations like
concatenation or substring extraction and are often enclosed in quotes.
5. What is a Boolean data type?
Ans: A Boolean data type represents logical values: true or false. It is used in
conditional statements and logical operations (e.g., AND, OR, NOT) to control
program flow.
6. What are composite (or complex) data types?
Ans: Composite data types combine multiple values or primitive types. Examples
include:
 Array/List: Ordered collection of elements (e.g., [1, 2, 3]).

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 Object/Structure: Key-value pairs or fields (e.g., {name: "Alice", age: 25}).

 Set: Collection of unique elements.
 Dictionary/Map: Key-value pair collections.
7. What is the difference between static and dynamic typing?
Ans: Static typing requires data types to be declared before use and enforces type
checking at compile time (e.g., C++, Java). Dynamic typing allows variables to
change types at runtime and checks types during execution (e.g., Python,
JavaScript).
8. What is type casting?
Ans: Type casting is converting a value from one data type to another (e.g.,
converting a string "123" to an integer 123). Explicit casting is done manually
(e.g., int("123") in Python), while implicit casting is automatic when safe.
9. What is a null or void data type?
Ans: A null data type represents the absence of a value (e.g., null in JavaScript,
None in Python). Void is used in some languages (e.g., C) to indicate a
function returns no value.
10. What is an enumerated (enum) data type?
Ans: An enumerated data type is a user-defined type consisting of a fixed set of
named values (e.g., enum Day {Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday}). It restricts
variables to specific values, improving code readability and safety.
11. What is the difference between signed and unsigned integers?
Ans: Signed integers can represent both positive and negative numbers (e.g., -5, 0,
5), using a bit for the sign. Unsigned integers represent only non-negative
numbers (e.g., 0, 5, 10), allowing a larger positive range for the same
memory.
12. What is a character data type?
Ans: A character data type stores a single symbol, such as a letter, digit, or
punctuation (e.g., 'A', '7'). It is typically encoded using standards like ASCII or
Unicode and often requires 1-4 bytes of memory.
13. What are arrays and how are they related to data types?
Ans: An array is a data structure that stores multiple elements of the same data
type (e.g., an array of integers [1, 2, 3]). The data type defines what kind of

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values the array can hold, ensuring consistent operations.

14. What is a pointer data type?
Ans: A pointer is a data type that stores a memory address of another variable
(e.g., int* ptr in C). It is used for dynamic memory management and direct
memory access, common in low-level programming.
15. Why are data types important in programming?
Ans: Data types ensure efficient memory allocation, enforce valid operations, and
prevent errors (e.g., adding a string to an integer). They improve code clarity,
performance, and type safety in programs.
16. What is a rule-based algorithm?
Ans: A rule-based algorithm uses predefined, human-crafted rules (e.g., if-then
statements) to make decisions or process data. For example, "If temperature
> 30°C, turn on the fan" is a rule-based logic explicitly programmed.
17. What is machine learning?
Ans: Machine learning is a subset of AI where algorithms learn patterns and rules
from data without explicit programming. Models are trained on data to make
predictions or decisions, e.g., predicting house prices based on historical data.
18. How do rule-based algorithms differ from machine learning in terms of
design?
Ans: Rule-based algorithms rely on manually defined rules by experts, requiring
domain knowledge and explicit logic. Machine learning algorithms
automatically learn patterns from data, adapting to new information without
manual rule creation.
19. What is the difference in scalability between the two?
Ans: Rule-based algorithms are less scalable, as adding new scenarios requires
manually updating rules, which can become complex. Machine learning scales
better, as models can learn from new data, but they require large datasets
and computational power.
20. How do they handle complex problems?
Ans: Rule-based algorithms struggle with complex, non-linear problems due to the
need for exhaustive rules. Machine learning excels in complex tasks (e.g.,
image recognition) by identifying intricate patterns in data automatically.

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21. What is the difference in adaptability?

Ans: Rule-based algorithms are static, requiring manual updates to adapt to new
conditions. Machine learning models are dynamic, capable of adapting to new
data through retraining or online learning.
22. How do their development processes differ?
Ans: Rule-based systems require domain experts to define and test rules, which is
time-intensive but straightforward. Machine learning requires data collection,
preprocessing, model training, and tuning, which is data-driven but complex.
23. What is the difference in handling ambiguity?
Ans: Rule-based algorithms struggle with ambiguous or incomplete data, as they
rely on precise conditions. Machine learning can handle ambiguity better by
learning probabilistic patterns from noisy or incomplete datasets.
24. How do they differ in transparency?
Ans: Rule-based algorithms are highly transparent, as their logic is explicitly
defined and easy to understand. Machine learning models, especially complex
ones like neural networks, are often "black boxes," making their decisions
harder to interpret.
25. What is the difference in performance with large datasets?
Ans: Rule-based algorithms don’t benefit from large datasets, as rules are fixed.
Machine learning improves with more data, as models can refine patterns
and improve accuracy over time.
26. How do they differ in maintenance?
Ans: Rule-based systems require frequent manual updates to rules for new
scenarios, increasing maintenance effort. Machine learning models need
periodic retraining with new data but less manual rule tweaking.
27. What are their typical use cases?
Ans: Rule-based: Simple, predictable tasks like spam email filters with fixed rules
(e.g., "if 'free money' in email, mark as spam"). Machine learning: Complex
tasks like speech recognition, recommendation systems, or fraud detection.

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28. How do they differ in computational requirements?

Ans: Rule-based algorithms are computationally lightweight, as they execute
predefined logic. Machine learning, especially deep learning, requires
significant computational resources for training and inference.
29. What is the difference in handling edge cases?
Ans: Rule-based algorithms need explicit rules for edge cases, which can be
impractical to cover fully. Machine learning can generalize to edge cases if
trained on diverse data, but may fail if the data lacks those cases.
30. How do they differ in development speed?
Ans: Rule-based algorithms can be developed quickly for simple problems with
clear rules. Machine learning takes longer due to data preparation, model
training, and validation, but it’s faster for complex problems with large
datasets.
31. What is data visualization?
Ans: Data visualization is the graphical representation of data to make complex
information easier to understand and interpret. It uses visual elements like
charts, graphs, and maps to highlight patterns, trends, and insights.
32. Why is data visualization important?
Ans: Data visualization simplifies complex datasets, making it easier to identify
trends, outliers, and relationships. It aids decision-making, communicates
findings clearly, and engages audiences effectively across domains like
business and science.
33. What are common types of data visualizations?
Ans: Common types include:
 Bar Chart: Compares categories (e.g., sales by region).
 Line Chart: Shows trends over time (e.g., stock prices).
 Pie Chart: Displays proportions (e.g., market share).
 Scatter Plot: Shows relationships between variables.
 Heatmap: Highlights data intensity using color.
34. What is the difference between a bar chart and a histogram?
Ans: A bar chart compares discrete categories with separate bars (e.g., sales by
product). A histogram shows the distribution of continuous data, with

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adjacent bars representing intervals (e.g., frequency of ages).

35. What are the key principles of effective data visualization?
Ans: Key principles include:
 Clarity: Use simple, clear visuals.
 Accuracy: Represent data truthfully without distortion.
 Relevance: Choose visuals that match the data and audience.
 Aesthetics: Use consistent colors and minimal clutter.
 Context: Include labels, titles, and scales for understanding.
36. What is a dashboard in data visualization?
Ans: A dashboard is an interactive interface that combines multiple visualizations
(charts, graphs) to provide a comprehensive view of key metrics or data
insights, often used in business intelligence tools like Tableau.
37. What is the role of color in data visualization?
Ans: Color highlights patterns, differentiates categories, or indicates intensity (e.g.,
in heatmaps). Use consistent, accessible colors (avoid red-green for
colorblindness) and ensure contrast for readability.
38. What are some common tools for data visualization?
Ans: Popular tools include:
 Tableau/Power BI: For interactive dashboards.
 Python (Matplotlib, Seaborn, Plotly): For programmatic visualizations.
 Excel: For basic charts.
 [Link]: For custom web-based visuals.
39. What is the difference between static and interactive visualizations?
Ans: Static visualizations are fixed images (e.g., a printed chart). Interactive
visualizations allow users to explore data dynamically (e.g., zooming, filtering)
using tools like Tableau or Plotly.
40. What is a scatter plot used for?
Ans: A scatter plot displays data points on a two-dimensional plane to show the
relationship or correlation between two variables (e.g., height vs. weight). It
helps identify trends or clusters.

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41. What is a heatmap, and when is it used?

Ans: A heatmap uses color intensity to represent data values in a matrix or
geographic map. It’s used to show patterns, like website click density or
correlations between variables in a dataset.
42. How does a line chart differ from an area chart?
Ans: A line chart connects data points with lines to show trends over time (e.g.,
temperature changes). An area chart fills the space below the line,
emphasizing volume or cumulative data (e.g., stacked sales data).
43. What is the purpose of a box plot?
Ans: A box plot (or box-and-whisker plot) summarizes data distribution by showing
the median, quartiles, and outliers. It’s used to compare distributions across
groups (e.g., test scores by class).
44. What are common mistakes to avoid in data visualization?
Ans: Common mistakes include:
 Overloading visuals: Too many elements cause clutter.
 Misleading scales: Distorted axes or truncated scales mislead viewers.
 Inappropriate chart types: Using pie charts for complex data.
 Poor color choices: Confusing or inaccessible colors.
45. How does data visualization support decision-making?
Ans: Data visualization transforms raw data into intuitive visuals, enabling faster
identification of trends, anomalies, or opportunities. It helps stakeholders
make informed decisions by presenting actionable insights clearly.
46. What is data storytelling?
Ans: Data storytelling is the practice of using data, visualizations, and narrative to
convey insights in a compelling, understandable way. It combines data
analysis, context, and engaging visuals to influence or inform an audience.
47. Why is data storytelling important?
Ans: Data storytelling makes complex data accessible, engaging, and actionable. It
helps audiences (e.g., stakeholders, clients) understand insights, make
informed decisions, and act on findings by connecting data to a meaningful
narrative.

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48. What are the key elements of data storytelling?

Ans: The key elements are:
 Data: Accurate, relevant data as the foundation.
 Visualization: Clear charts or graphs to illustrate trends.
 Narrative: A coherent story that provides context and meaning.
 Audience Focus: Tailoring the story to the audience’s needs and
knowledge level.
49. How does data storytelling differ from data visualization?
Ans: Data visualization focuses on creating graphical representations of data (e.g.,
charts). Data storytelling integrates visualizations with a narrative to explain
the "why" behind the data, making it more impactful and context-driven.
50. What role does audience understanding play in data storytelling?
Ans: Knowing the audience’s background, goals, and expertise ensures the story is
relevant and understandable. For example, technical details suit data
scientists, while executives need high-level, actionable insights.
51. How can visualizations enhance data storytelling?
Ans: Visualizations make data intuitive by highlighting patterns, trends, or outliers.
Effective visuals (e.g., bar charts, heatmaps) simplify complex data, making
the story more engaging and easier to grasp.
52. What is the role of narrative in data storytelling?
Ans: The narrative provides context, explains the significance of the data, and
guides the audience through the insights. It answers "What happened?",
"Why does it matter?", and "What should we do?".
53. What are common tools used for data storytelling?
Ans: Tools include:
 Tableau/Power BI: For interactive dashboards and visuals.
 Python (Matplotlib, Seaborn, Plotly): For custom visualizations.
 Excel/Google Sheets: For simple charts and data summaries.
 Presentation Tools (PowerPoint, Canva): For combining visuals and
narrative.

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54. How does context improve data storytelling?

Ans: Context explains the background, source, and relevance of the data. It helps
the audience understand why the data matters (e.g., comparing sales data to
market trends) and makes the story actionable.
55. What is the difference between exploratory and explanatory data
storytelling?
Ans: Exploratory storytelling involves analyzing data to discover insights, often for
internal use. Explanatory storytelling communicates specific findings to an
audience, focusing on clarity and persuasion.
56. How can emotions be incorporated into data storytelling?
Ans: Emotions engage audiences by connecting data to relatable human
experiences. For example, a story about healthcare data might highlight
patient outcomes to evoke empathy and drive action.
57. What are common mistakes in data storytelling?
Ans: Common mistakes include:
 Overloading with data: Too many details overwhelm the audience.
 Lack of focus: Unclear or irrelevant narratives.
 Poor visuals: Cluttered or misleading charts.
 Ignoring audience needs: Not tailoring the story to the audience’s context.
58. How does data storytelling support decision-making?
Ans: Data storytelling translates raw data into a clear narrative with visuals,
enabling stakeholders to understand insights quickly, evaluate options, and
make informed, evidence-based decisions.
59. What is the role of simplicity in data storytelling?
Ans: Simplicity ensures the story is easy to understand by focusing on key insights,
using clear visuals, and avoiding jargon or clutter. It keeps the audience
engaged and the message impactful.
60. How can a call-to-action be integrated into data storytelling?
Ans: A call-to-action (CTA) guides the audience on what to do next based on the
insights (e.g., "Invest in X to boost sales"). It’s woven into the narrative to
make the story actionable and relevant.

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61. What is a hypothesis in data analysis?

Ans: A hypothesis is a testable statement or assumption about a population
parameter based on data. It typically involves a claim to be evaluated, e.g.,
"The average customer satisfaction score is 75."
62. What are the types of hypotheses in hypothesis testing?
Ans: There are two main types:
 Null Hypothesis (H₀): Assumes no effect or difference (e.g., "There is no
difference in means").
 Alternative Hypothesis (H₁ or Hₐ): Suggests an effect or difference (e.g.,
"There is a difference in means").
63. What is hypothesis formulation?
Ans: Hypothesis formulation is the process of creating clear, testable null and
alternative hypotheses based on research questions or observed data. It
involves defining the population, parameter, and expected outcome.
64. What is hypothesis testing?
Ans: Hypothesis testing is a statistical method to evaluate whether evidence from
sample data supports or rejects the null hypothesis. It involves calculating a
test statistic and comparing it to a critical value or p-value.
65. What is a p-value in hypothesis testing?
Ans: The p-value is the probability of observing the test results (or more extreme)
under the null hypothesis. A small p-value (e.g., < 0.05) suggests evidence
against the null, favoring the alternative hypothesis.
66. What is the significance level (α) in hypothesis testing?
Ans: The significance level (α) is the threshold for rejecting the null hypothesis,
typically set at 0.05 (5%). If the p-value < α, the null hypothesis is rejected,
indicating statistical significance.
67. What is the difference between a one-tailed and two-tailed test?
Ans: A one-tailed test checks for an effect in one direction (e.g., "mean > 50"). A
two-tailed test checks for any difference (e.g., "mean ≠ 50"). Two-tailed tests
are more conservative and common.

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68. What are Type I and Type II errors?

Ans: ype I Error (False Positive): Rejecting the null hypothesis when it is true
(probability = α).
Type II Error (False Negative): Failing to reject the null hypothesis when it is
false (probability = β).
69. What is a test statistic?
Ans: A test statistic is a numerical value calculated from sample data to evaluate
the null hypothesis. Examples include t-statistic (t-test) or z-statistic (z-test),
compared to critical values or p-values.
70. What is the role of sample size in hypothesis testing?
Ans: Larger sample sizes increase the power of a test (ability to detect true effects)
and reduce sampling error, leading to more reliable results. Small samples
may lead to inconclusive outcomes.
71. What is a confidence interval, and how does it relate to hypothesis testing?
Ans: A confidence interval (e.g., 95%) estimates a range of values likely containing
the population parameter. If it excludes the null hypothesis value, it supports
rejecting H₀, aligning with hypothesis testing results.
72. What are common statistical tests used in hypothesis testing?
Ans: Common tests include:
 t-test: Compares means of one or two groups.
 ANOVA: Compares means across multiple groups.
 Chi-square test: Tests relationships between categorical variables.
 z-test: Compares means for large samples.
73. How do you formulate a null and alternative hypothesis?
Ans: Start with a research question, identify the population parameter (e.g., mean,
proportion), and state:
 H₀: No effect or difference (e.g., "μ = 10").
 H₁: The expected effect (e.g., "μ ≠ 10" or "μ > 10"). Ensure they are
mutually exclusive and testable.

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74. What is the power of a hypothesis test?

Ans: The power (1 - β) is the probability of correctly rejecting the null hypothesis
when it is false. It depends on sample size, effect size, and significance level,
with higher power indicating a more reliable test.
75. How do you interpret the results of a hypothesis test?
Ans: Compare the p-value to α:
If p-value ≤ α, reject H₀ (evidence supports H₁).
If p-value > α, fail to reject H₀ (insufficient evidence for H₁). Always consider
practical significance and context.

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