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Hearing Double
 Hearing Double
Jazz, Ontology, Auditory Culture

B R IA N KA N E
 Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers
the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education
by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University
Press in the UK and certain other countries.

Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press

198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America.

© Oxford University Press 2024

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in

a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by license, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reproduction
rights organization. Inquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above.

You must not circulate this work in any other form

and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer.

CIP data is on file at the Library of Congress

ISBN 978–​0–​19–​060050–​1

DOI: 10.1093/​oso/​9780190600501.001.0001

Printed by Sheridan Books, Inc., United States of America

For Miles
 Contents

Acknowledgments  ix

Introduction: Why Standards?  1

PA RT I   O N T O L O G Y  15
1. The Metaphysics of Musical Structure  17
2. Replication  60
3. Nomination  93
4. The Ontology of Musical Networks  125

PA RT I I   AU D I T O RY C U LT U R E  153
5. The Soundscape of Standards  155
6. The Aesthetics of Standards, or Hearing Double  214

Discography  275
References  279
Index  287
 Acknowledgments

Some books are written quickly, and some books take a long time to complete.
And some books are written quickly and still take a long time to complete.
That is the case with Hearing Double. I wrote most of Part I on a sabbatical in
2015, reworked it and developed Part II in Munich in the summer of 2019,
and completed the final pieces in 2022. These fits and starts tended to echo
life’s highs and lows—​adoption, tenure, illness, pandemic—​but through it
all, colleagues and friends helped to keep the project alive.
I want to recognize the professors and graduate students who invited me
to talk about jazz and ontology. You shaped this book with your generous
questions and thoughts. I appreciated the chance to share my ideas at the
Peabody Conservatory at the University of Cincinnati College-​Conservatory
of Music; at the Barwick Colloquium at Harvard University; and at the
University of Texas, Austin. Also, I want to thank the panelists, organizers,
and respondents at a session held at the American Musicological Society
Meeting in Vancouver in 2016, where I talked about Your Hit Parade and the
“soundscape of standards.”
I reached major milestones while on two fellowships in Germany. I want to
thank Magdalena Zorn for an invitation to the Center for Advanced Studies
at Ludwig Maximilian University, in Munich. I also want to thank Carmel
Raz for an invitation to the Max Planck Institute for Empirical Aesthetics, in
Frankfurt, where this book was completed.
At Yale, I want to acknowledge my dear colleagues in the Department of
Music, who have been patiently awaiting this book for a long time. In partic-
ular I thank Michael Veal, Ian Quinn, and Gary Tomlinson for their support
and conversation. I also give special acknowledgment to James Hepokoski,
the “prose bear,” for listening sessions and for innumerable conversations
about American music. I benefited from the graduate students at Yale who
helped me think through both halves of the book in two different graduate
seminars: Jazz and Musical Ontology (in the spring of 2014) and Music,
Radio, and Mediation (in the fall of 2017). Thanks also goes to my colleagues
in Film and Media Studies who have supported my work on sound and let
me travel up and down the dial of radio studies—​in particular, Francesco
x Acknowledgments

Casetti, John MacKay, and John Durham Peters. I am grateful to participants

and co-​organizers of the Yale Sound Studies Working Group (my personal
“burrow”) for the chance to share ideas about what sound studies and au-
ditory cultural studies could be. Additional thanks to Paul North, Matt
Jacobsen, and Michael Denning for formative conversations along the way.
And, of course, I cannot talk about Yale without acknowledging the amazing
Daphne Brooks, my co-​director in the Black Sound and the Archive Working
Group. Sessions with our working group have been the closest thing to pure
joy I’ve experienced in the academy. Your support for this project has meant
the world to me.
I want to acknowledge two brilliant scholars who have profoundly shaped
my own thinking about the ontology of music. Thank you to Lydia Goehr for
getting me interested in the issue of musical ontology as an undergraduate,
and for your support and friendship during my time at Columbia University.
Thanks also to Georgina Born, for soliciting an article, “Jazz, Mediation,
Ontology,” for a special issue of Contemporary Music Review (vol. 37,
no. 1) on music and mediation, and for a number of conversations in person
and over email about music and philosophy. Your thinking about the social
dimensions of music and has been an inspiration and a model.
Thanks also to friends and family: Todd Cronan, Karen Handler, Adrienne
Kane, Bruce and Ellen Kane, Debbie Kane, and Miles Kane. You’ve been
there not just for the fits and starts but for the highs and lows; for that, I am
grateful.
 Introduction
Why Standards?

When jazz musicians get together to play, their repertory often consists of
“standards”—​well-​known songs like “Stella by Starlight,” “All the Things You
Are,” or “Body and Soul.” For the young jazz musician, it can be a challenge
to learn this repertory because there are no definitive sources by which to
acquire it. Many of these standards might circulate as “lead sheets”—​mu-
sical scores notated with only a melody and chord symbols—​found online,
or in various songbooks. The most ubiquitous source for lead sheets is a
“fakebook.”1 For those unfamiliar with the term, a fakebook is a collection
of lead sheets that musicians might use as an aide-​memoire when practicing
or on the bandstand. Fakebooks first emerged in the 1950s, and for most of
the history of jazz they circulated illegally since they did not pay royalties
on the music they reproduced. Although the raison d’être of a fakebook is to
gather the songs that are most often needed by working musicians, they are
always documents of their time and place, and they reflect the tastes of their
(often unknown, often obscured) compilers. Many are full of idiosyncratic
selections or are rife with inaccurate chord changes or melodies. Today, legal
fakebooks abound and you can guarantee that almost any young jazz musi-
cian will have a few on their bookshelf, or their hard drive, or in “the cloud.”
But fakebooks are the hallmark of neophytes. Once graduated from their
years of apprenticeship, most jazz musicians no longer lug them around from
gig to gig. Experts simply know this repertory and are capable of reproducing
a vast number of these songs by memory. They also expect those they work
with to do the same.
To learn the jazz repertory requires much more than the acquisition of a
few fakebooks. It demands a lot of listening, tracking down the famous re-
corded performances of these tunes, and getting a sense of the typical ways
that these songs have been played. Many jazz musicians work closely with
recordings, transcribing harmonies or solos note-​by-​note and, in doing so,
acquiring an embodied knowledge of how those in the past have played these

Hearing Double. Brian Kane, Oxford University Press. © Oxford University Press 2024.
DOI: 10.1093/​oso/​9780190600501.003.0001
2 Hearing Double

tunes. Musicians also teach songs to one another. Over time, the neophyte
gets a grip on the repertory—​the keys in which these tunes are typically
played, the chord changes that are used (often with common variants and
substitutions), and the tempo or groove or “feel” most associated with them.
My own attempt to learn the jazz repertory began in the years when
I worked in San Francisco and Oakland as a jazz guitarist, from the 1990s
until the mid-​2000s. I was thankfully gifted with a good ear for harmony, so
I could hear a chord progression once or twice and follow its basic moves. If
I could not grab all the details the first time, the rest could be gleaned from
listening to records, consulting lead sheets, or asking other musicians. For a
while I worked in the “house band” at a regular Sunday afternoon jam ses-
sion, at the Birdcage, on Telegraph Avenue in Oakland. The leader of the
band was a trumpeter named Robert Porter, who was an institution in the
Oakland jazz scene. Porter, small in stature but big in personality, would al-
ways show up in a three-​piece suit, with his vest buttoned tight. During the
jam sessions, he would watch over the happenings from a spot at the side of
the bandstand. You could gauge his opinions of the music being made by
watching the features on his smooth, brown, bald head. His style of playing
trumpet was rooted in the Miles Davis records of the early 1950s (think
“Solar” or “When Lights Are Low”). When inspiration hit, he could impro-
vise with a kind of spare beauty and elegance of ideas that was inspiring.
The repertory played at the Birdcage was associated with bebop and hard
bop. Oakland, located across the bay from San Francisco, was a magnet for
African American migration in the years around World War II. Like many
predominantly black cities, Oakland had many clubs and venues where you
could hear neighborhood music—​jazz, soul, funk, and R&B. On a Sunday
at the Birdcage, you would have likely heard songs like “Out of Nowhere,”
“Star Eyes,” “On Green Dolphin Street,” a handful of Charlie Parker heads,
“’Round Midnight,” Horace Silver tunes like “Nica’s Dream” or “Doodlin’,”
“Watermelon Man,” or “Invitation” (with straight-​eighth notes on the A-​
section and swinging the bridge). Porter understood that the Sunday session
was an informal classroom, where young musicians would come to learn
how to play the music. He was always open to us “college kids,” wryly incred-
ulous that we wanted to learn to play jazz even as he would point us in the
right direction. On a couple of occasions, I visited him in his one-​bedroom
apartment in downtown Oakland. The apartment had a small kitchen and a
large record collection. He would heat up a saucepan of okra or beans and
pull records off the shelf and onto the turntable. Sometimes he would trace
 Introduction 3

the influences or genealogies of some musician’s style, but more often than
not he’d tell me, “you gotta hear this,” or “if you don’t know this recording
then you don’t know shit!”
At the Birdcage, it was not uncommon for some of Oakland’s famous
local musicians to sit in. On rare occasions, Pharoah Sanders, who had
made his home in Oakland, would drop by. Most weeks, the brilliant pi-
anist and organist Ed Kelly would sit in for a few numbers.2 Quiet and mild-​
mannered, Kelly knew all the repertory cold, and he had developed his own
reharmonizations of standards that had become like little idioms in the
Oakland jazz scene. I learned a lot of these from working in an organ trio
with Kelly for a couple of months in Jack London Square. He would nudge
these changes my way on the first chorus, playing them clearly and definitely
so I could catch them, before making things more abstract. Watching him
play the Hammond organ was unforgettable. I would sit just a little bit be-
hind him and to the side so I could see his hands as he performed. He’d slowly
build his solos by changing registrations, pulling stops, adding percussion,
or inching up the speed of the Leslie speaker. Our repertory was similar to
that of the Birdcage but with additions that made sense for the organ trio. We
played lots of blues and “Rhythm Changes” numbers, R&B-​influenced songs
like “Sunny” or “Red Clay,” as well as tunes that slowly built toward climactic
shout choruses (“Shiny Stockings”) and plenty of modal jazz.
In the Oakland jazz scene, the repertory functioned as a common coin,
one that allowed for the musicians to play together on the bandstand. Once
you had a grip on it, you could go almost anywhere and make music with
any of the musicians on the scene. Knowledge of the repertory was a way of
entering into the social and cultural world of Oakland’s black community. If
you could survive on the bandstand, after the gig you would likely end up at
a table at Mrs. Kelley’s restaurant, eating red beans and rice and talking with
the musicians. You’d learn all about their upbringing and education in the
music, about the musicians they grew up with or worked with in the past,
and about all the clubs that were no longer around. Although the repertory
wasn’t absolutely specific to Oakland, there was a sense that these musicians
had been playing these well-​worn tunes for a long time. The repertory was
incorporated into both their shared history and their everyday interactions.
These songs were just part of the local culture, like long-​standing inside jokes
or nicknames, all things that helped facilitate a sense of being together.

***
4 Hearing Double

The house band at the Birdcage started doing a Monday night jam session at
the Café du Nord on Market Street in San Francisco. Porter would lead the
band and, in typical style, would bring people up to play. One night I recall
him clearing his throat into the microphone and telling the audience, “We’ve
got a real legend in the house tonight, Mr. Frank Jackson. Frank is going to
come up and play a song, so you better SHUT UP AND LISTEN!” Frank
was a pianist and singer, originally from Texas, who had come to California
after enlisting in the military, as part of the African American migration
to the West Coast in the years around World War II. During the heyday of
San Francisco’s Fillmore District, Frank had been one of the scene’s bedrock
musicians. He worked in house bands in various clubs, backing up traveling
musicians from the likes of Ben Webster to Slim Gaillard to Sarah Vaughan.
He played jam sessions at Jimbo’s Bop City. He worked breakfast joints from
early in the morning until noontime. He played on cramped bandstands be-
hind go-​go dancers and at hotel lounges, singing the standards. It was not un-
common for these to be lined up one after another. Musicians in the Fillmore
might work twelve hours or more in a row—​starting at a lounge, then backing
up musicians from out of town, then off to an after-​hours jam session or early
morning breakfast gig.
When I met him at the Café du Nord, Frank had been at the edges of the
jazz scene for a while, mostly surviving as a solo act in cabarets and piano
bars. Tastes had changed and there was not the same audience for Frank’s
music. But San Francisco was in the midst of a swing music revival and, as
I would later learn, Frank saw it as an opportunity to start performing with
a small group. After Porter’s introduction, Frank came up to the stage, sat
down at the piano, and called out the tune “Route 66.” Without even counting
it off, he launched into an introduction at the piano that reminded me of the
famous Nat Cole recording. As the song went on, I could hear him quoting
more and more of that recording, and when it came time for the ending,
I could anticipate where he was going. I played all the riffs and hits with him,
as if we had practiced it, and that cemented our musical relationship. He
asked me if I would be interested in working with him, and if I knew any
good bass players. I was, and I did. I ended up working with him for over a
decade in a small trio of piano, guitar, and bass. That trio was my master class
in the jazz repertory.
I was in my late twenties and Frank was an octogenarian, but his youthful
voice and wrinkle-​free face seemed incongruent with his age. He didn’t read
music very well and didn’t need to. He had a near photographic memory
 Introduction 5

for popular songs and an ear that would allow him to harmonize at the key-
board whatever he heard in his head. He was a favorite performer of fans of
the Great American Songbook. On a regular Monday night gig in Palo Alto,
Frank would take requests from the audience, and I would wait, not without
a small touch of terror, to discover what song I would be playing momentarily
that I had never heard of before! Nearly every week the owner of the café,
a restaurateur named Freddy Maddalena, would dredge up some obscure
number from the past to try and stump Frank. Although it sounds like an ex-
aggeration, I cannot recall a single instance where he ever succeeded. If Frank
didn’t know the words of a song, he could play its melody and harmony at the
piano; and if he did know the words, he would often surprise the requester
with a verse, or extra choruses of lyrics, or witty musical quotations.
Frank’s repertoire was different from what was played at the Oakland jam
sessions. He was like an embodied archive of popular music from the 1930s
and 1940s. Aside from all the Gershwin, Berlin, Rodgers and Hart, and Cole
Porter songs that one might expect, Frank would croon Ellington ballads
like “I Didn’t Know about You,” “My Little Brown Book,” and “All Too Soon.”
His true inspiration was Nat “King” Cole—​not the later incarnation, the
celebrated pop vocalist in front of orchestras and big bands, but the young,
piano-​playing leader of the King Cole Trio. He knew everything in the Nat
Cole catalog: the classics (“The Frim Fram Sauce,” “Straighten Up and Fly
Right,” and “Sweet Lorraine”), the humorous ones (“I’m a Shy Guy,” “Can’t
See for Lookin’,” and “Bring Another Drink”), the obscure ones (“A Boy from
Texas—​a Girl from Tennessee,” “Vom Vim Veedle”), and the overlooked
ballads (“Beautiful Moons Ago,” “I’m Lost,” “I Realize Now”). He knew songs
associated from long-​forgotten movies (“Six Bridges to Cross” comes to
mind, which he associated with Sammy Davis Jr.), old hit-​parade favorites,
like “Indian Summer” or “Poinciana,” and even commercial jingles from his
youth. (I think I recall one about Listerine.) But he also transformed them
through his own musical sensibilities. As all jazz musicians do, Frank had
his own habits of harmonization, his collection of vamps and endings and
introductions that might be deployed as needed, and his ways of building
drama through form, dynamics, and vocal-​tonal coloring.
In Frank’s hands the jazz repertory was more than a shared social coin
within the jazz community, an object that would facilitate musicians to
get a jam session going. He knew the history of these songs, their original
context and the ways that they had circulated. He could recall when he had
first heard them; which versions of the tunes he liked and disliked; and
6 Hearing Double

how the songs had, through use, acquired new chord changes, additional
verses, or unique introductions and vamps. Through working with him,
I came to realize that the social dimension of a jazz repertory, which was so
important to functioning of the Oakland scene, was supplemented with an
historical dimension. Not only did these songs facilitate performance, but
each performance was inscribed within a horizon of past performances.
Those two dimensions—​the social and the historical, if I can call them
such—​were not simply orthogonal, defining a social and historical grid on
which to map the jazz repertory, but they were also intertwined. Frank’s re-​
performances of the past were not historicist in nature but were archives
of the sedimentation of previous forms of sociality, of ways that the music
had circulated in the past. At the same time, the sociality central to the
Oakland scene’s use of the repertory was historically rooted; its forms of
sociality had been shaped through the experiences that the musicians in
that scene had shared. The standards that formed the center of the jazz
repertory could not be mapped on a simple grid because they were not
fixed entities.

***
A standard is not just a song, or a composition, or a set of chords with a
melody—​something simple and easy to conceptualize—​but something else
entirely, a changing thing that is irreducible to any one of its performances
even as it is shaped through its performances. Unlike the traditional notion of
the “musical work,” standards are not fixed entities; their mode of being is not
reducible to something notated, scored, published, recorded, and then re-​
performed again and again. Standards are protean. They are musical entities
that differ over time, that slide into the contours of diverse social situations,
and that accrue and shed musical properties (and musical meanings)
through transformative cycles of performance and re-​performance. And yet,
for all of their malleability, standards have a palpability that is indisputable.
These songs are called on the bandstand every day, at almost every gig and
jam session; they are shared across communities of musicians; they are loved
(or hated) by listeners; they trigger memories for some and are forcefully
memorized by others. Standards, protean as they are, have solidity and re-
ality because they have stakes: if you are a jazz musician and do not know the
standard being called, you might be ashamed, or embarrassed, or outclassed,
or lose the gig. But if you know it, you might find entrance into a community
that had seemed inaccessible, or performance opportunities that could be
 Introduction 7

garnered in no other way. Knowing standards matters. If not your life, then
your livelihood might depend on it.
To articulate what is so singular and odd about standards—​and why they
are an object worthy of patient inquiry—​we must differentiate a standard
from a song. A song might get played and replayed quite a lot, but for a
song to become a standard requires not only that it be treated in multiple
performances by multiple performers but also that it has become familiar
in the jazz tradition to do so. A tune played only once could not be regarded
as a standard; nor could a musician intend to produce a standard by playing
a single tune repeatedly. Because standards are widely interpreted, different
performances diverge greatly from one another in terms of their musical
aspects—​tempo, harmony, melody, form, and the like. Moreover, it is pre-
cisely those divergences that are valued and cultivated by both performers
and listeners. By comparing different performances of the same standard,
one is invited to compare and evaluate qualities of virtuosity or originality.
Standards, while part of the jazz “canon,” have no canonic form. They do not
evoke a single, past performance or fixed aural images; rather, they are built
upon a basis of multiple performances, each differing in degrees from the
others. To fix this idea in our minds, a standard might be depicted as a net-
work, one in which the nodes represent distinct performances and in which
node-​to-​node relations (or edges) represent similarities and differences
among performances. And yet, a standard is not any particular node in this
network, but a permissive set of protocols, rules, strategies, and customs that
emerges from the network in its holism.
At the very least, that is my intuition, and it has been an abiding one that
has shaped my own transition from a jazz musician into a jazz scholar. This
book is an attempt to transform that intuition into a theory.

***
Hearing Double is a book about the ontology of the jazz standard. Musical
ontology is the study of the kinds of entities that comprise music, its
composition, and its performance. The majority of writing on the on-
tology of music has focused on the “musical work,” in contrast to musical
performances, which are usually thought to be performances of a work.
Because performances are typically assumed to be performances of works,
philosophers of music have focused more of their attention on works, which
would logically (if not temporally) precede performances. Debates in mu-
sical ontology are often about what kind of thing best defines the nature of
8 Hearing Double

the musical work: for example, is it a structure instanced in performances,

or a universal with particulars, or a type with performance tokens, and why?
In one respect, Hearing Double is no different. I will be arguing that the
jazz standard is best understood as an emergent entity, one that requires but
is irreducible to a network of performances. In other respects, Hearing Double
is different from many musical ontologies. First, my consideration is wholly
focused on jazz, with very little reference to classical music and other musical
traditions. By bracketing out classical music, I have tried to stay focused on
what is unique and specific to the ontology of standards.3 Second, I have tried
to make the argument hinge, as much as possible, on the actual practices of
musicians, critics, and engaged listeners. Lastly, my approach to musical on-
tology differs in that I do not strictly separate ontological questions from
issues in culture, history, and aesthetics. Nor would I assert that ontology
describes the way the world is apart from those who live in the world. Rather,
I believe that ontology captures the basic entities, types, and kinds that are
implicit in the engagements of agents and actors with the shared world in
which they live.
My approach to ontology is shaped by two scholars I greatly admire, Lydia
Goehr and Georgina Born. I was an undergraduate at Berkeley when Goehr’s
first book, The Imaginary Museum of Musical Works, appeared. It shook
the musicological world (or at least the musicological world of Morrison
Hall). Its premise, one that has been so influential as to now appear com-
monsensical, is that the idea of the “musical work” is an historical concept
that primarily regulates behavior. The idea that musical works were part of
an historical horizon, that its concept had perhaps surpassed its usefulness,
shaped my thinking as an undergraduate at Berkeley. What I learned from
Goehr was that ontology can be understood historically, that ontological
concepts have a lifespan. Moreover, there is no need to inoculate ontology
from history and that to do so is often suspect.4 The Imaginary Museum of
Musical Works generated extensive debates about the nature, history, and so-
cial function of the “musical work.” It solicited more questions than could be
answered in its scope. One issue that engaged me concerned a reconstruction
of ontological thinking. For instance, given that the “musical work” with its
paradigm of Werktreue is a regulative concept, one that came into being his-
torically and may be nearing its end, what might we say about the ontology of
other music, especially musics that do not fit snugly under the category of the
musical work or Werktreue? Jazz seemed to me to be a robust and complex
place to think about other musical ontologies—​just as historical, and just as
 Introduction 9

regulative perhaps, but regulating us in ways that might be more salubrious

and permissive than the strictures of Werktreue.
In considering various reconstructions of musical ontology, I have
also been deeply influenced by Georgina Born’s writings, and through
conversations and correspondence. Her work on the ontology of music is
rooted in social-​scientific methods (from sociology, anthropology, and sci-
ence and technology studies). The strong ethnographic focus that is a hall-
mark of her work on the study of institutions (e.g., IRCAM and the BBC)
carries over into her anthropologically influenced work on ontology. In her
essay “On Musical Mediation,” Born develops an ontological model of the
work of art rooted in the writings of the anthropologist Alfred Gell. Gell’s
Art and Agency envisages art objects not as singular, integral entities, but
as distributed objects, which are produced and reproduced across com-
plex networks of overlapping agency. Using the language of Husserl on
time, artworks retain the past and protend the future in a dynamic system
of references. Although music is not considered in Gell’s suggestive work,
Born’s application of Gell’s ideas to the world of jazz and improvised music
has been a source of inspiration for my own work on ontology. While we
both share an intuition that musical ontology is best rendered in the shape
of a network, I have tried use the large canvas of a book to explicate aspects
of that idea that simply could not find their proper space within the tight
constraints of an essay, nor have I used the explicit language of Gell (or of
Husserl) to make my case. In addition to our shared affinity for networks,
my approach to music generally has been shaped by Born’s attention to jazz,
improvised music, and sound art as sites for the analysis of music’s sociality.
Her articulation of the layers of mediation at work in every musical work and
musical performance (from the microsocial level of the individual musicians
engaged acts of musicking, to the macrosocial level of music’s institutions
and norms) has honed my eye and my ear to the traces of mediation found in
all acts of musicking.
If this book cites Goehr and Born too infrequently, it is because their in-
fluence is operative at a level deeper than the endnotes. They have influenced
my thinking about the ontology of music altogether. I may have been pre-
pared for the influence of Goehr and Born because of long-​standing interest
in Adorno’s writing—​starting from the time I was an undergraduate. This
may seem like an odd influence to cite in a book about jazz, given Adorno’s
own famously low esteem for the music. But I have always felt that, without
excusing Adorno’s often uninformed and mistaken judgments about jazz,
10 Hearing Double

there were methodological insights to be gained from his approach to both

music and philosophy more generally. In Adorno’s philosophical writings,
concepts are always already historical and socially mediated. They do not
simply appear outside of the historical flow but are themselves engaged with
the vicissitudes of history, politics, and society. If concepts are understood
historically, then, just as a diminished seventh chord might become shop-
worn and ineffective from use, concepts too might lose their critical grip on
reality and become worn tokens incapable of maintaining the potential they
once had. Like Adorno—​and Goehr and Born—​I would assert that, in part,
ontology is historical. At the very least, this book will argue that the ontology of
standards can only be adequately understood in relation to history.
In addition, Adorno’s musicological writings always emphasize how the
musical work—​and musical performance—​is mediated by social forces. It
is as if every piece of music is held suspended in a field of conflicting so-
cial forces; to interpret a work is then, in part, an attempt to read the forces
that are present, and to see how they have formed and deformed the work
at hand. For me, the mechanisms of replication and nomination—​the two
main processes that I will theorize as involved in the reproduction of the jazz
repertoire—​are thoroughly social in nature. If the ontology of the standard
emerges from ongoing acts of replication and nomination, the social forces
that structure the success or failure of these are integral to ontological con-
sideration. Like Adorno—​and Goehr and Born—​I would assert that, in
part, ontology is social. At the very least, this book will make the case that the
ontology of standards can only be understood in relation to social forces. An
underlying motivation for writing this book is to explicate the social and his-
torical ontology of jazz.5

***
The book is organized into two large parts. After acquainting the reader with
the relevant philosophical and music-​theoretic debates about the ontology
of jazz, Part I presents the main philosophical argument of the book: the
development of a non-​essentialist, network-​based ontology of standards.
To make that argument, I focus on two operations—​ replication and
nomination—​that are crucial to the performance and reproduction of
standards. Part II considers the historical, economic, and cultural forces
that shaped the “soundscape of standards,” which I locate roughly between
the years 1930 and 1960. These forces help to explain why the ontology
described in Part I emerged when it did, why the repertory of jazz standards
 Introduction 11

contains the kind of music it does, and why additions to this corpus appear
to be ever-​diminishing. The final chapter considers the aesthetic evaluation
of standards and argues that a network-​based ontology specifies many of the
implicit values of jazz criticism. It also theorizes a mode of listening that is
geared to a network-​based ontology of music, which I call “hearing double.”
When critically listening to standards, I will argue, we are always hearing
double.
As an aid to the reader, here are a few words about the book’s style.
Hearing Double tends toward analytic and expository prose—​for some
readers, perhaps overly so. But this mode of writing permitted me to re-
alize two desiderata. First, it allowed me to offer an account of the ontology
of standards that was as clear and comprehensive as I am able to be. Some
readers may grow tired of reading about “corrigible” structures, “network-​
based ontology,” or “sufficiently work-​determinative properties” and long for
lither figurations. Moments where I have eschewed figurative speech for the
repetition of specific terms are moments where I have tried to hold fast to
delimited concepts in order to move them patiently along the path of an ar-
gument. I hope that the reader may find some compensation for occasionally
dry prose in the pleasure of following a clear line of thought and an unfolding
argument. Second, the analytic and expository style allowed me to draw
together musical practice, music theory, and “Theory” (as it is sometimes
called in “the academy”) more broadly. The idea that there is philosophical
insight to be gained from things as commonplace as a chord substitution or
an improvisation is one that I find appealing. I am committed to the belief
that musical practice is an unassuming yet rich site of insight and wisdom—​
not only philosophical, but social, ethical, and historical. Employing a style
that could be both musically theoretic and philosophically theoretic is a part
of my attempt to realize that commitment.
The analytic and expository mode is most palpable in the book’s content,
in its sentence-​by-​sentence connection of ideas and in the long thread of ar-
gumentation that gives them direction. But the book’s form is less indebted
to philosophy’s forms (the essay, the treatise, or the tome) than to music’s
forms. Hearing Double takes inspiration from music’s forms—​with its rep-
etition of sections, its linking of phrases, its obligatory contrasts and de-
veloping variations—​as well as the formal affordances of music’s media. At
times, I have imagined the two halves of the book to be like two sides of a
long-​playing record. The argument of the book sweeps along continuously,
like the involuted spiral on the record’s surface, but it is marked halfway by
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