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Nonideal Social Ontology
Nonideal Social
Ontology
The Power View

Å S A BU R M A N
 Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers
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Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press
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© Oxford University Press 2023
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
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You must not circulate this work in any other form
and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer.
Library of Congress Cataloging-​in-​Publication Data
Names: Burman, Åsa, author.
Title: Nonideal social ontology : the power view /​Åsa Burman.
Description: New York, NY : Oxford University Press, [2023] |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2022030878 (print) | LCCN 2022030879 (ebook) |
ISBN 9780197509579 (hardback) | ISBN 9780197509593 (epub)
Subjects: LCSH: Social sciences—​Philosophy. | Ontology. | Critical theory.
Classification: LCC H61.15 .B87 2023 (print) | LCC H61.15 (ebook) |
DDC 300.1—​dc23/​eng/​20220715
LC record available at https://​lccn.loc.gov/​202​2030​878
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DOI: 10.1093/​oso/​9780197509579.001.0001
1 3 5 7 9 8 6 4 2
Printed by Integrated Books International, United States of America
 Contents

Acknowledgments  vii
Permissions  ix

Introduction: Ideal and Nonideal Social Ontology  1

PA RT I . C R I T IQU E
        Ideal Social Ontology
1. The Standard Model of Ideal Social Ontology  19

2. Critique of the Standard Model of Ideal Social

Ontology  83

PA RT I I . R E C O N ST RU C T IO N
        Nonideal Social Ontology
3. Nonideal Social Ontology  121

4. Critique of Nonideal Social Ontology  157

5. Telic Power  176

6. A Taxonomy of Social Facts  199

References  229
Index  235
 Acknowledgments

I have been working on the ideas in this book over a number of

years and have benefited from helpful discussions and support
from many philosophers and friends during that time.
The initial idea for this book came to me over the course of
three workshops on Nonideal Social Ontology between 2016 and
2018. I was able to arrange these workshops due to generous sup-
port from the Department of Philosophy, Stockholm University.
I wish to thank the participants in these workshops for fruitful
discussions on social ontology in general and for their comments
on some of the material in this book: Ásta, Eyja Brynjarsdóttir,
Johan Brännmark, Staffan Carlshamre, Robin Dembroff, Esa Díaz-​
León, Katharine Jenkins, Beatrice Kobow, Alex Madva, Rebecca
Mason, Mari Mikkola, Katharina Berndt Rasmussen, Dan Lópes de
Sa, Amie Thomasson, and Robin Zheng. I offer special thanks to
my co-​organizers, Staffan Carlshamre and Katharine Jenkins, and
my long-​time discussion partner, Johan Brännmark.
Substantial parts of this book have been presented in research
seminars at Stockholm University’s Department of Philosophy.
I wish to thank the participants, including organizers Erik
Angner and Jonas Olson and commentators Stina Björkholm,
Mats Ingelström, and Niklas Möller, for their detailed and helpful
comments. Special thanks to my friends and colleagues Krister
Bykvist and Anandi Hattiangadi for inspiring philosophical
discussions and other support along the way. Furthermore, my
friends and colleagues at the Institute for Futures Studies provided
not only the best kind of research atmosphere but also, through
Emma Engström, the artwork for the cover.
viii Acknowledgments

I have also benefited from feedback from engaged and insightful

audiences at the University of Nottingham; Stetson University; the
Conceptual Engineering Workshop at Uppsala University, which
was arranged by Matti Eklund; the Nordic Network of Metaphysics
Conference at Lund University, which was arranged by Tobias
Hansson Wahlberg and Robin Stenwall; and the Social Ontology
conferences at Tufts University and Tampere University, which was
arranged by Brian Epstein and Arto Laitinen. Finally, my social on-
tology students always manage to provide me with new energy and
new perspectives.
In looking back at the process of writing this book, I owe a spe-
cial and profound debt to my friends and fellow philosophers
Katharine Jenkins, Martin Jönsson, Joshua Rust, and Peter Sahlén,
who provided extensive comments on all the chapters. Your philo-
sophical insights and support meant more to this book and to me
than you might have realized at the time. Thank you so much. Any
remaining errors are my own.
Looking back even further, this book began quite some time ago
with the Berkeley Social Ontology Group and continued with an
invitation to a workshop on Feminist Ontology at MIT, arranged
by Sally Haslanger. These two different philosophical contexts
convinced me that there are two different paradigms, or research
frames, in social ontology. Editor Peter Ohlin offered kind support
and flexibility for me to develop this and other ideas into a book.
Thanks also to Sally Haslanger for much philosophical inspiration.
Last, but not least, I thank my parents, Ann-​Marie and Per-​Åke,
and my brother, Markus, and his family for always encouraging me
and my projects. During the writing of this book, I was lucky to
meet Amelie. Thank you for your stoic presence and kind heart and
for the experience of true collective intentionality.
 Permissions

I am grateful for the permission to use previously published mate-

rial from the following sources:

Some sections in Chapter 1 and Chapter 6 draw partly on material

published in Åsa Andersson [now Burman], Power and Social
Ontology, Lund: BokBox Publications, 2007.
Some sections in Chapter 3 and Chapter 4 draw partly on mate-
rial published in Åsa Burman, “Categories We Do Not Know We
Live By,” Journal of Social Ontology 5, no. 2 (2020): 235–​243, De
Gruyter, and
Burman, Åsa, “Review of Categories We Live By,” Notre Dame
Philosophical Review, 2019.
 Introduction
Ideal and Nonideal Social Ontology

0.1 The Two Worlds of Contemporary Social

Ontology: Consensus or Conflict?

Consider this scenario: you work as a coder in San

Francisco. You go into your office where you are one of the
guys. After work, you tag along with some friends at work
to a bar. It is a very heteronormative space, and you are
neither a guy nor a gal. You are an other. You walk up the
street to another bar where you are a butch and expected
to buy drinks for the femmes.
—​Ásta, Categories We Live By: The Construction of Sex,
Gender, Race, and Other Social Categories, 73.

Consider a simple scene like the following. I go into a café

in Paris and sit in a chair at a table. The waiter comes and I
utter a fragment of a French sentence. . . . The waiter brings
the beer and I drink it. I leave some money on the table
and leave.
—​John Searle, The Construction of Social Reality, 3.

Social ontologists live in two different worlds. The first is a harmo-

nious social order where small groups of people go for walks and
have picnics together. It is an equal society organized around formal
positions (being a professor or being a citizen), certain informal

Nonideal Social Ontology. Åsa Burman, Oxford University Press. © Oxford University Press 2023.
DOI: 10.1093/​oso/​9780197509579.003.0001
2 Introduction

social positions (being a friend), and the transparent or discernible

powers that come with these roles. In general, there is consensus
around the formal roles, and conflict is neither frequent nor severe.
The inhabitants of this social world are blind to gender and race
in the sense that differences of gender, race, sexuality, and the like
are not considered relevant. The philosophers of this world aim to
uncover the fundamental principles of society and offer a general
theory of social phenomena. Their method is to start from simple
cases and abstract away from the messiness of everyday life, such as
material circumstances and most differences between individuals.
Let us call this first world “Ideal Social Ontology.”
The second world is characterized by inequality and overt and
covert conflicts that play out in everyday interactions between
people, such as someone who insists on deciding their own gender
pronoun or someone who decides who counts as a woman at a
feminist activist meeting. It also plays out among large and hier-
archical groups, where some groups oppress or dominate other
groups, sometimes without the awareness of the people involved.
This society is not organized around only contested formal roles.
In addition, a person’s various and intersecting informal social
roles—​gender, race, sexuality, level of functioning, and so on—​are
of utmost importance for the organization of society and a person’s
life chances.1 A few philosophers of this world aim to offer a ge-
neral theory of social phenomena, but most aim to offer theories
of specific social phenomena, like gender and race. Their theories
should not only describe these phenomena correctly but also pro-
vide useful tools for social change. Their method is to start from the
messy and material circumstances of everyday life by using difficult
and complex cases, refusing to abstract away from this messiness by

1 It is an anomaly that the inhabitants of this social world are class-​blind in the sense

that a person’s class is not considered relevant. Other categories have been discussed at
great length, but class is still missing. I thus include the intersection of gender and class
as one of my central examples.
 Introduction 3

using simplistic examples. Let us call this second world “Nonideal

Social Ontology.”
So, do we live in a world where a bunch of people are having a
picnic together or a world of constant conflicts in need of a revolu-
tion? The question is, of course, rhetorical and the contrast above
is somewhat exaggerated for effect, but the contrast between ideal
and nonideal social ontology is certainly very pronounced and it
can be seen both in the research questions posed and in what are
taken to be paradigmatic social phenomena. If we examine both, it
becomes clear that they either assume a consensus-​oriented view of
social phenomena or a view of conflict and contestation.2
Taking some things and not others to be examples of para-
digmatic social phenomena is a central theoretical choice that
highlights some aspects of social reality while hiding others. The
problem is that both worlds offer only a partial view of our social
world while presenting that view as comprehensive. We actually
live in both worlds, and our theories of the social world thus need to
capture all aspects of social reality. The challenge in contemporary
social ontology is the great divide between the two worlds and the
few narrow bridges that span them. And the philosophers of these
two worlds move only in one direction and not the other—​some
nonideal social ontologists have engaged with the main works in
ideal social ontology, but the converse is not true.
My objective is to build a new bridge between these two worlds.
I use social power as the central building block because I argue that
nearly all the relevant social phenomena are about different types
of social power. Power remains an underdeveloped concept that is

2 The consensus-​oriented view of society is also clearly visible on the front covers of

the main works in ideal social ontology. On the first edition of Searle’s The Construction
of Social Reality, people are literally holding hands while dancing. On Margaret Gilbert’s
recent book, Rights and Demands, a peaceful picture of a few people crossing a courtyard
is displayed on the front cover. Given the title, one might have expected less peaceful and
more violent historical images, perhaps of suffragettes or civil rights activists. Finally,
Raimo Tuomela’s The Philosophy of Sociality depicts small groups of white people eating
together at a café.
4 Introduction

nevertheless central in both worlds and it can thus help to bridge the
divide. More specifically, I offer an account of social power and the
various forms it takes, an account I call the “Power View.” In addition,
I suggest that the different forms of social power can be used as a basis
for a taxonomy of social facts. The key idea is that social power is the
central social concept and nearly all the social facts in which we are
interested contain one form of social power or another. Hence, I offer
a taxonomy of social facts in virtue of social power. Although the tax-
onomy might not be exhaustive, it expands on existing accounts of
social power in contemporary social ontology in significant ways.3

0.2 Purpose and Main Claims

This book argues for the use of nonideal theory in social ontology.
It has three main aims. The first is to show that the key questions
and central dividing lines within contemporary social ontology can
be fruitfully reconstructed as a clash between the two worlds I refer
to as ideal and nonideal social ontology. The second is to show that,
when taken together, the objections to the “standard model” (the
dominant version of ideal social ontology) imply that this model
needs to be given up in favor of nonideal social ontology.4 In other
words, we should look to nonideal, rather than ideal, social on-
tology for core concepts. Third, I offer my own positive account,
called the power view, of nonideal social ontology. This account
places the concept of social power at the core and replaces the
flat and narrow conception of power in ideal social ontology with

3 I hope to return to the refinement of the power view in light of insights from related

fields. For instance, theories of power, domination, and oppression developed outside
contemporary social ontology, narrowly understood, could give us a more refined view
of what I refer to as “structural power,” among other things.
4 Francesco Guala coined the term “the standard model of social ontology” and listed

three of its elements: collective intentionality, reflexivity, and performativity. I agree

that these features are accurately identified, but I identify more features, such as the sole
emphasis on the deontic, and I argue that the standard model also entails a consensus-​
oriented view of social phenomena.
 Introduction 5

a richer and more extensive conception. In addition, it rectifies a

shortcoming in nonideal social ontology by attending to class,
which has been notably and oddly overlooked in that literature.5
I use real-​world examples of the intersection of class and gender be-
cause class also significantly impacts people’s life chances, and I dis-
cuss the type of power involved here.
The central claim is that a paradigm shift is underway from
ideal to nonideal social ontology and that this shift should be fully
followed through. This claim should be understood in relation to
the two main aims of the standard model of ideal social ontology,
aims that I certainly share: to offer general theories of the ontology
of social and institutional reality and to offer theories that are the
foundation of the social sciences. Given these aims, the paradigm
shift should be fully followed through. So, I am not claiming that
there needs to be a paradigm shift for specific domains and that
theories in ideal social ontology about these specific domains
cannot be, or are not, correct. For example, work on collective in-
tentionality and collective responsibility has greatly expanded our
knowledge of these important phenomena.
To develop and defend this central claim, I first need to charac-
terize ideal social ontology. I do this by developing the standard
model of ideal social ontology, which synthesizes the main aims,
central assumptions, and methodological concerns that shaped this
tradition. I then turn to criticizing ideal social ontology. I show that
one of its basic building blocks—​collective intentionality—​is not
a necessary condition for the existence of institutions, despite the
claims of ideal social ontology to the contrary. I also show that the
standard model has the effect of making central social phenomena,

5 It is interesting to note that the anomaly I have pointed out—​that class is almost

entirely missing from view in nonideal social ontology—​is also a concern in related
fields. For example, Sherry B. Ortner writes: “I question the basically classless notion of
identities operating in contemporary politics, both out in the world and within contem-
porary social and cultural analysis. Instead, I try to bring to light several aspects of what
I call ‘the hidden life of class’ in the United States” (1998, 1).
6 Introduction

like opaque kinds of social facts, drop out of sight. Consequently,

to fulfill the main aims of the standard model—​to offer general
theories of the ontology of social and institutional reality and to
offer theories that are the foundation of the social sciences—​we
need to shift away from this model. Finally, I turn to what the par-
adigm shift is, and should be, a shift to. I do this by characterizing
nonideal social ontology and showing how it has certain advantages
over the standard model of ideal social ontology. However, there are
still two shortcomings with nonideal social ontology: other forms
of social power besides deontic power are underdeveloped, and
certain crucial social phenomena, such as economic class, are still
excluded. I develop my own version of nonideal social ontology—​
the power view—​to overcome these limitations.
The background and relevance of my contribution is that so-
cial ontology is a rapidly growing but highly fragmented field. It
would thus be of enormous help to provide it with a systematic
overview and synthesis, a project to which I contribute to through
this volume. I demonstrate how the fragmentation shows in the fol-
lowing disagreements, which are disagreements regarding the very
foundations of the research field. The first disagreement concerns
the question, “Which are the social phenomena?”6 There is not
only disagreement about what the paradigmatic social phenomena
are but also regarding what phenomena count as social in the first
place. Furthermore, different theories use different ontological
categories, such as social objects, social facts, social kinds, and so-
cial properties of individuals.7 The second disagreement concerns

6 For an illuminating overview with respect to the question, “Which are the so-

cial phenomena?” see Ásta’s “Social Kinds” in which she shows that one of the main
disagreements about social kinds is “What makes a social kind social?” (2017, 290, em-
phasis in original).
7 Brian Epstein notes this disagreement and argues for choosing social facts as the on-

tological category: “Among the various candidates, social facts turn out to be a practical
category for inquiry, because they are fine-​grained enough to make the distinctions we
want and general purpose enough to accommodate the other categories as special cases”
(2016, 150, emphasis in original). I follow Epstein in using social facts as the ontological
category in my power view.
 Introduction 7

the very purpose and aims of theorizing, translated into the ques-
tion, “What conditions of adequacy should a theory in social
ontology fulfill?” In a related concern, “Is the role of the social on-
tologist primarily to describe the fundamental structure and nature
of social reality (or at least some of its parts) or primarily to change
it?” The third disagreement involves the philosophical method to
be used in answering the research questions, especially the use or
non-​use of empirical case studies against which to test the theories
in social ontology. These fundamental disagreements need to be
resolved, or at least explicitly addressed, to make further progress
and, continuing with the paradigm analogy, to move to a state of
what Thomas Kuhn (1962) called “normal science.”
Let me briefly return to the first disagreement that concerns
the question, “Which are the social phenomena?” There is dis-
agreement about what the paradigmatic social phenomena are
with respect to both content (gender, race, or money) and form,
or kind. Regarding the latter, consider Muhammad Ali Khalidi’s
(2015) classification of social kinds. He starts from the familiar
idea that social properties depend on our propositional attitudes
in different ways and then he asks us to consider two questions
to clarify those differences (Khalidi 2015, 103, emphasis in
original):

(i) Does the existence of the kind depend upon our having cer-
tain propositional attitudes towards it?
(ii) Does the existence of instances of the kind depend on our
having propositional attitudes towards them, namely that
they are instances of that kind?

The answers to these questions result in a three-​fold classification

(Khalidi 2015, 104):
8 Introduction

(i) (ii)

First kind of social kind NO NO racism, recession

Second kind of social kind YES NO war, money
Third kind of social kind YES YES permanent resident, prime
minister

The shift from top to bottom in the classification is a shift from

weaker to increasingly stronger mind-​dependence. The first
kind of social kind is mind-​dependent in the sense that some
mental states about other social phenomena need to exist for the
kind to exist, but these mental states need not be about the kind
itself. The second kind of social kind is mind-​dependent in the
sense that there must be mental states about the kind itself for
it to exist, but there need not be mental states about each indi-
vidual token for the token to exist. The third kind of social kind
is mind-​dependent in the sense that there must be mental states
about both the type and the token for each to exist. I show that
the first kind of social kind has dropped out of sight in ideal so-
cial ontology. Furthermore, I show that one reason behind the
anomaly that class is still missing in nonideal social ontology
is that it belongs to the first kind of social kind. Consequently,
I start from a variety of examples with respect to both content
and form and I pay special attention to examples of the first
kind of social kind, such as economic class, in developing the
power view.
This section has relied on a distinction between ideal and
nonideal social ontology, a distinction to which I now turn.
 Introduction 9

0.3 Ideal Theory and Nonideal Theory

0.3.1 Charles Mills on Ideal and Nonideal Theory

What distinguishes ideal theory is the reliance on idealiza-
tion to the exclusion, or at least marginalization, of the ac-
tual. . . . But ideal theory either tacitly represents the actual
as a simple deviation from the ideal, not worth theorizing
in its own right, or claims that starting from the ideal is at
least the best way of realizing it.
(Mills 2005, 168)

In this section, I clarify how one influential characterization of

“ideal theory” and “nonideal theory” can be applied to social on-
tology. Consequently, I begin the crucial task of clarifying how
I use “ideal social ontology” and “nonideal social ontology” in the
coming chapters.
Both “ideal” and “nonideal” carry multiple senses in the phil-
osophical literature, so there are different ways of drawing the
distinction between ideal and nonideal theory.8 One common un-
derstanding, from John Rawls’ A Theory of Justice, is ideal theory
as strict compliance theory and nonideal theory as partial com-
pliance theory. I will, however, not use “ideal theory” in line with
Rawls’ understanding of it as “strict compliance theory” that seeks
to provide a theory for a well-​ordered “society in which (1) eve-
ryone accepts and knows that the others accept the same principles
of justice, and (2) the basic social institutions generally satisfy and
are known to satisfy these principles” (Rawls 1971, 4–​5).
Another common way of distinguishing between ideal and
nonideal theory is to view the former as about normative issues

8 For a clear overview of the different debates about ideal and nonideal theory in po-

litical philosophy, see Laura Valentini (2012). For illumination discussions in social on-
tology, see, for example, Johan Brännmark (2019b), Sally Haslanger (2018), and Mari
Mikkola (2018).
10 Introduction

and the latter as about descriptive issues. Charles Mills refers to this
sense of ideal theory as “ideal-​as-​normative” (2005, 166). In this
sense, all works in normative and applied ethics, along with polit-
ical philosophy, are examples of ideal theory, while works in tradi-
tional social ontology are examples of nonideal theory, but this is
also not the distinction I have in mind. Rather, in contemporary so-
cial ontology, the relation is the opposite of this way of drawing the
distinction: ideal social ontologists aim to describe the fundamental
nature of social reality without starting from any normative ideals
or commitments. By contrast, nonideal social ontologists also aim
to describe (some parts of) the fundamental nature of social reality,
but their investigations are clearly guided by normative ideals and
commitments.
Rather, I have in mind Mills’ characterization of ideal theory
as idealized theory: “What distinguishes ideal theory is the reli-
ance on idealization to the exclusion, or at least marginalization,
of the actual” (2005, 168). An “idealized social ontology” involves
abstracting away from historical injustices, domination, and op-
pression and from differences between individuals. Furthermore, it
assumes “ideal social institutions” in the sense that little or no atten-
tion is paid to how institutions such as the family systematically dis-
advantage some of their members (Mills 2005, 168). I draw on Mills’
work in distinguishing between ideal and nonideal social ontology
since it captures the theoretical and methodological disagreements
in contemporary social ontology in an illuminating way.
Mills’ highly influential—​ and controversial—​ article “Ideal
Theory as Ideology” is rich in content. His main claim is that
nonideal theory (in ethics and political philosophy) is superior
to ideal theory and that there thus ought to be a shift from ideal
to nonideal theory. Furthermore, philosophers should stop using
ideal theory in ethics and political philosophy because it is not
at all helpful. Actually, ideal theory serves the interests of privi-
leged groups and is, in this sense, ideology. There are a number of
interesting and controversial claims to engage with here. For my
 Introduction 11

purposes, Mills’ characterization of ideal and nonideal theory,

and some of the disadvantages of the former and advantages of
the latter, are of importance for understanding the debate in so-
cial ontology. Thus, I focus on these aspects of Mills’ work, leaving
aside the questions of whether ideal theory is really ideology and
whether nonideal theory is superior to ideal theory.
Mills characterizes ideal theory in normative ethics and polit-
ical philosophy as a way of theorizing that involves idealization,
not merely abstraction. There is thus a necessary link between
ideal theory and idealization in the sense that ideal theory employs
idealization. It is also characteristic of ideal theory that one must
start with the ideal to understand the nonideal and to realize the
ideal. So, ideal theory is prior to nonideal theory in these two ways.
Furthermore, ideal theory downplays the importance of how our
societies actually work in certain respects in its theorizing; for in-
stance, it often excludes historic and current injustices such as ra-
cial and gender inequities. And the difference between the ideal
and the nonideal is viewed as “a simple deviation from the ideal,”
in Mills’ words (2005, 168), or as small enough in the sense that one
can understand the nonideal once one has understood the ideal.
More specifically, the conceptual resources developed in ideal
theory are helpful for understanding the nonideal, or actual. Due to
these characteristics, ideal theory is silent on oppression, domina-
tion, and coercion, according to Mills. In other words, ideal theory
is silent on illegitimate power relations.
In stark contrast, proponents of nonideal theory are deeply
skeptical of all the above claims, especially the silence on illegiti-
mate power relations. Nonideal theorists worry that attributing
idealizing capacities to people and the circumstances they find
themselves in hides important aspects of social and moral reality,
such as systemic injustices and oppression. So, there is no neces-
sary link between theorizing and idealizing, although one cannot
do without abstraction in nonideal theory. Nonideal theorists also
question the priority of ideal to nonideal theory in two ways: first,
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Prepared by: Dr. Smith

Date: July 28, 2025

Introduction 1: Problem-solving strategies and techniques

Learning Objective 1: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Learning Objective 2: Key terms and definitions
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 3: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 3: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Learning Objective 4: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 5: Research findings and conclusions
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Study tips and learning strategies
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 8: Key terms and definitions
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 9: Key terms and definitions
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice 2: Statistical analysis and interpretation
Key Concept: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 11: Literature review and discussion
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 12: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Study tips and learning strategies
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 15: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Research findings and conclusions
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 18: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Background 3: Theoretical framework and methodology
Example 20: Ethical considerations and implications
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Ethical considerations and implications
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 22: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Ethical considerations and implications
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Practical applications and examples
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 25: Literature review and discussion
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Best practices and recommendations
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Case studies and real-world applications
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 29: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Methodology 4: Study tips and learning strategies
Important: Key terms and definitions
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 32: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 33: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Key terms and definitions
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Historical development and evolution
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Research findings and conclusions
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
References 5: Historical development and evolution
Important: Experimental procedures and results
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 41: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Research findings and conclusions
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 43: Research findings and conclusions
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 44: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Study tips and learning strategies
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 46: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 48: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Experimental procedures and results
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 49: Key terms and definitions
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Methodology 6: Research findings and conclusions
Example 50: Historical development and evolution
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Current trends and future directions
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Ethical considerations and implications
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Best practices and recommendations
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Case studies and real-world applications
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 58: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Current trends and future directions
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Unit 7: Study tips and learning strategies
Practice Problem 60: Literature review and discussion
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Literature review and discussion
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Ethical considerations and implications
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 63: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 64: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Key terms and definitions
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Case studies and real-world applications
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 69: Historical development and evolution
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 70: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Background 8: Theoretical framework and methodology
Note: Historical development and evolution
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 71: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 74: Literature review and discussion
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Best practices and recommendations
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 77: Key terms and definitions
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 78: Current trends and future directions
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 79: Study tips and learning strategies
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 80: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Exercise 9: Current trends and future directions
Key Concept: Experimental procedures and results
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Historical development and evolution
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 83: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Practical applications and examples
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Practical applications and examples
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 86: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Ethical considerations and implications
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 89: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 90: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Introduction 10: Study tips and learning strategies
Practice Problem 90: Key terms and definitions
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 91: Key terms and definitions
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 92: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Current trends and future directions
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 94: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 94: Literature review and discussion
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 96: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 98: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 99: Best practices and recommendations
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice 11: Historical development and evolution
Important: Practical applications and examples
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 101: Current trends and future directions
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Study tips and learning strategies
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Practical applications and examples
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Key terms and definitions
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 105: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 106: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Study tips and learning strategies
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 107: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Experimental procedures and results
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 109: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 109: Key terms and definitions
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Unit 12: Key terms and definitions
Remember: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Study tips and learning strategies
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Research findings and conclusions
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 113: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Current trends and future directions
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Ethical considerations and implications
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 115: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 115: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 116: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 116: Practical applications and examples
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 117: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 118: Research findings and conclusions
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Literature review and discussion
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice 13: Fundamental concepts and principles
Important: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 121: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Literature review and discussion
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Best practices and recommendations
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Practical applications and examples
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Literature review and discussion
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 126: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Historical development and evolution
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Research findings and conclusions
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 130: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice 14: Study tips and learning strategies
Definition: Current trends and future directions
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 131: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Research findings and conclusions
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
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