Algorithm

In mathematics and computer science, an algorithm

(/ˈælɡərɪðəm/ ⓘ ) is a finite sequence of mathematically
rigorous instructions, typically used to solve a class of
specific problems or to perform a computation.[1] Algorithms
are used as specifications for performing calculations and
data processing. More advanced algorithms can use
conditionals to divert the code execution through various
routes (referred to as automated decision-making) and deduce
valid inferences (referred to as automated reasoning).

In contrast, a heuristic is an approach to solving problems

without well-defined correct or optimal results.[2] For
example, although social media recommender systems are
commonly called "algorithms", they actually rely on
heuristics as there is no truly "correct" recommendation.

As an effective method, an algorithm can be expressed within Flowchart of using successive

subtractions to find the greatest common
a finite amount of space and time[3] and in a well-defined
divisor of number r and s
formal language[4] for calculating a function.[5] Starting from
an initial state and initial input (perhaps empty),[6] the
instructions describe a computation that, when executed, proceeds through a finite[7] number of well-
defined successive states, eventually producing "output"[8] and terminating at a final ending state. The
transition from one state to the next is not necessarily deterministic; some algorithms, known as
randomized algorithms, incorporate random input.[9]

Etymology
Around 825 AD, Persian scientist and polymath Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī wrote kitāb al-
ḥisāb al-hindī ("Book of Indian computation") and kitab al-jam' wa'l-tafriq al-ḥisāb al-hindī ("Addition
and subtraction in Indian arithmetic"). In the early 12th century, Latin translations of these texts involving
the Hindu–Arabic numeral system and arithmetic appeared, for example Liber Alghoarismi de practica
arismetrice, attributed to John of Seville, and Liber Algorismi de numero Indorum, attributed to Adelard
of Bath.[10] Here, alghoarismi or algorismi is the Latinization of Al-Khwarizmi's name;[1] the text starts
with the phrase Dixit Algorismi, or "Thus spoke Al-Khwarizmi".[2]

The word algorism in English came to mean the use of place-value notation in calculations; it occurs in
the Ancrene Wisse from circa 1225.[11] By the time Geoffrey Chaucer wrote The Canterbury Tales in the
late 14th century, he used a variant of the same word in describing augrym stones, stones used for place-
value calculation.[12][13] In the 15th century, under the influence of the Greek word ἀριθμός (arithmos,
"number"; cf. "arithmetic"), the Latin word was altered to algorithmus.[14] By 1596, this form of the word
was used in English, as algorithm, by Thomas Hood.[15]

Definition
One informal definition is "a set of rules that precisely defines a sequence of operations",[16] which
would include all computer programs (including programs that do not perform numeric calculations), and
any prescribed bureaucratic procedure[17] or cook-book recipe.[18] In general, a program is an algorithm
only if it stops eventually[19]—even though infinite loops may sometimes prove desirable. Boolos,
Jeffrey & 1974, 1999 define an algorithm to be an explicit set of instructions for determining an output,
that can be followed by a computing machine or a human who could only carry out specific elementary
operations on symbols.[20]

Most algorithms are intended to be implemented as computer programs. However, algorithms are also
implemented by other means, such as in a biological neural network (for example, the human brain
performing arithmetic or an insect looking for food), in an electrical circuit, or a mechanical device.

History

Ancient algorithms
Step-by-step procedures for solving mathematical problems have been recorded since antiquity. This
includes in Babylonian mathematics (around 2500 BC),[21] Egyptian mathematics (around 1550 BC),[21]
Indian mathematics (around 800 BC and later),[22][23] the Ifa Oracle (around 500 BC),[24] Greek
mathematics (around 240 BC),[25] Chinese mathematics (around 200 BC and later),[26] and Arabic
mathematics (around 800 AD).[27]

The earliest evidence of algorithms is found in ancient Mesopotamian mathematics. A Sumerian clay
tablet found in Shuruppak near Baghdad and dated to c. 2500 BC describes the earliest division
algorithm.[21] During the Hammurabi dynasty c. 1800 – c. 1600 BC, Babylonian clay tablets described
algorithms for computing formulas.[28] Algorithms were also used in Babylonian astronomy. Babylonian
clay tablets describe and employ algorithmic procedures to compute the time and place of significant
astronomical events.[29]

Algorithms for arithmetic are also found in ancient Egyptian mathematics, dating back to the Rhind
Mathematical Papyrus c. 1550 BC.[21] Algorithms were later used in ancient Hellenistic mathematics.
Two examples are the Sieve of Eratosthenes, which was described in the Introduction to Arithmetic by
Nicomachus,[30][25]: Ch 9.2 and the Euclidean algorithm, which was first described in Euclid's Elements
(c. 300 BC).[25]: Ch 9.1 Examples of ancient Indian mathematics included the Shulba Sutras, the Kerala
School, and the Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta.[22]

The first cryptographic algorithm for deciphering encrypted code was developed by Al-Kindi, a 9th-
century Arab mathematician, in A Manuscript On Deciphering Cryptographic Messages. He gave the
first description of cryptanalysis by frequency analysis, the earliest codebreaking algorithm.[27]
Computers

Weight-driven clocks
Bolter credits the invention of the weight-driven clock as "the key invention [of Europe in the Middle
Ages]," specifically the verge escapement mechanism[31] producing the tick and tock of a mechanical
clock. "The accurate automatic machine"[32] led immediately to "mechanical automata" in the 13th
century and "computational machines"—the difference and analytical engines of Charles Babbage and
Ada Lovelace in the mid-19th century.[33] Lovelace designed the first algorithm intended for processing
on a computer, Babbage's analytical engine, which is the first device considered a real Turing-complete
computer instead of just a calculator. Although the full implementation of Babbage's second device was
not realized for decades after her lifetime, Lovelace has been called "history's first programmer".

Electromechanical relay
Bell and Newell (1971) write that the Jacquard loom, a precursor to Hollerith cards (punch cards), and
"telephone switching technologies" led to the development of the first computers.[34] By the mid-19th
century, the telegraph, the precursor of the telephone, was in use throughout the world. By the late 19th
century, the ticker tape (c. 1870s) was in use, as were Hollerith cards (c. 1890). Then came the teleprinter
(c. 1910) with its punched-paper use of Baudot code on tape.

Telephone-switching networks of electromechanical relays were invented in 1835. These led to the
invention of the digital adding device by George Stibitz in 1937. While working in Bell Laboratories, he
observed the "burdensome" use of mechanical calculators with gears. "He went home one evening in
1937 intending to test his idea... When the tinkering was over, Stibitz had constructed a binary adding
device".[35][36]

Formalization
In 1928, a partial formalization of the modern concept of
algorithms began with attempts to solve the
Entscheidungsproblem (decision problem) posed by David
Hilbert. Later formalizations were framed as attempts to
define "effective calculability"[37] or "effective method".[38]
Those formalizations included the Gödel–Herbrand–Kleene
recursive functions of 1930, 1934 and 1935, Alonzo Church's
lambda calculus of 1936, Emil Post's Formulation 1 of 1936,
and Alan Turing's Turing machines of 1936–37 and 1939.
Ada Lovelace's diagram from "Note G",
the first published computer algorithm

Representations
Algorithms can be expressed in many kinds of notation, including natural languages, pseudocode,
flowcharts, drakon-charts, programming languages or control tables (processed by interpreters). Natural
language expressions of algorithms tend to be verbose and ambiguous and are rarely used for complex or
technical algorithms. Pseudocode, flowcharts, drakon-charts, and control tables are structured expressions
of algorithms that avoid common ambiguities of natural language. Programming languages are primarily
for expressing algorithms in a computer-executable form but are also used to define or document
algorithms.

Turing machines
There are many possible representations and Turing machine programs can be expressed as a sequence of
machine tables (see finite-state machine, state-transition table, and control table for more), as flowcharts
and drakon-charts (see state diagram for more), as a form of rudimentary machine code or assembly code
called "sets of quadruples", and more. Algorithm representations can also be classified into three accepted
levels of Turing machine description: high-level description, implementation description, and formal
description.[39] A high-level description describes the qualities of the algorithm itself, ignoring how it is
implemented on the Turing machine.[39] An implementation description describes the general manner in
which the machine moves its head and stores data to carry out the algorithm, but does not give exact
states.[39] In the most detail, a formal description gives the exact state table and list of transitions of the
Turing machine.[39]

Flowchart representation
The graphical aid called a flowchart offers a way to describe and document an algorithm (and a computer
program corresponding to it). It has four primary symbols: arrows showing program flow, rectangles
(SEQUENCE, GOTO), diamonds (IF-THEN-ELSE), and dots (OR-tie). Sub-structures can "nest" in
rectangles, but only if a single exit occurs from the superstructure.

Algorithmic analysis
It is often important to know how much time, storage, or other cost an algorithm may require. Methods
have been developed for the analysis of algorithms to obtain such quantitative answers (estimates); for
example, an algorithm that adds up the elements of a list of n numbers would have a time requirement of
⁠, using big O notation. The algorithm only needs to remember two values: the sum of all the
elements so far, and its current position in the input list. If the space required to store the input numbers is
not counted, it has a space requirement of ⁠ ⁠, otherwise ⁠ ⁠is required.

Different algorithms may complete the same task with a different set of instructions in less or more time,
space, or 'effort' than others. For example, a binary search algorithm (with cost ⁠ ⁠) outperforms a
sequential search (cost ⁠ ⁠) when used for table lookups on sorted lists or arrays.

Formal versus empirical

The analysis, and study of algorithms is a discipline of computer science. Algorithms are often studied
abstractly, without referencing any specific programming language or implementation. Algorithm
analysis resembles other mathematical disciplines as it focuses on the algorithm's properties, not
implementation. Pseudocode is typical for analysis as it is a simple and general representation. Most
algorithms are implemented on particular hardware/software platforms and their algorithmic efficiency is
tested using real code. The efficiency of a particular algorithm may be insignificant for many "one-off"
problems but it may be critical for algorithms designed for fast interactive, commercial, or long-life
scientific usage. Scaling from small n to large n frequently exposes inefficient algorithms that are
otherwise benign.

Empirical testing is useful for uncovering unexpected interactions that affect performance. Benchmarks
may be used to compare before/after potential improvements to an algorithm after program optimization.
Empirical tests cannot replace formal analysis, though, and are non-trivial to perform fairly.[40]

Execution efficiency
To illustrate the potential improvements possible even in well-established algorithms, a recent significant
innovation, relating to FFT algorithms (used heavily in the field of image processing), can decrease
processing time up to 1,000 times for applications like medical imaging.[41] In general, speed
improvements depend on special properties of the problem, which are very common in practical
applications.[42] Speedups of this magnitude enable computing devices that make extensive use of image
processing (like digital cameras and medical equipment) to consume less power.

Best Case and Worst Case

The best case of an algorithm refers to the scenario or input for which the algorithm or data structure
takes the least time and resources to complete its tasks.[43] The worst case of an algorithm is the case that
causes the algorithm or data structure to consume the maximum period of time and computational
resources.[44]

Design
Algorithm design is a method or mathematical process for problem-solving and engineering algorithms.
The design of algorithms is part of many solution theories, such as divide-and-conquer or dynamic
programming within operation research. Techniques for designing and implementing algorithm designs
are also called algorithm design patterns,[45] with examples including the template method pattern and the
decorator pattern. One of the most important aspects of algorithm design is resource (run-time, memory
usage) efficiency; the big O notation is used to describe e.g., an algorithm's run-time growth as the size of
its input increases.[46]

Structured programming
Per the Church–Turing thesis, any algorithm can be computed by any Turing complete model. Turing
completeness only requires four instruction types—conditional GOTO, unconditional GOTO,
assignment, HALT. However, Kemeny and Kurtz observe that, while "undisciplined" use of unconditional
GOTOs and conditional IF-THEN GOTOs can result in "spaghetti code", a programmer can write
structured programs using only these instructions; on the other hand "it is also possible, and not too hard,
to write badly structured programs in a structured language".[47] Tausworthe augments the three Böhm-
Jacopini canonical structures:[48] SEQUENCE, IF-THEN-ELSE, and WHILE-DO, with two more: DO-
WHILE and CASE.[49] An additional benefit of a structured program is that it lends itself to proofs of
correctness using mathematical induction.[50]
Legal status
By themselves, algorithms are not usually patentable. In the United States, a claim consisting solely of
simple manipulations of abstract concepts, numbers, or signals does not constitute "processes" (USPTO
2006), so algorithms are not patentable (as in Gottschalk v. Benson). However practical applications of
algorithms are sometimes patentable. For example, in Diamond v. Diehr, the application of a simple
feedback algorithm to aid in the curing of synthetic rubber was deemed patentable. The patenting of
software is controversial,[51] and there are criticized patents involving algorithms, especially data
compression algorithms, such as Unisys's LZW patent. Additionally, some cryptographic algorithms have
export restrictions (see export of cryptography).

Classification

By implementation
Recursion
A recursive algorithm invokes itself repeatedly until meeting a termination condition and is
a common functional programming method. Iterative algorithms use repetitions such as
loops or data structures like stacks to solve problems. Problems may be suited for one
implementation or the other. The Tower of Hanoi is a puzzle commonly solved using
recursive implementation. Every recursive version has an equivalent (but possibly more or
less complex) iterative version, and vice versa.
Serial, parallel or distributed
Algorithms are usually discussed with the assumption that computers execute one
instruction of an algorithm at a time on serial computers. Serial algorithms are designed
for these environments, unlike parallel or distributed algorithms. Parallel algorithms take
advantage of computer architectures where multiple processors can work on a problem at
the same time. Distributed algorithms use multiple machines connected via a computer
network. Parallel and distributed algorithms divide the problem into subproblems and
collect the results back together. Resource consumption in these algorithms is not only
processor cycles on each processor but also the communication overhead between the
processors. Some sorting algorithms can be parallelized efficiently, but their
communication overhead is expensive. Iterative algorithms are generally parallelizable,
but some problems have no parallel algorithms and are called inherently serial problems.
Deterministic or non-deterministic
Deterministic algorithms solve the problem with exact decisions at every step; whereas
non-deterministic algorithms solve problems via guessing. Guesses are typically made
more accurate through the use of heuristics.
Exact or approximate
While many algorithms reach an exact solution, approximation algorithms seek an
approximation that is close to the true solution. Such algorithms have practical value for
many hard problems. For example, the Knapsack problem, where there is a set of items,
and the goal is to pack the knapsack to get the maximum total value. Each item has some
weight and some value. The total weight that can be carried is no more than some fixed
number X. So, the solution must consider the weights of items as well as their value.[52]
Quantum algorithm
Quantum algorithms run on a realistic model of quantum computation. The term is usually
used for those algorithms that seem inherently quantum or use some essential feature of
Quantum computing such as quantum superposition or quantum entanglement.
By design paradigm
Another way of classifying algorithms is by their design methodology or paradigm. Some common
paradigms are:

Brute-force or exhaustive search

Brute force is a problem-solving method of systematically trying every possible option until
the optimal solution is found. This approach can be very time-consuming, testing every
possible combination of variables. It is often used when other methods are unavailable or
too complex. Brute force can solve a variety of problems, including finding the shortest
path between two points and cracking passwords.
Divide and conquer
A divide-and-conquer algorithm repeatedly reduces a problem to one or more smaller
instances of itself (usually recursively) until the instances are small enough to solve easily.
Merge sorting is an example of divide and conquer, where an unordered list is repeatedly
split into smaller lists, which are sorted in the same way and then merged.[53] In a simpler
variant of divide and conquer called prune and search or decrease-and-conquer
algorithm, which solves one smaller instance of itself, and does not require a merge
step.[54] An example of a prune and search algorithm is the binary search algorithm.
Search and enumeration
Many problems (such as playing chess) can be modelled as problems on graphs. A graph
exploration algorithm specifies rules for moving around a graph and is useful for such
problems. This category also includes search algorithms, branch and bound enumeration,
and backtracking.
Randomized algorithm
Such algorithms make some choices randomly (or pseudo-randomly). They find
approximate solutions when finding exact solutions may be impractical (see heuristic
method below). For some problems, the fastest approximations must involve some
randomness.[55] Whether randomized algorithms with polynomial time complexity can be
the fastest algorithm for some problems is an open question known as the P versus NP
problem. There are two large classes of such algorithms:

1. Monte Carlo algorithms return a correct answer with high probability. E.g. RP is the subclass
of these that run in polynomial time.
2. Las Vegas algorithms always return the correct answer, but their running time is only
probabilistically bound, e.g. ZPP.

Reduction of complexity
This technique transforms difficult problems into better-known problems solvable with
(hopefully) asymptotically optimal algorithms. The goal is to find a reducing algorithm
whose complexity is not dominated by the resulting reduced algorithms. For example, one
selection algorithm finds the median of an unsorted list by first sorting the list (the
expensive portion), and then pulling out the middle element in the sorted list (the cheap
portion). This technique is also known as transform and conquer.
Back tracking
In this approach, multiple solutions are built incrementally and abandoned when it is
determined that they cannot lead to a valid full solution.

Optimization problems
For optimization problems there is a more specific classification of algorithms; an algorithm for such
problems may fall into one or more of the general categories described above as well as into one of the
following:
Linear programming
When searching for optimal solutions to a linear function bound by linear equality and
inequality constraints, the constraints can be used directly to produce optimal solutions.
There are algorithms that can solve any problem in this category, such as the popular
simplex algorithm.[56] Problems that can be solved with linear programming include the
maximum flow problem for directed graphs. If a problem also requires that any of the
unknowns be integers, then it is classified in integer programming. A linear programming
algorithm can solve such a problem if it can be proved that all restrictions for integer
values are superficial, i.e., the solutions satisfy these restrictions anyway. In the general
case, a specialized algorithm or an algorithm that finds approximate solutions is used,
depending on the difficulty of the problem.
Dynamic programming
When a problem shows optimal substructures—meaning the optimal solution can be
constructed from optimal solutions to subproblems—and overlapping subproblems,
meaning the same subproblems are used to solve many different problem instances, a
quicker approach called dynamic programming avoids recomputing solutions. For
example, Floyd–Warshall algorithm, the shortest path between a start and goal vertex in a
weighted graph can be found using the shortest path to the goal from all adjacent vertices.
Dynamic programming and memoization go together. Unlike divide and conquer, dynamic
programming subproblems often overlap. The difference between dynamic programming
and simple recursion is the caching or memoization of recursive calls. When subproblems
are independent and do not repeat, memoization does not help; hence dynamic
programming is not applicable to all complex problems. Using memoization dynamic
programming reduces the complexity of many problems from exponential to polynomial.
The greedy method
Greedy algorithms, similarly to a dynamic programming, work by examining substructures,
in this case not of the problem but of a given solution. Such algorithms start with some
solution and improve it by making small modifications. For some problems, they always
find the optimal solution but for others they may stop at local optima. The most popular
use of greedy algorithms is finding minimal spanning trees of graphs without negative
cycles. Huffman Tree, Kruskal, Prim, Sollin are greedy algorithms that can solve this
optimization problem.
The heuristic method
In optimization problems, heuristic algorithms find solutions close to the optimal solution
when finding the optimal solution is impractical. These algorithms get closer and closer to
the optimal solution as they progress. In principle, if run for an infinite amount of time, they
will find the optimal solution. They can ideally find a solution very close to the optimal
solution in a relatively short time. These algorithms include local search, tabu search,
simulated annealing, and genetic algorithms. Some, like simulated annealing, are non-
deterministic algorithms while others, like tabu search, are deterministic. When a bound
on the error of the non-optimal solution is known, the algorithm is further categorized as
an approximation algorithm.

Examples
One of the simplest algorithms finds the largest number in a list of numbers of random order. Finding the
solution requires looking at every number in the list. From this follows a simple algorithm, which can be
described in plain English as:

High-level description:

1. If a set of numbers is empty, then there is no highest number.

2. Assume the first number in the set is the largest.
 3. For each remaining number in the set: if this number is greater than the current largest, it
becomes the new largest.
4. When there are no unchecked numbers left in the set, consider the current largest number
to be the largest in the set.
(Quasi-)formal description: Written in prose but much closer to the high-level language of a computer
program, the following is the more formal coding of the algorithm in pseudocode or pidgin code:

Algorithm LargestNumber
Input: A list of numbers L.
Output: The largest number in the list L.

if L.size = 0 return null

largest ← L[0]
for each item in L, do
if item > largest, then
largest ← item
return largest

"←" denotes assignment. For instance, "largest ← item" means that the value of largest changes to the
value of item.
"return" terminates the algorithm and outputs the following value.

See also

Mathematics portal
Computer
programming portal

Abstract machine
ALGOL
Algorithm = Logic + Control
Algorithm aversion
Algorithm engineering
Algorithm characterizations
Algorithmic bias
Algorithmic composition
Algorithmic entities
Algorithmic synthesis
Algorithmic technique
Algorithmic topology
Computational mathematics
Garbage in, garbage out
Introduction to Algorithms (textbook)
Government by algorithm
List of algorithms
List of algorithm books
List of algorithm general topics
 Medium is the message
Regulation of algorithms
Theory of computation
Computability theory
Computational complexity theory

Notes
1. "Definition of ALGORITHM" (https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/algorithm).
Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2020021407444
6/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/algorithm) from the original on February 14,
2020. Retrieved November 14, 2019.
2. David A. Grossman, Ophir Frieder, Information Retrieval: Algorithms and Heuristics, 2nd
edition, 2004, ISBN 1402030045
3. "Any classical mathematical algorithm, for example, can be described in a finite number of
English words" (Rogers 1987:2).
4. Well defined concerning the agent that executes the algorithm: "There is a computing agent,
usually human, which can react to the instructions and carry out the computations" (Rogers
1987:2).
5. "an algorithm is a procedure for computing a function (concerning some chosen notation for
integers) ... this limitation (to numerical functions) results in no loss of generality", (Rogers
1987:1).
6. "An algorithm has zero or more inputs, i.e., quantities which are given to it initially before the
algorithm begins" (Knuth 1973:5).
7. "A procedure which has all the characteristics of an algorithm except that it possibly lacks
finiteness may be called a 'computational method' " (Knuth 1973:5).
8. "An algorithm has one or more outputs, i.e., quantities which have a specified relation to the
inputs" (Knuth 1973:5).
9. Whether or not a process with random interior processes (not including the input) is an
algorithm is debatable. Rogers opines that: "a computation is carried out in a discrete
stepwise fashion, without the use of continuous methods or analog devices ... carried
forward deterministically, without resort to random methods or devices, e.g., dice" (Rogers
1987:2).
10. Blair, Ann, Duguid, Paul, Goeing, Anja-Silvia and Grafton, Anthony. Information: A Historical
Companion, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2021. p. 247
11. "algorism" (https://www.oed.com/dictionary/algorism_n?tl=true). Oxford English Dictionary.
Retrieved May 18, 2025.
12. Chaucer, Geoffrey. "The Miller's Tale" (https://chaucer.fas.harvard.edu/pages/millers-prologu
e-and-tale). Line 3210.
13. Skeat, Walter William (1914). "agrim, agrum" (https://books.google.com/books?id=z58YAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA5). In Mayhew, Anthony Lawson (ed.). A Glossary of Tudor and Stuart Words:
Especially from the Dramatists. Clarendon Press. pp. 5–6.
14. Grabiner, Judith V. (December 2013). "The role of mathematics in liberal arts education". In
Matthews, Michael R. (ed.). International Handbook of Research in History, Philosophy and
Science Teaching. Springer. pp. 793–836. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-7654-8_25 (https://doi.or
g/10.1007%2F978-94-007-7654-8_25). ISBN 9789400776548.
15. "algorithm" (https://www.oed.com/dictionary/algorithm_n). Oxford English Dictionary.
Retrieved May 18, 2025.
16. Stone (1971), p. 8.
17. Simanowski, Roberto (2018). The Death Algorithm and Other Digital Dilemmas (https://book
s.google.com/books?id=RJV5DwAAQBAJ). Untimely Meditations. Vol. 14. Translated by
Chase, Jefferson. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. p. 147. ISBN 9780262536370.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20191222120705/https://books.google.com/books?id
=RJV5DwAAQBAJ) from the original on December 22, 2019. Retrieved May 27, 2019. "[...]
the next level of abstraction of central bureaucracy: globally operating algorithms."
18. Dietrich, Eric (1999). "Algorithm". In Wilson, Robert Andrew; Keil, Frank C. (eds.). The MIT
Encyclopedia of the Cognitive Sciences (https://books.google.com/books?id=-wt1aZrGXLY
C). MIT Cognet library. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press (published 2001). p. 11.
ISBN 9780262731447. Retrieved July 22, 2020. "An algorithm is a recipe, method, or
technique for doing something."
19. Stone requires that "it must terminate in a finite number of steps" (Stone 1973:7–8).
20. Boolos and Jeffrey 1974, 1999:19
21. Chabert, Jean-Luc (2012). A History of Algorithms: From the Pebble to the Microchip.
Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 7–8. ISBN 9783642181924.
22. Sriram, M. S. (2005). "Algorithms in Indian Mathematics" (https://books.google.com/books?i
d=qfJdDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA153). In Emch, Gerard G.; Sridharan, R.; Srinivas, M. D. (eds.).
Contributions to the History of Indian Mathematics. Springer. p. 153. ISBN 978-93-86279-
25-5.
23. Hayashi, T. (2023, January 1). Brahmagupta (https://www.britannica.com/biography/Brahma
gupta). Encyclopedia Britannica.
24. Zaslavsky, Claudia (1970). "Mathematics of the Yoruba People and of Their Neighbors in
Southern Nigeria" (https://www.jstor.org/stable/3027363). The Two-Year College
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63). ISSN 0049-4925 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0049-4925). JSTOR 3027363 (https://
www.jstor.org/stable/3027363).
25. Cooke, Roger L. (2005). The History of Mathematics: A Brief Course. John Wiley & Sons.
ISBN 978-1-118-46029-0.
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original on October 9, 2022.
Scott, Michael L. (2009). Programming Language Pragmatics (3rd ed.). Morgan Kaufmann
Publishers/Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-12-374514-9.
Sipser, Michael (2006). Introduction to the Theory of Computation (https://archive.org/detail
s/introductiontoth00sips). PWS Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-534-94728-6.
Sober, Elliott; Wilson, David Sloan (1998). Unto Others: The Evolution and Psychology of
Unselfish Behavior (https://archive.org/details/untoothersevolut00sobe). Cambridge:
Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674930469.
Stone, Harold S. (1971). Introduction to Computer Organization and Data Structures.
McGraw-Hill, New York. ISBN 9780070617261. Cf. in particular the first chapter titled:
Algorithms, Turing Machines, and Programs. His succinct informal definition: "...any
sequence of instructions that can be obeyed by a robot, is called an algorithm" (p. 4).
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Methods. Englewood Cliffs NJ: Prentice–Hall, Inc. ISBN 978-0-13-842195-3.
Turing, Alan M. (1936–37). "On Computable Numbers, With An Application to the
Entscheidungsproblem". Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society. Series 2. 42:
230–265. doi:10.1112/plms/s2-42.1.230 (https://doi.org/10.1112%2Fplms%2Fs2-42.1.230).
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Mathematical Society. 45: 161–228. doi:10.1112/plms/s2-45.1.161 (https://doi.org/10.1112%
2Fplms%2Fs2-45.1.161). hdl:21.11116/0000-0001-91CE-3 (https://hdl.handle.net/21.1111
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Further reading
Bellah, Robert Neelly (1985). Habits of the Heart: Individualism and Commitment in
American Life (https://books.google.com/books?id=XsUojihVZQcC). Berkeley: University of
California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-25419-0.
Berlinski, David (2001). The Advent of the Algorithm: The 300-Year Journey from an Idea to
the Computer (https://archive.org/details/adventofalgorith0000berl). Harvest Books.
ISBN 978-0-15-601391-8.
Chabert, Jean-Luc (1999). A History of Algorithms: From the Pebble to the Microchip.
Springer Verlag. ISBN 978-3-540-63369-3.
Thomas H. Cormen; Charles E. Leiserson; Ronald L. Rivest; Clifford Stein (2009).
Introduction To Algorithms (3rd ed.). MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-03384-8.
 Harel, David; Feldman, Yishai (2004). Algorithmics: The Spirit of Computing. Addison-
Wesley. ISBN 978-0-321-11784-7.
Hertzke, Allen D.; McRorie, Chris (1998). "The Concept of Moral Ecology". In Lawler, Peter
Augustine; McConkey, Dale (eds.). Community and Political Thought Today. Westport, CT:
Praeger.
Jon Kleinberg, Éva Tardos(2006): Algorithm Design, Pearson/Addison-Wesley, ISBN 978-0-
32129535-4
Knuth, Donald E. (2000). Selected Papers on Analysis of Algorithms (http://www-cs-faculty.s
tanford.edu/~uno/aa.html) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170701190647/http://ww
w-cs-faculty.stanford.edu/~uno/aa.html) July 1, 2017, at the Wayback Machine. Stanford,
California: Center for the Study of Language and Information.
Knuth, Donald E. (2010). Selected Papers on Design of Algorithms (http://www-cs-faculty.st
anford.edu/~uno/da.html) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170716225848/http://ww
w-cs-faculty.stanford.edu/~uno/da.html) July 16, 2017, at the Wayback Machine. Stanford,
California: Center for the Study of Language and Information.
Wallach, Wendell; Allen, Colin (November 2008). Moral Machines: Teaching Robots Right
from Wrong. US: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537404-9.
Bleakley, Chris (2020). Poems that Solve Puzzles: The History and Science of Algorithms (h
ttps://books.google.com/books?id=3pr5DwAAQBAJ). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-
19-885373-2.

External links
"Algorithm" (https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/index.php?title=Algorithm). Encyclopedia
of Mathematics. EMS Press. 2001 [1994].
Weisstein, Eric W. "Algorithm" (https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Algorithm.html). MathWorld.
Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures (https://www.nist.gov/dads/) – National Institute
of Standards and Technology

Algorithm repositories

The Stony Brook Algorithm Repository (http://www.cs.sunysb.edu/~algorith/) – State

University of New York at Stony Brook
Collected Algorithms of the ACM (http://calgo.acm.org/) – Associations for Computing
Machinery
The Stanford GraphBase (http://www-cs-staff.stanford.edu/~knuth/sgb.html) Archived (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20151206222112/http://www-cs-staff.stanford.edu/%7Eknuth/sgb.ht
ml) December 6, 2015, at the Wayback Machine – Stanford University

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