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Structural Mechanics
Fundamentals

Alberto Carpinteri

© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
A SPON BOOK
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2014 by Alberto Carpinteri
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

No claim to original U.S. Government works

Printed on acid-free paper

Version Date: 20130514

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-415-58032-8 (Paperback)

This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been
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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data

Carpinteri, A.
Structural mechanics fundamentals / author, Alberto Carpinteri.
pages cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-415-58032-8 (pbk.)
1. Structural engineering. I. Title.

TA633.C354 2013
624.1’7--dc23 2012037625

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To my family

© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Contents

Preface ix
Acknowledgements xi
Author xiii

1 Introduction 1

2 Geometry of areas 23

3 Kinematics and statics of rigid body systems 55

4 Determination of constraint reactions 95

5 Internal beam reactions 125

6 Statically determinate beam systems 159

7 Analysis of strain and stress 191

8 Theory of elasticity 219

9 Saint Venant problem 257

10 Beams and plates in flexure 313

11 Statically indeterminate beam systems: Method of forces 365

12 Energy methods for the solution of beam systems 395

© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC vii

viii Contents

Appendix A: C alculation of the internal reactions in a circular arch

subjected to a radial hydrostatic load 449
Appendix B: C
 alculation of the internal reactions in a circular arch
subjected to a uniformly distributed vertical load 455
Appendix C: Anisotropic material 461
Appendix D: Heterogeneous beam 473
Appendix E: Heterogeneous plate 479
Appendix F: Finite difference method 483
Appendix G: Torsion of multiply connected thin-walled cross sections 487

© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Preface

This book intends to provide a complete and uniform treatment of the most fundamental
and traditional topics in structural mechanics. It represents the second edition of a sub-
stantial part (12 chapters over 20) of my previous book Structural Mechanics: A Unified
Approach, published in 1997 by E & FN SPON, an imprint of Chapman & Hall.
After introducing the basic topics of the geometry of areas and of kinematics and statics
of rigid body systems, the mechanics of linear elastic solids (beams, plates and 3-D solids) is
presented, adopting a matrix formulation which is particularly useful for numerical appli-
cations. The analysis of strain and stress around a material point is carried out considering
the tensorial character of these physical quantities. The linear elastic constitutive law is then
introduced, with the related Clapeyron’s and Betti’s theorems. The kinematic, static and con-
stitutive equations, once composed within the elastic problem, provide an operator equation
which has as its unknown the generalized displacement vector. Moreover, constant reference
is made to duality, that is to the strict correspondence between statics and kinematics that
emerges as soon as the corresponding operators are rendered explicit, and it is at once seen
how each of these is the adjoint of the other. The implication of the principle of virtual work
by the static–kinematic duality is emphasized, as well as the inverse implication. Once intro-
duced the Saint Venant problem with all the six elementary loading characteristics, the theory
of beam systems (statically determinate or indeterminate) is presented, with the solution of
numerous examples and the plotting of the corresponding diagrams of axial force, shearing
force and bending moment obtained both analytically and graphically. For the examination
of indeterminate beam systems, both the methods of forces and energy are applied.
This book is the fruit of many years of teaching in Italian universities, formerly at the
University of Bologna and currently at the Politecnico di Torino, where I have been professor
of structural mechanics since 1986. It has been written to be used as a text for graduate or
undergraduate students of either architecture or engineering, as well as to serve as a useful
reference for research workers and practising engineers. It has been my endeavour to update
and modernize a basic, and in some respects dated, discipline by merging classical topics
with ones that have taken shape in more recent times.
Finally, I wish to express my most sincere gratitude to all those colleagues, collaborators
and students, who, having attended my lectures or having read the original manuscript,
have, with their suggestions and comments, contributed to the text as it appears in its defini-
tive form. I further wish to thank my master’s student, Francesco Armenti, for helping me
with the proof corrections and Dr. Amedeo Manuello for his precious advice in realizing
the front cover.

Alberto Carpinteri
Torino, Italy

© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC ix

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank the following Colleagues for their teaching activity according to
the contents of the present volume, and for their attentive revision of some chapters of it:
Giulio Ventura, Giuseppe Lacidogna, Stefano Invernizzi, Pietro Cornetti, Marco Paggi,
Amedeo Manuello, Mauro Corrado, Alberto Sapora; as well as the following Ph.D.
Students: Gianfranco Piana, Sandro Cammarano, Federico Accornero.

© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC xi

Author

Alberto Carpinteri received his doctoral degrees in nuclear engineering cum laude (1976)
and mathematics cum laude (1981) from the University of Bologna (Italy). After two years
at the Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, he was appointed assistant professor at the
University of Bologna in 1980.
Carpinteri moved to the Politecnico di Torino in 1986 as professor and became the chair
of solid and structural mechanics and the director of the Fracture Mechanics Laboratory.
During this period, he held different positions of responsibility, including head of the
Department of Structural Engineering (1989–1995) and founding member and director of
the Post-graduate School of Structural Engineering (1990–).
Prof. Carpinteri was a visiting scientist at Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania
(1982–1983), and was appointed a fellow of several academies and professional institu-
tions, including the European Academy of Sciences (2009–), the International Academy of
Engineering (2010–), the Turin Academy of Sciences (2005–) and the American Society of
Civil Engineers (1996–).
Prof. Carpinteri was the president of various scientific associations and research institu-
tions, as follows: the International Congress on Fracture, ICF (2009–2013); the European
Structural Integrity Society, ESIS (2002–2006); the International Association of Fracture
Mechanics for Concrete and Concrete Structures, IA-FraMCoS (2004–2007); the Italian
Group of Fracture, IGF (1998–2005); and the National Research Institute of Metrology,
INRIM (2011–2013). He was appointed a member of the Congress Committee of the
International Union of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics, IUTAM (2004–2012); a mem-
ber of the executive board of the Society for Experimental Mechanics, SEM (2012–2014);
a member of the editorial board of 13 international journals; and the editor in chief of the
journal Meccanica (Springer, IF = 1.568). He is also the author or editor of over 750 publica-
tions, of which more than 300 are papers in refereed international journals (ISI h-Index =
31, more than 3800 citations) and 43 are books.
Prof. Carpinteri has received numerous honours and awards, as follows: the Robert
L’Hermite Medal from RILEM (1982), the Griffith Medal from ESIS (2008), the Swedlow
Memorial Lecture Award from ASTM (2011) and the Inaugural Paul Paris Gold Medal
from ICF (2013), among others.

© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC xiii

Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 PRELIMINARY REMARKS

Structural mechanics is the science that studies the structural response of solid bodies
subjected to external loading. The structural response takes the form of strains and
internal stresses.
The variation of shape generally involves relative and absolute displacements of the points
of the body. The simplest case that can be envisaged is that of a string, one end of which
is held firm while a tensile load is applied to the other end. The percentage lengthening or
stretching of the string naturally implies a displacement, albeit small, of the end where
the force is exerted. Likewise, a membrane, stretched by a system of balanced forces, will
dilate in two dimensions, and its points will undergo relative and absolute displacements.
Also three-dimensional bodies, when subjected to stress by a system of balanced forces,
undergo, point by point and direction by direction, a dilation or a contraction, as well as
an angular distortion. Similarly, beams and horizontal plates bend, imposing a certain cur-
vature, respectively, to their axes and to their middle planes, and differentiated deflections
to their points.
As regards internal stresses, these can be considered as exchanged between the single
(even infinitesimal) parts which make up the body. In the case of the string, the tension is
transmitted continuously from the end on which the force is applied right up to the point of
constraint. Each elementary segment is thus subject to two equal and opposite forces exerted
by the contiguous segments. Likewise, each elementary part of a membrane will be subject
to four mutually perpendicular forces, two equal and opposite pairs. In three-dimensional
bodies, each elementary part is subject to normal and tangential forces. The former gener-
ate dilations and contractions, whilst the latter produce angular distortions. Finally, each
element of beam or plate that is bent is subject to self-balanced pairs of moments.
In addition to the shape and properties of the body, it is the external loading applied and
the constraints imposed that determine the structural response. The constraints react to the
external loads, exerting on the body additional loads called constraint reactions. These reac-
tions are a priori unknown. In the case where the constraints are not redundant from the
kinematic point of view, the calculation of the constraint reactions can be made considering
the body as being perfectly rigid and applying only the cardinal equations of statics. In the
alternative case where the constraints are redundant, the calculation of the constraint reac-
tions requires, in addition to equations of equilibrium, the so-called equations of congruence.
These equations are obtained by eliminating the redundant constraints, replacing them with
the constraint reactions exerted by them and imposing the abeyance of the constraints that
have been eliminated. The procedure presupposes that the strains and displacements, pro-
duced both by the external loading and by the reactions of the constraints that have been
eliminated, are known. A simple example may suffice to illustrate these concepts.

© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 1

2 Structural mechanics fundamentals

X = 2F

l l

Figure 1.1

Let us consider a bar hinged at point A and supported at point B, subjected to the end
force F (Figure 1.1). The reaction X produced by the support B is obtained by imposing
equilibrium with regard to rotation about hinge A:

F(2l)= X l⇒ X = 2F (1.1)

The equation of equilibrium with regard to vertical translation provides, on the other hand,
the reaction of hinge A. The problem is thus statically determinate or isostatic.
Let us now consider the same bar hinged, not only at A but also at two points B1 and B2 ,
distant 23 l and 43 l, respectively, from point A (Figure 1.2a). The condition of equilibrium
with regard to rotation gives us an equation with two unknowns:

2 4
F ( 2l) + X 1 l= X 2 l (1.2)
3 3

Thus, the pairs of reactions X1 and X 2 which ensure rotational equilibrium are infinite, but
only one of these also ensures congruence, i.e. abeyance of the conditions of constraint. The
vertical displacement in both B1 and B2 must in fact be zero.
To determine the constraint reactions, we thus proceed to eliminate one of the two
hinges B1 or B 2 , for example, B1, and we find out how much point B1 rises owing to the
external force F (Figure 1.2b) and how much it drops owing to the unknown reaction X1
(Figure 1.2c). The condition of congruence consists of putting the total displacement of B1
equal to zero:

υ(F)= υ(X 1) (1.3)

The equation of equilibrium (1.2) and the equation of congruence (1.3) together solve the
problem, which is said to be statically indeterminate or hyperstatic.

© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

 Introduction 3

B1 B2
A

X1 X2

2l/3 2l/3 2l/3

(a)

υ(F)
(b)

υ(X1)

X1

(c)

Figure 1.2

1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS

As has already been mentioned in the preliminary remarks, the structural elements which
combine to make up the load-bearing structures of civil and industrial constructions, as well
as any naturally occurring structure such as rock masses, plants or skeletons, can fit into one
of three distinct categories:

1. One-dimensional elements (e.g. ropes, struts, beams, arches)

2. Two-dimensional elements (e.g. membranes, plates, slabs, vaults, shells)
3. Three-dimensional elements (stubby solids)

In the case of one-dimensional elements, for example, beams (Figure 1.3), one of the three
dimensions, the length, is much larger than the other two which compose the cross section.
Hence, it is possible to neglect the latter two dimensions and consider the entire element as
concentrated along the line forming its centroidal axis. In our calculations, features which

© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

4 Structural mechanics fundamentals

X G b
l >> a
l >> b

Y
a

Figure 1.3

represent the geometry of the cross section and, consequently, the three dimensionality of
the element will thus be used. Ropes are elements devoid of flexural and compressive stiff-
ness and are able only to bear states of tensile stress. Bars, however, present a high axial
stiffness, both in compression (struts) and in tension (tie rods), whilst their flexural stiffness
is poor. Beams and, more generally, arches (or curvilinear beams) also present a high degree
of flexural stiffness, provided that materials having particularly high tensile strength are
used. In the case of stone materials and concrete, which present very low tensile strength,
straight beams are reinforced to stand up to bending stresses, whilst arches are traditionally
shaped so that only internal compressive stresses are produced.
When, in the cross section of a beam, one dimension is clearly smaller than the others
(Figure 1.4), the beam is said to be thin walled. Beams of this sort can be easily produced by
rolling or welding metal plate and prove to be extremely efficient from the point of view of
the ratio of flexural strength to the amount of material employed.
In the case of two-dimensional elements, for example, flat plates (Figure 1.5a) or plates
with double curvature (Figure 1.5b), one of the three dimensions, the thickness, is much
smaller than the other two, which compose the middle surface. It is thus possible to neglect
the thickness and to consider the entire element as being concentrated in its middle surface.
Membranes are elements devoid of flexural and compressive stiffness and are able to with-
stand only states of biaxial traction. Also plates that are of a small thickness present a low
flexural stiffness and are able to bear loads only in their middle plane. Thick plates (also
referred to as slabs), instead, also withstand bending stresses, provided that materials having
particularly high tensile strength are used. In the case of stone materials and concrete, flat
plates are, on the other hand, ribbed and reinforced, while vaults and domes are traditionally
shaped so that only internal compressive stresses are produced (for instance, in arched dams).
Finally, in the case of so-called stubby solids, the three dimensions are all comparable to
one another and hence the analysis of the state of strain and internal stress must be three
dimensional, without any particular simplifications or approximations.

© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

 Introduction 5

l >> a l >> a
l >> b l >> b

l l

δ
b b

δ << a δ << a
δ << b a δ << b a

(a) (b)

Figure 1.4

δ
b

a b

(a) (b)

Figure 1.5

1.3 STRUCTURAL TYPES

The single structural elements, introduced in the previous section, are combined to form
load-bearing structures. Usually, for buildings of a civil type, one-dimensional and two-
dimensional elements are connected together. The characteristics of the individual elements
and the way in which they are connected one to another and to the ground together define
the structural type, which can be extremely varied, according to the purposes for which the
building is designed.
In many cases, the two-dimensional elements do not have a load-bearing function (e.g.
the walls of buildings in reinforced concrete), and hence it is necessary to highlight graphi-
cally and calculate only the so-called framework, made up exclusively of one-dimensional
elements. This framework, according to the type of constraint which links together the vari-
ous beams, will then be said to be trussed or framed. In the former case, the calculation is
made by inserting hinges which connect the beams together, whereas in the latter case the
beams are considered as built into one another. In real situations, however, beams are never
connected by frictionless hinges or with perfectly rigid joints. Figures 1.6 through 1.11 show
some examples of load-bearing frameworks: a timber-beam bridge, a truss in reinforced
concrete, an arch centre, a plane steel frame, a grid and a three-dimensional frame.

© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

6 Structural mechanics fundamentals

Figure 1.6

Figure 1.7

Figure 1.8

© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

 Introduction 7

I 45 Diff. I 40 Diff.

5.00
I 32 Diff.

I 32 Diff.
I 55 Diff. I 47 1 Diff.
2

4.50
21.44

I 47 1 Diff. I 55 I Diff.
2

4.00
21.78
7.57 4.00 7.57

Figure 1.9

Figure 1.10

Also in the case of bridges, it is usually possible to identify a load-bearing structure

consisting of one-dimensional elements. The road surface of an arch bridge is supported
by a parabolic beam which is subject to compression and, if well designed, is devoid of
dangerous internal flexural stresses. The road surface can be built to rest above the arch
by means of struts (Figure 1.12) or can be suspended beneath the arch by means of tie rods
(Figure 1.13). Inverting the static scheme and using a primary load-bearing element subject
exclusively to tensile stress, we arrive at the structure of suspension bridges (Figure 1.14).
In these, the road surface hangs from a parabolic cable by means of tie rods. The cable is,
of course, able to withstand only tensile stresses, which are, however, transmitted onto two
compressed piers.

© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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