Week 4: Current, Voltage and Resistance; Ohms (b) the number of electrons that pass through the

Law, and Analysis of D.C Circuit filament in 1 𝑠.

1.0 Electric Current Solution

Imagine a small area held normal to the direction of ∆q 1.67

(a) 𝐼= = = 0.835 𝐴
∆t 2
flow of charges. Both the positive and the negative
charges may flow forward and backward across the (b) 0.835 𝐴 = 0.835 Cs −1 (i. e. 0.835 C of charge

area. In a given time interval t, let q+ be the net must pass through the filament in 1 s.

amount (i.e. forward minus backward) of positive Q(total charge passing through the filament)
= No. of electrons (N) × charge on single electron (q)

charge that flows in the forward direction across the

N = Qq = 0.835 × 1.6 × 10−19
area. Similarly, let q– be the net amount of negative
= 5. 22 × 10−18 electrons
charge flowing across the area in the forward
direction. The net amount of charge flowing across
the area in the forward direction in the time interval
1.1 Electron Drift Velocity (𝐯𝐝 )
t, then, is q = q+– q–.
Electric current can be related to the number density
The electric current is therefore defined as the net
of electrons in a conductor and the speed with which
rate of charge flow, or the net charge flow per unit
they move by.
time. Thus, if a net charge Δq flows through a
conductor in time Δ𝑡, the electric current (I) is given Suppose that in a conductor (Fig 1), the number of

by; free electrons available per m3 of the conductor

material is n and let their axial drift velocity be vd
∆q
I= − − − − − − − − − −(1) (ms −1 ). In time dt, distance travelled would be v dt.
∆t
If A is area of cross-section of the conductor, then the
The unit of current is coulomb per second (C/s), we
volume is vd dt and the number of electrons
define this combination of units as the Ampere.
contained in this volume is vA dt.
C
1 Ampere = 1 A = 1
s

Example 1: The amount of charge that passes

through the filament of a certain light bulb in 2 𝑠 is
1.67 𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑠. Find

(a) the current in the light bulb and

Fig. 1: Uniform Conductor of Cross-Sectional Area

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Obviously, all these electrons will cross the I 20
J= = = 2.55 × 105 Am−1
conductor cross-section in time dt. If 𝑞 is the charge A 7.85 × 10−5

of each electron, then total charge which crosses the Example 3: A conductor material has a free-electron
section in time dt is given by density of 1024 electrons per m3 . When a voltage is
applied, a constant drift velocity of 1.5 × 10−2 ms −1
dq = nAqvd dt − − − − − − − − − −(2)
is attained by the electrons. If the cross-sectional area
Since current is the rate of flow of charge, it is given of the material is 1 cm2 , calculate the magnitude of
as the current. (Electronic charge = 1.6 × 10−19 C)
dq nAqvd dt
I= = = nAqvd − − − − − − − (3) Solution:
dt dt
Given that n = 1024 ; A = 1 cm2 = 10−4 m2 ; e =
1.6 × 10−19 C; and vd = 1.5 × 10−2 ms −1
1.2 Current Density J
I = nAevd = 1024 × 10−4 × 1.6 × 10−19 × 1.5
Current density 𝐽 is the current per unit area of cross × 10−2
section. It is a vector whose magnitude is the electric
I = 0.24 A
current per cross-sectional area at a given point in
space.

Thus, 2.0 Potential Difference (V)

The word potential means the electric state of a body.

I nAevd
J= = = nevd − − − − − − − − − −(4) Therefore, potential difference is the difference
A A
between two points or bodies as regards their electric
The unit of current density is Ampere per square
state. It is the work done in taking a unit of charge
meter (Am−2 ).
from one point to another in the electric field. The
Example 2: A wire of diameter 10 mm carries a unit of potential or potential difference is Volt.
current of 20 A. What is the current density in the
wire?
3.0 Resistance (R)
Solution:
Resistance may be defined as the property of a
πd2 0.012 π
Given that A = = = 7.85 × 10−5 m2 ; and substance due to which it opposes (or restricts) the
4 4

I = 20 A flow of electricity (i.e., electrons) through it.

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Metals (as a class), acids and salts solutions are good 3.2 Laws of Resistance
conductors of electricity. Amongst pure metals,
The resistance R offered by a conductor depends on
silver, copper and aluminium are very good
the following factors :
conductors in the given order. This is due to the
presence of a large number of free or loosely- i. It varies directly as its length, l.

attached electrons in their atoms. ii. It varies inversely as the cross-section A

Those substances which offer relatively greater of the conductor.

difficulty or hindrance to the passage of these iii. It depends on the nature of the material.
electrons are said to be relatively poor conductors of
iv. It also depends on the temperature of the
electricity like bakelite, mica, glass, rubber, p.v.c.
conductor.
(polyvinyl chloride) and dry wood etc.

3.1 Unit of Resistance

The practical unit of resistance is Ohm. A conductor

is said to have a resistance of one Ohm if it permits
one Ampere of current to flow through it when one
Volt is impressed across its terminals. The symbol Fig. 2: Variation of Resistance with Length
for Ohm is Ω. and Area

Multiple and submultiples of Ohms are; Neglecting the last factor, we can say that

l l
Prefix Meaning Abbreviation Interpretation Rα or R = ρ − − − − − − − − − −(5)
A A
Mega- One MΩ 106 Ω
Where ρ is a constant depending on the nature of the
million
material of the conductor and is known as its specific
Kilo- One kΩ 103 Ω
resistance or resistivity whose SI unit is Ωm.
thousand

Milli- One mΩ 10−3 Ω If in Eq. (5), we put l = 1 m and A = 1 m2 , then R =

thousandth ρ.
Micro- One μΩ 10−6 Ω
millionth

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Example 1: A coil consists of 2000 turns of copper i. directly on its initial resistance i.e. ΔR α R 0
wire having a cross-sectional area of 0.8 mm2 . The ii. directly on the rise in temperature i.e. ΔR α t,
mean length per turn is 80 cm and the resistivity of t = T − T0
copper is 0.02 μΩm. Find the resistance of the coil. iii. on the nature of the material of the conductor.

l = 0.8 × 2000 = 1600 m; A = 0.8 mm2 ΔR = R t − R 0 = αR 0 t − − − − − (7)

= 0.8 × 10−6 m2
Where α is a constant and it is known as the
l 0.02 × 10−6 × 1600 temperature coefficient of resistance of the
R=ρ = = 40 Ω
A 0.8 × 10−6 conductor.

R t − R 0 ΔR
α= = − − − − − − − − − −(8)
R0t R0t
3.3 Conductance and Conductivity
Hence, the temperature-coefficient of a material may
Conductance (G) is reciprocal of resistance. Whereas
be defined as the increase in resistance per ohm
resistance of a conductor measures the opposition
original resistance per °C rise in temperature.
which it offers to the flow of current, the conductance
measures the inducement which it offers to its flow. From Eq. (8), we find that R t = R 0 [1 + α(T − T0 )]

From Eq. (5), Example 2: The resistance of a field coil measures

l 1A σA 55 Ω at 250 C and 65 Ω at 750 C. Find the

R = ρ A or G = ρ l = − − − − − − − − − −(6)
l
temperature coefficient of the conductor at 00 C.z
where σ is called the conductivity or specific Solution:
conductance of a conductor. The unit of conductance
R t = R 0 [1 + α(T − T0 )]
is siemens (S). Hence, the unit of conductivity is
R 25 = R 0 [1 + 25α] − − − − − − − − − −(1)
Siemens/metre (Sm−1).
R 75 = R 0 [1 + 75α] − − − − − − − − − −(2)
3.4 Effect of Temperature on Resistance
55 = R 0 [1 + 25α] − − − − − − − − − −(3)
Let a metallic conductor having a resistance of R 0 at
00 C be heated to t 0 C and let its resistance at this 65 = R 0 [1 + 75α] − − − − − − − − − −(4)
temperature be R t . Then, considering normal ranges
Dividing Eq. (4) by Eq. (3) and solving
of temperature, it is found that the increase in
resistance ΔR = R t − R 0 depends 65 R 0 [1 + 75α]
=
55 R 0 [1 + 25α]

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 65 + 1625α = 55 + 4125α resistance between points A and D is equal to the sum
of the three individual resistances.
2500α = 10

10
α= = 0.004 0 C−1
2500

4.0 Ohms Law

This law applies to electric conduction through good

conductors and may be stated as follows;
Fig. 3: Resistance in Series
“The ratio of potential difference (V) between any
Being a series circuit, it should be remembered that
two points on a conductor to the current (I) flowing
between them is a constant, provided the temperature i. Current (I) is the same through all the three
of the conductor does not change”. conductors
V V ii. Voltage drop across each is different due to
= Constant or = R − − − − − − − − − −(9)
I I
its different resistance and is given by Ohm’s
Where R is the resistance of the conductor between Law
the two points considered. iii. Sum of the three voltage drops is equal to the
voltage applied across the three conductors.
In other way, the current is directly proportional to
V = V1 + V2 + V3
the potential difference across the ends of a
= IR1 + IR 2 + IR 3 − −(10)
conductor. However, this linear relationship between
V and I does not apply to all non-metallic conductors But V = IR, where R is the equivalent resistance of
like diode and transistors. the series combination.

5.0 Arrangement of Resistors IR = IR1 + IR 2 + IR 3 = I(R1 + R 2 + R 3 )

5.1 Resistance in Series R = R1 + R 2 + R 3 − − − − − − − − − −(11)

When some conductors having resistances R1 , R 2 Also,

and R 3 etc. are joined end-on-end as in Fig. 3 below,
1 1 1 1
they are said to be connected in series. It can be = + + − − − − − − − − − −(12)
G G1 G2 G3
proved that the equivalent resistance or total

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5.2 Resistance in Parallel 6.0 Cells, 𝐄𝐌𝐅, and Internal Resistance

Three resistances, as joined in Fig. 4 are said to A cell is a device that converts chemical energy into
be connected in parallel. electrical energy. Basically a cell has two electrodes,
called the positive (Anode, P) and the negative
(Cathode, N). They are immersed in an electrolytic
solution. Dipped in the solution, the electrodes
exchange charges with the electrolyte. The positive
electrode has a potential difference V+ (V+ > 0)
between itself and the electrolyte solution.

Similarly, the negative electrode develops a negative

Fig. 4: Resistors in Parallel
potential −V− (V− ≥ 0) relative to the electrolyte.

In this case, When there is no current, the electrolyte has the same
potential throughout, so that the potential difference
i. p.d. across all resistances is the same
between the anode and cathode is;
ii. current in each resistor is different and is
given by Ohm’s Law and V+ − (−V− ) = V+ + V− .

iii. the total current is the sum of the three This difference is called the electromotive force
separate currents. (emf) of the cell and is denoted by ε. Thus

I = I1 + I2 + I3 ε = V+ + V− > 0 − − − − − − − − − −(16)
V V V
= + + − − − − − −(13) Consider a resistor R connected across a cell (Fig. 5).
R1 R 2 R 3
A current I flows across R from C to D. A steady
V
Now, I = R, where V is the applied voltage and R is
current is maintained because current flows from N
the equivalent resistance in parallel combination. to P through the electrolyte. Clearly, across the

V V V V 1 1 1 electrolyte the same current flows through the

= + + =V [ + + ]
R R1 R 2 R 3 R1 R 2 R 3 electrolyte but from N to P, whereas through R, it
flows from P to N. The electrolyte through which a
1 1 1 1
= + + − − − − − − − − − −(14) current flows has a finite resistance r, called the
R R1 R 2 R 3
Internal resistance.
Also,

G = G1 + G2 + G3 − − − − − − − − − −(15)

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 Fig. 5: Internal resistance of a Cell
Fig. 6: Series and Parallel Arrangement of Cells

Internal resistance 𝑟, of a cell is the opposition to Example 1: The filament of a light bulb has a
current flow offered by the chemicals between the resistance of 580 Ω . A voltage of 120 V is connected
poles of the cell. across the filament. How much current is in the
filament?
Using Ohm’s law,
Solution
ε = I(R + r) − − − − − − − − − −(17)
V 120
I= = = 0.21 A
R 580
6.1 Arrangement of Cells Example 2: A 36 Ω resistor and a 18 Ω resistor are
The total e.m.f. of the cells arranged in series is equal connected in series across a 15 V battery. What is the
to the sum of the individual e.m.f. of each cell as voltage across each resistor?
shown below (Fig. 6). Solution
ε = ε1 + ε2 + ε3 − − − − − − − − − −(18) The equivalent resistance is the sum of the two:
The internal resistance of the series arrangement is R = R1 + R 2 = 36 + 18 = 54 Ω
the sum of the internal resistance of each cell as
V 15
shown below. Ohm’s law gives the current I: I = = = 0.278 A
R 54

r = r1 + r2 + r3 − − − − − − − − − −(19) This is the current which goes through each resistor.

If each cell has an e.m.f. ε, the net e.m.f. of the Using Ohm’s law we can find the voltage (potential
parallel arrangement is also ε that of a single cell. difference) across each resistor:

V36 = IR 36 = 0.278 × 36 = 10 V

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 V18 = IR18 = 0.278 × 18 = 5 V The sum of potential drops equals the sum of
potential riseths, or more simply with signs properly
given to all potential differences, the sum of
7.0 Kirchhoff’s Law potential differences is zero.

A circuit (Fig. 7) may consist of several resistors

∑ Δ𝑉𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 = 0 − − − − − − − − − −(20)
and several cells arranged in a combination which
cannot be interpreted as a simple parallel or series To apply Kirchhoff’s Rules to a circuit, assign a
arrangement. current (with magnitude and direction) to each
branch in the circuit. Then after choosing a
particular loop and a direction in which to go
around that loop, use the potential differences given
by:

a. If you go across a resistor in the direction of

the current I, the potential change is −IR
Fig. 7: Typical Special Arrangement of Resistors and (that is, this is a voltage drop). (Fig. 8a)
Cells
b. If you go across a resistor in the direction

Two important rules, known as Kirchhoff’s Rules opposite that of the current I, the potential

are used for analyzing such circuit. change is +IR (that is, this is a potential
gain). (Fig. 8b)
Junction Rule: Consider a place where several
c. If you go from the − terminal to the +
wires meet— a junction.
terminal of a battery of voltage V, the
At any node (junction) in an electrical circuit, the potential difference is +V. (Fig. 8c)
sum of currents flowing into that node is equal to d. If you go from the + terminal to the −
the sum of currents flowing out of that node, or: terminal of a battery of voltage V, the
The algebraic sum of currents in a network of potential difference is –V. (Fig. 8d)
conductors meeting at a point is zero.
Note: If a current turns out to be negative; its

∑ 𝐼𝑖𝑛 = ∑ 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 − − − − − − − − − −(19) magnitude will be correct and the direction is

opposite to that which you assigned
Loop Rule: Consider any loop (any closed path
going through circuit element) in the circuit.

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 Loop 1: 10 − 𝐼1 𝑅1 − 𝐼3 𝑅3 = 0

Loop 2: 20 − 𝐼2 𝑅2 − 𝐼3 𝑅3 = 0

By substitution, the answer can be shown to be 𝐼1 =

−0.143 𝐴, and 𝐼2 = 0.429 𝐴

Example 2: Find the unknown currents in the figure

below.

Fig. 8: Rules for Determining the Potential

Differences Across a Resistor and a Battery.

Example 1: Determine the current flowing in each

of the resistors Solution

Applying KCL,

Junction B: 50 = 20 + 𝐼1 , 𝐼1 = 20 𝐴

Junction C: 20 + 15 = 𝐼2 , 𝐼2 = 35 𝐴

Junction D; 𝐼1 = 𝐼3 + 120, 𝐼3 = −90 𝐴

Junction E; 𝐼3 + 𝐼4 = 15, 𝐼4 = 105 𝐴

Solution Junction F, 120 = 𝐼5 + 40, 𝐼5 = 80 𝐴

The circuit has two nodes (at A and B). We have the
choice of choosing only two of the three loops shown
(blue). This is because only two of the loops are
independent.

Node A: 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = 𝐼3

Node B: 𝐼3 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2

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 Work on the Following 6. Four resistors are connected as shown in
Figure below. (a) Find the equivalent
1. Find the velocity of charge leading to 1 A
resistance between points 𝑎 and 𝑐. (b) What
current which flows in a copper conductor of
is the current in each resistor if a potential
cross-section 1 cm2 and length 10 km. Free
difference of 42 𝑉 is maintained between 𝑎
electron density of copper = 8.5 × 1028 m3 .
and 𝑐?
How long will it take the electric charge to
travel from one end of the conductor to the
other?

2. Copper wire in a typical residential building

has a cross-sectional area of 3.31 ×
10−6 m2 . If it carries a current of 10 A, what
is the drift speed of the electrons? Assume
7. Find the current delivered by the battery in
that each copper atom contributes one free
the circuit shown below
electron to the current. The density of copper
is 8.95 gcm−3 , the molar mass of copper =
63.5 g and NA = 6.02 × 1023 electrons.

3. Calculate the diameter of a 2.0 cm length of

tungsten filament in a small light bulb if its
resistance is 0.050 Ω. Use ρTungsten = 5.6 ×
10−8 Ωm.
4. It is found that the resistance of a coil of wire 8. Determine the value of the emf in the circuit
0
increases from 40 ohm at 15 C to 50 ohm at below
0
60 C. Calculate the resistance temperature
coefficient at 0°C of the conductor material.
5. A battery has an emf of 12.0 V and an internal
resistance of 0.05 Ω. Its terminals are
connected to a load resistance of 3.00 Ω. Find
the current in the circuit and the terminal
voltage of the battery

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