RESEARCH WORK

1. Introduction
To face aprocessproductive, the zootechnician professional relies on thenutritionanimal, which
allows addressing aspects such as the nutritional factors of thefoodsthe same that constitute the
base for a process productive cattleman each time more plaintiff.
The optimization of rations and their efficient use in thesystemsproductionlivestock farming encompasses a
important aspect in animal feeding. Thus, to achievemixturesminimum foodcostif
hasmethodsof optimization such as theprogramminglinear that allows us to minimize the cost of
the portion. This aspect is related to thevaluefood ingredients or foods used
frequently or not in the rations, the same ones that will be taken as a reference and subsequent adjustment in
thecalculationof rations, linked to the basic considerations of nutritional needs of the
different speciesanimals.
This article has been prepared as part of student activity, during the last semesters in Animal Science, UNSAAC.
thinking of the colleagues from back then, who have always wanted to address important issues of
a simple way. It is published after some final revisions, aiming to provide scopes
simple and practical for theproblemsbeginning in the formulation of rations, covering from the
most elementary methods to those used in modern productive activity.

2. Basic definitions
Food
Food is a substance that contributes a ensure in all its manifestations
productionreproduction)life remove animal that consumes it.
To be precise, this definition must be completed with the following warnings: what constitutes a food
What is a living being for one may not be for another; we indeed find frequent examples in this regard.
among the different species of farm animals; therefore, the notion of nutritional value is linked to the
species what take advantage the food.
On the other hand, the correct technique of feeding consists in associating the different classes of foods that
we provide to integrate a portion capable of meeting the nutritional needs of the animals, in such a way
that the food integrated into the whole of a ration and not in isolation is capable of ensuring life.
Let's finally observe that the value of a food depends on the other constituents of the ration.
what the notion revealsbalancenutritional.

3. Nutrients
A nutrient is a constitutive element of food substances, whether of plant origin or
animal, which helps to sustain life. It can be a simple element like theironor thecopperor can
to be a complicated chemical compound like starch or protein, made up of many units
different.

It is known that about 100 different nutrients are valuable in livestock rations and of thebirdsof corral.
Many are individually necessary for themetabolismcorporal, growth and reproduction; others or
they are not essential or can be substituted by other nutrients.

There are no two foods that contain nutrients in the same proportion. Each food usually
contain a greater or lesser proportion of one or several of [Link] differences make
It is necessary to regulate the amount of each food, in such a way that the total composition of its
nutrients vary according to species, age, production, etc.

The classification of nutrients according to their origin: OrganicCarbohydratesFats,ProteinsVitamins,

InorganicsWaterSalesminerals)According to yourmissionEnergy sources (carbohydrates
ylipidsPlasticsand energy sources (proteins), plastics, and bioregulators (macro mineral elements), and
Bioregulators (mineral microelements, vitamins, and antibiotics).

4. Formulation of rations
Food represents the largest part of theresourcesnecessary in animal production; for that reason,
onefficiencycostseconomic factors greatly condition thesuccessof animal production systems.
On the contrary, any error in the calculation of rations, any lack of accuracy in the assessment of the
needs, contributes, with thetimeto limit theproductivityof the genetically most animals
suitable for production.
In this context, ration formulation must be understood as the adjustment of the quantities of the
ingredients that, as desired, will make up the serving, so that the nutrients it contains per unit
of weight or as a percentage of thesubjectdry correspond to those required by the animal for feeding.
Thus, the calculation of balanced rations obeys several reasons; among these, we can mention the
following:

Only with balanced rations can productions be achieved that are consistent with the genetic potential of the
animals.
Only with proper nutrition can economic productions be achieved. This is due to the fact that the
Food represents the largest percentage of total production costs (45% or more).
Only well-fed animals can fully benefit from improvements made in genetics.
and in healthcare.

To start aprogramof formulating rations under different situations, it is required

ofinformationbasic, and there are:

Nutritional needs of the animal.

Food.
Type of ration.
Expected food consumption.

These aspects must be considered for feeding the animals, making it essential to complete the
daily food rations with the building blocks of proteins, vitamins, etc., all of this
correctly balanced in accordance and in line with the respective stages of itsdevelopmenty
production.
Thetechniquesration balancing examples are developed with some simple and some more elaborate examples
which, depending on the practice of the student or producer, will present a certain degree of difficulty to
your solution.

5. Methods of formulation of rations

There are several methods used to balance rations, from the simplest to the most
complexes y technical personnel, among them: test y errorequationssimultaneous, square of
Pearson,linear [Link] for the calculation of balanced rations is through
theemploymentof trial and error, with linear programming being the one used in the scientific formulation of
balanced food.

Test y error
It is one of the most commonly used methods for balancing rations due mainly to its ease in the
approach and operation. It is manually subject to the use of few foods and nutrients. Without
embargo, when using spreadsheets, this method is quite practical, allowing for balance
with 10 - 15 foods and adjust about 6 nutrients.

Example 1
A ration is required for broilers 6-8 weeks old, with a requirement of 18% Protein C and 3200.
Kcal/kg of Energy M. (NRC, 1994).
Firstly, a portion is presented arbitrarily, assamplein the mixture 1:
Mix 1
Food Proportion, % EM, Kcal/kg PC, %
Yellow corn 80 2696 7.04
Soy cake 20 486 8.80
Total 100 3182 15.84
Thecornand cake ofsoyprovide 3370 and 2430 Kcal/kg of D.M., plus 8.8 and 44% of P.C. respectively.
The proposed mix is close to meeting energy needs, but is deficient in protein.
In this case, it is necessary to include a protein source that, in new combinations, does not reduce.
significantly the energy contribution. For this, fish meal with 2880 Kcal/kg of D.M. will be included.
65% of P.C.
Mix 2
Foods Proportion, % EM, Kcal/kg PC, %
Yellow corn 78 2629 6.86
Soy cake 14 340 6.16
Hna. fish 8 230 5.20
Total 100 3199 18.22
In mixture 2, the energy level is practically covered and the protein shows an excess of 0.22%.
If we adjust these amounts in more detail, we can obtain mixture 3 that corresponds to the
nutritional requirements of broilers 6-8 weeks.
Mix 3
Foods Proportion, % EM, Kcal/kg PC, %
Yellow corn 78.4 2642 6.90
Soy cake 14.0 340 6.16
Hna. fish 7.6 219 4.94
Total 100.0 3201 6:00 PM
Example 2
For this example, a sheet will be [Link] calculate a portion. The needs are for
broilers 6-8 weeks. The following table shows the composition of the feeds and needs of the
animals.
EM PC Ca [Link] Arg Lis Met M+C Three Trip
Food
kcal % % % % % % % %
Yellow corn 3370 8.80 0.02 0.10 0.40 0.24 0.20 0.35 0.40 0.10
Here I am. 2430 44.00 0.26 0.28 3.10 2.80 0.60 1.20 1.80 0.60
Broken wheat 1260 14.80 0.12 0.23 1.07 0.60 0.20 0.50 0.48 0.30
Hna. fish 2880 65.00 4.00 2.43 3.38 4.90 1.90 2.50 2.70 0.75
Acetic acid fish 8700 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Carbon. Ca 0.00 0.00 35.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Dicalcium phosphate. 0.00 0.00 21:00 16:00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Common salt 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Premix 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Requirements 3200 18:00 0.80 0.30 1.00 0.85 0.32 0.60 0.68 0.16
First, an arbitrary value is entered for the first food, in this example for corn = 1000 in the
column Quantity (kg), a similar process is carried out for the other foods. In the column Mixture (%)
automatically represents the value of the mixture as a percentage based on the amount in (kg), which is the
what should be used.
Mix 1
Mix Quantity
Foods Nutrients
kg %
Yellow corn 1000.00 63.816 EM 3120.87 kcal/kg
I am here. 300.00 19.145 PC 6:30 PM %
Wheat bran 100.00 6.382 Ca 0.86 %
fish 80.00 5.105 [Link]. 0.36 %
Acetic acid fish 50.00 3.191 Arg 1.09 %
Carb. Ca 20.00 1.276 Lis 0.98 %
Dicalcium phosphate 10.00 0.638 Met 0.35 %
Common salt 5.00 0.319 M+C 0.61 %
Premix 2.00 0.128 Three 0.77 %
Total 100,000 Three 0.24 %
Once enteredthe valuesarbitrary, the column corresponding to the Nutrients is analyzed. For the
for example, there is an energy deficit (3120.87 kcal/kg), the protein is low, just like the
other nutrients (Mix 1).
If we make some modifications, which are quick in the spreadsheet, it is possible to obtain the following
food mixture (Mix 2).
Mix 2
Mixture Quantity
Foods Nutrients
kg %
Yellow corn 1000.00 66.574 EM 3200.03 kcal/kg
Hna. soya 274.50 18.275 PC 6:00 PM %
Wheat bran 65.00 4.327 Ca 0.80 %
Here. fish 80.00 5.326 [Link]. 0.30 %
Acetic acid.
52.57 3.500 Arg 1.06 %
fish
Carb. Ca 20.00 1.331 Lis 0.96 %
Dicalcium phosphate 4.00 0.266 Met 0.35 %
Common salt 4.51 0.300 M+C 0.61 %
Premix 1.50 0.100 Three 0.76 %
Total 100,000 Three 0.23 %
The final food mixture obtained meets the needs of broilers 6-8 weeks old, as observed.
in addition, the level of precision obtained in energy, protein, calcium, and available phosphorus; in addition to the
inclusion of fixed foods such asoilsour, common salt and vitamin-mineral premix at levels of 3.50, 0.30
0.10% respectively. For the solution of the mixture in the example, thespreadsheetZootec
(Verbibliographyif you want a copy.
Simultaneous equations
This method employs thealgebrafor the calculation of rations, setting up systems of equations
linear where they are represented byvariablesto the foods, whose solutionmathematicsrepresents
the balanced ration.
Example 3
Corn grain
respectively. A mixture is desired that has a PC content of 15%.
Expressed thevaluesper kg of diet:
X + Y = 1.00 ... (1)
0.088X + 0.45Y = 0.15
Where:
X = MG in the mixture.
Y = TS in the mixture.
The first column represents Corn and the second, Soybean cake. The first equation (row 1) represents
The final mixture equal to one, the same multiplied by 100 will give us 100%, which is the mixture.
desired. Equation 2 indicates the protein levels of the inputs, and they are set to 0.15 (15%) that
it is the required for the example ration.
To solve thissystemEquation (1) is multiplied by -0.088 to eliminate one of the variables.
unknowns:
-0.088X - 0.088Y = -0.088
0.088X + 0.450Y = 0.150
--------------------------
0.450Y - 0.088Y = 0.062
Y = 0.1713
Replacing in equation (1):
X + 0.1713 = 1.00
X = 0.8287
It is multiplied by 100 to be expressed again as a percentage.
X = (0.8287)100 = 82.87%
Y = (0.1713)100 = 17.13%
--------
100.00%
The obtained portion needs to be checked for its protein content, for this, it is multiplied by the
protein content of the inputs by their respective percentage in the ration, the total must give 15%
desired
7.29
7.71
7.29 + 7.71 = 15%
It is possible to observe the accuracy of the algebraic method in the formulation of balanced rations.
obtaining 82.87% Corn and 17.13% Soybean Cake making a final amount of 100%, complying
in addition to the 15% required for PC.
If you want to adjust 3 nutrients and 1 final mix, you have to use 4 foods and propose a system of 4.
simultaneous equations.
Example 4
As a next example, a balanced ration will be formulated for growing pigs (10-20 kg) whose
requerimiento de nutrientes es: 3.25Mcal/kg de EM, 18% de PC, 0.95% de Lisina, 0.70% de Calcio y 0.32% de
Available phosphorus (NRC, 1988); considering the foods

Nutritional composition of the foods to be used

EM PC Lis Ca [Link].
Food
Mcal/kg % % % %
Corn grain (X1) 3.30 8.80 0.24 0.02 0.10
wheat leftover (X2) 2.55 3:00 PM 0.64 0.12 0.23
Soy cake (X3) 2.82 45.00 2.90 0.29 0.27
Sorghum wheat (X4) 3.14 9:00 0.22 0.02 0.01
fish 2.45 65.00 4.96 3.73 2.43
Fish fat 8.37 -- -- -- --
Dicalcium phosphate. -- -- -- 21:00 4:00 PM
Carbon. Ca -- -- -- 40.00 --
Premix -- -- -- -- --

The letter X and the subscripts identify the 4 foods in the system of equations to be posed and achieved.
final mix, energy, protein, and lysine required. To meet the requirements for Calcium and Phosphorus not
fixed, dicalcium phosphate and calcium carbonate will be included as fixed foods in amounts of 1% and
0.7% respectively; in addition to Fish Meal (3.5%), Fish Oil (3.5%) and Premix
(0.3%).
Next, it is necessary to know the nutrient contribution of the ingredients considered fixed in the
mix, as well as the new nutritional requirements.
9% of food (Sister fish, Fish fat, Dicalcium phosphate, Calcium carbonate, and Premix)
they provide protein, energy, and lysine, this is subtracted from the total required by the pig, 3.25-0.38=2.87 for
energy, 18-2.28=15.72 for protein and 0.95-0.17=0.78 for lysine. Each new requirement will be equated in the
system of equations to be proposed.
Nutritional contribution of fixed ingredients and new requirements
EM PC List
Ingredients % in mixture
Mcal/kg % %
Hna. fish 3.50 0.09 2.28 0.17
Fish fat 3.50 0.29 -- --
Dicalcium phosphate 1.00 -- -- --
Carbon. Ca 0.70 -- -- --
Premix 0.30 -- -- --
Total 9:00 0.38 2.28 0.17
New requirements 91.00 2.87 15.72 0.78
The requirements established are as follows:

X1 + X2 + X3 + 0.9100 Kg
3.3000X1 + 2.5500X2 + 2.820X3 + 3.1400X4 = 2.8700 Mcal/kg
0.0880X1 + 0.1500X2 + 0.450X3 + 0.0900X4 = 0.1572 Kg/kg
0.0024X1 + 0.0065X2 + 0.029X3 + 0.0022X4 = 0.0078 Kg/kg
To solve this system of equations, we turn to a scientific calculator that will make it faster.
the calculation. Entered the information into the calculator, the following results are obtained (For a
solutionmanualconsult texts on linear algebra or thebookfrom Trujillo, 1987. See bibliography):
X1 = 0.5592
X2 = 0.0167
X3 = 0.2095
X4 = 0.1246
These values, replaced in the equations, must yield the established equalities to verify the
veracity of the results.
According to the explanation in the previous example, these values must be expressed as a percentage of the final mix.
and from this, it can be expressed in other quantities (80 kg, 600 kg, 2.5 TM).

Final ration and nutrient contribution

Nutrients
Mix
Ingredients EM PC Lis Ca [Link].
%
Mcal/kg % % % %
Corn grain 55.92 1.85 4.92 0.13 0.011 0.056
Soy cake 20.95 0.59 9.43 0.61 0.061 0.057
Sorghum grain 12.46 0.39 1.12 0.03 0.002 0.001
Fish 3.50 0.09 2.28 0.17 0.130 0.085
Fat
3.50 0.29 -- -- -- --
fish
Wheat bran 1.67 0.04 0.25 0.01 0.002 0.004
Dicalcium phosphate 1.00 -- -- -- 0.210 0.160
Carbon. Ca 0.70 -- -- -- 0.280 --
Premix 0.30 -- -- -- -- --
Total 100.00 3.25 18:00 0.95 0.696 0.363
Requirement 100.00 3.25 6:00 PM 0.95 0.700 0.320
 Once again, the precision of the method is appreciated as it obtains the desired results. The Calcium values
and Available Phosphorus, were not established in the system of equations, these are contributions from food
once the mixture is made, having a very small deficit of Calcium (0.004%) and an excess of
0.043% Phosphorus not fixed, insignificant values.
It is important to clarify that with larger amounts of nutrients to balance, care must be taken in choosing.
the foods for the mix; since, the nutrients of each food have to be balanced with the
nutrients required in the ration, and so onto be ableto perceive thefeasibilityfrom a solution and not obtaining values
negatives for a variable or food.
Pearson's Chi-square
It allows mixing two foods that have different nutritional concentrations to obtain as
resulting in a mixture that has the desired concentration (protein, energy).
A simple example is one where a nutrient, usually protein or energy, is balanced.
considering two ingredients in the process.
Example 5
A food mixture is required that contains 20% CP, having Barley grain with 11.5% CP and
Fish meal with 65% protein content.
The functionality of this method is subject to:

The nutritional content of a food must be greater (HP=65% PC) than required (20%), and
Another minor (CG=11.5% PC).

They are ordereddata(illustration)subtracting the smaller value from the larger one. (20-11.5 and 65-20).

Parts Percentage
Cebada grano = 11.5 45.0 84.11

20

Hna. fish = 65 8.5 15.89

53.5 100.00
Finally, the desired mixture and the adjusted protein content are obtained:
9.67%
(0.65 * 0.1589)100 = 10.33%

Food % PC, %
Barley
84.11 9.67
grain
Hna. fish 15.89 10.33
Total 100.00 20.00
The method also allows for preparing servings with a greater number of ingredients and nutrients, having
greater care in preparing the ration.

Example 6
For this, a ration will be formulated for broilers that contains 18% protein, 3200 kcal/kg of metabolizable energy, 0.8% calcium,
0.3% of available phosphorus, 0.85% of Lysine, and 0.32% of Methionine (NRC, 1994); taken as
Fixed Ingredients (FI), 2.0% Reserve Space (RS), 3% Dough ofcottonand 3% of Flour of
fish. The final portion should be adjusted with corn grain, soybean meal, wheat bran, and oil
fishy sourness.
First, the nutrient contribution of the necessary or fixed ingredients in the portion is calculated. The
values of Ca, P, Lysine and Methionine will not be established in the square, they will be adjusted at the end of the
blend through the reserve space.
Nutritional contribution of IF

IF % PC, % EM, Mcal/kg

Hna. fish 3.0 66.0 3.06
Cotton paste 3.0 35.0 2.09
Reservation species 2.0 -- --
Total contribution 8.0 3.03 0.15
From the nutritional contribution of the fixed ingredients, the nutrients that are still missing for the rest are determined.
ration (18–3.03=14.97 for protein, 3.20–0.15=3.05 for energy).

PC, % EM, Mcal/kg

Necessary at 100% 18.00 3.20
Necessary at 92% 14.97 3.05
Immediately, the nutritional composition of the foods to be used in the final adjustment of the ration is arranged.

PC EM Ca [Link]. Lis Met

Ingredients
% Mcal/kg % % % %
MG = Grain corn 8.8 3.35 0.02 0.10 0.24 0.20
ST = Wheat bran 15.0 1.80 0.12 0.23 0.65 0.20
TS = Soy cake 46.0 2.23 0.20 0.27 3.06 0.68
AP = Ac. fish -- 8.65 -- -- -- --
Unlike the simultaneous equations method where one works with the new data obtained, in
the Pearson square conveniently brings the new requirements to 92% to 100% (although not
necessarily), like this:

PC = (14.97/92)100 = 16.27%
EM = (2.91/92)100 = 3.32 Mcal/kg
With these new values, the calculation of the ration is carried out, placing the amount of
energy (3.32 Mcal/kg) at the center of the square, which represents the level of energy to be provided
through the remaining 92% of the inputs to balance.

Mix 1 (M1) with EM=3.32 Mcal/kg and CP<16.27%

Parts Blend, % % of PC
MG = 3.35 1.52 98.06 8.63

3.32

ST = 1.80 0.03 1.94 0.29

1.55 100.00 8.92

The percentage of protein obtained (8.92) comes from multiplying the percentage of crude protein of the corn.
and wheat bran according to the percentages of these foods present in M1, which must be lower or
greater than the required protein level (16.27%) for the subsequent adjustment in a third square.
(0.088 * 0.9806)100 = 8.63
0.29
8.63 + 0.29 = 8.92% of PC
Mix 2 (M2) at EM = 3.32 Mcal/kg and CP > 16.27%
Parts Mix, % % of PC
ST = 2.23 5.33 83.02 38.29

3.32

AP = 8.65 1.09 16.98 0.00

6.42 100.00 38.29
Obtained mixture 2, with a crude protein content greater than 16.27% (38.29%), a third is carried out
square for the final mix.

Blend 3 (M3) at PC=16.27%

Parts Mix, %
M1 = 8.92 21.92 74.89

16.27

M2 = 38.19 7.35 25.11

29.27 100.00
After the third square is performed, the percentage of the foods from M1 and M2 present in the
Mix 3 to express them as a percentage of the final mixture.

Foods from M1 and M2 in M3 expressed in the final blend

MG in M1 = (0.9806 * 0.7489)92 = 67.56%
ST in M1 = (0.0194 * 0.7489)92 = 1.34%
TS in M2 = (0.8302 * 0.2511)92 = 19.18%
AP in M2 = (0.1698 * 0.2511)92 = 3.92%
Total 92.00%
It is finally necessary to know the nutritional content of the serving.

Nutritional composition
PC EM Ca [Link]. Lis Met
Ingredients %
% Mcal/kg % % % %
Corn grain 67.56 5.95 2.26 0.014 0.068 0.162 0.135
Soy cake 19.18 8.82 0.43 0.056 0.052 0.587 0.130
Ac. acid. fish 3.92 -- 0.34 -- -- -- --
Hna. fish 3.00 1.98 0.09 0.112 0.073 0.149 0.059
Cotton cake 3.00 1.05 0.06 0.005 0.009 0.041 0.014
Reserve space 2.00 -- -- -- -- -- --
Wheat bran 1.34 0.20 0.02 0.002 0.003 0.009 0.003
Total 100.00 6:00 PM 3.20 0.189 0.205 0.948 0.340
Requirement 100.00 6:00 PM 3.20 0.800 0.300 0.850 0.320
 In the final mixture, there is a deficiency of Calcium and Phosphorus. In this case, we proceed to cover the Space.
of Reservation withsourcesfrom Ca and P. To this end, we first start with the nutrient that has the least deficit.
In this case, phosphorus is presented if dicalcium phosphate is used, which provides the two deficient minerals.

For Phosphorus:
Dicalcium phosphate:
23.3%
P = 18.2%
0.095/0.182 = 0.522% of Dicalcium phosphate.
Dicalcium phosphate also provides calcium, and it is necessary to find the contribution of this mineral at 0.522%:
0.522 * 0.233 = 0.122 of Ca in Dicalcium phosphate.
0.611–0.122 = 0.489% that still lacks Ca.
For Football:
Limestone: Ca = 35.8%
0.489/0.358 = 1.366% of Limestone.
Final composition of the Reserve Space:
0.522% Dicalcium phosphate.
1.366% Limestone.
0.112% common salt.
------
2.000% Reserve space.
Adjusted the calcium and phosphorus through the reserve space, the percentages of dicalcium phosphate and rock
limestone found must be included in the final mix to ensure the animal's calcium requirement and
phosphorus. As the 2% of the ER was not covered, common salt was added to fill the gap.