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 Sr. No Sub Topics Page no

1 Advent of Europeans 4-7

2 Ascendancy of the Britishers 8-12

3 Mysore 13-16

4 Sikh 17-18

5 Governor Generals 19-28

6 Revenue Administration & Economic Policy of TheBritish 29-33

7 The Great Revolt of 1857 34-37

8 Socio-Religious Reforms Movements 38-45

9 Earlier Revolts 46-47

10 Indian National Movement (1885-1905) 48-52

11 Moderate Phase (1885-1905) 53-54

12 Extremist Phase (1905-1917) 55-62

13 Gandhian Era (1917-1947) 63-86

14 Important Leaders 87-91

15 Key Political Organisations 92

16 Miscellaneous 92-93

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 About Us

Before we succeeded in this exam, we faced failures more than once. And the worst
part? It wasn’t due to a lack of hard work. It was the absence of proper guidance and
reliable content.
That pain of struggling despite sincere effort stayed with us. And that’s when we
made a promise: To build a community where no serious aspirant has to go through
the same struggle.
That’s how The Repeaters was born — A platform built by Repeaters, for
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We’re not just another study group — we are a movement. A space where no serious
aspirant is left behind, just because they didn’t have the right direction or genuine
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So Let’s Restart together — and turn repetition into success.

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 Modern History
The commercial contacts between India and Europe were very old via the land route either through the
Oxus valley or Syria or Egypt. But, the new sea route via the Cape of Good Hope was discovered by
Vasco da Gama in 1498. Thereafter, many trading companies came to India and established their
trading centres.

Founders of Countries
‣ Abel Tasman (Portuguese) - New Zealand
‣ Captain James Cook (British) - Australia
‣ Christopher Columbus (Italian) - America
‣ Vasco da Gama (Portuguese) - India

Advent of Europeans
1. Portuguese (1498)
2. Dutch (1602)
3. English (1600)
4. Danish (1616)
5. French (1664)

Portuguese
Portuguese empire in India called Estando-do-India
Prince Henry was known as "The Navigator" (He was sponsoring maritime exploration)
22 November 1497 - Vasco da Gama reached the Cape of Good Hope (Africa)
17 May 1498 - Vasco da Gama reached Calicut (India) with his ship - São Gabriel (other name of fleet
- Berrio, and São Rafael.) He was assisted by Abdul Majid, a Gujarati merchant. The King of Calicut
at that time was Zamorin
1499 - Vasco da Gama returned. (He revisited India in 1502).
Second traveller - Pedro Alvares (1500) - (They both established trading stations at Calicut,
Cannanore and Cochin)
1503 - The Portuguese established their first factory in Cochin

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 Francisco de Almeida (1505-1509)
First Portuguese Viceroy in India
Implemented the "Blue Water Policy" aiming for Portuguese naval supremacy in the Indian Ocean

Alfonso de Albuquerque (1509-1515)

Considered the Real founder of Portuguese power in India
Made Cochin the capital in 1509
1510 - Captured Goa from the Bijapur Sultan (Adil Shah)
Abolished the Cartage system (Permit system) - Tax free trade in Arab Sagar
Established the first mint in Goa
He encouraged marriages between Portuguese men and Indian women
Albuquerque captured Malacca and Ceylon.
One Mango variety was named after him - Alfanso
Albuquerque died in 1515 (Goa) leaving the Portuguese as the strongest naval power in India.

Nino da Cunha (1529-1538)

1530 - Made Goa the capital (transferred from Cochin)
Established a factory at Hooghly (Bengal)
Portuguese acquired Daman in 1559
He fought against Bahadur Shah (Sultan of Gujarat) and was victorious

Miscellaneous
Portuguese power began to decline after 1600.
Battle of Swally / Suvali (1612)

‣ English vs Portuguese
‣ The Britishers (Captain- Thomas Best) won and this victory led to the English replacing the
Portuguese as the dominant European power in Indian trade
The British established a factory in Surat (1613) after their success in the Battle of Swally
The Portuguese introduced Tobacco, Potato, Red Chilli and Maize to India from America.
1661- Portuguese Princess Catherine of Braganza married Charles II of England, giving Bombay as
dowry
The famous Jesuit saint St. Francis Xavier arrived in India with Martin Alfonso de Souza (1542-1545)
The Portuguese power declined in India by the end of the sixteenth century. They lost all their
possessions in India except Goa, Diu and Daman in the next century. Portuguese came first and stayed
the longest time till 1961

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 Dutch (Netherlands)
1596 - Cornelis Houtman, 1st Dutch to arrive in India
1602 - They established Dutch EIC
1605 - 1st factory was established in Masulipatnam (Coromandel Coast) by Wader-hem
1610 - 2nd factory at Pulicat (TN)
Other factories - Surat, Karaikal, Nagapattinam, Chinsura (WB) and Kasimbazar (WB)]
1753 - Dutch took control of Cochin
Pulicat was their main centre in India and later it was replaced by Nagapattinam
They made forts in Chinsura called "Gustavus fort."
They had two industries in India - Cotton Textile Industry & Indigo Industry
They issued gold coins - Pagodas
Battle of Bedara (1759) - Dutch Vs English (The Britishers won)
They replaced Portuguese as the main dominant power in European trade in the East. They conceded to
Britishers after their defeat in Battle of Bedara

Britishers

1st Britisher came to India in 1599 - John Milden hall by land route for trade
Ralph Finch (Merchant) - arrived (first) in Akbar’s court in 1585
EIC was formed by a group of merchants in 31 December 1600 as Merchant Adventures with the
permission of Queen Elizabeth I (First only 125 members were there in EIC)
Queen Elizabeth I initially granted a 15-year permission for trade to EIC. However, upon James 1st
ascension in 1608, he extended this period indefinitely and dispatched Captain William Hawkins with
a letter for Emperor Akbar, aboard the Ship Hector in 1609 to seek permission to establish English
trading centre at Surat. Upon Hawkins' arrival in India, Emperor Akbar had passed away, so he
presented the letter to Emperor Jahangir. Jahangir gave him title of English Khan and granted
Hawkins a "Mansab of 400" (a military rank) and first he agreed but later refused due to Portuguese
pressure.
In 1612, Captain Thomas Best arrived in India and defeated the Portuguese in the Battle of Swally.
Following this victory, the British obtained permission from Jahangir. So 1st factory was established in
Surat in 1613
Sir Thomas Roe (1615) - Arrived at Jahangir's court and met him in Ajmer. He remained in the
Mughal Court for 2 years and secured permission to establish factories in Agra Ahmedabad, Baroda
and Broach by 1619. (Agra was 1st Land factory, others were at coastal area)

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 The English East India Company acquired land at Madras in 1639 from the ruler of Chandragiri (a
Nayak under the Vijayanagar / Chandragiri authority). They built a factory and then started Fort St.
George. In 1641, Madras (with Fort St. George) became the Company’s principal settlement
(headquarters) on the Coromandel Coast.
The British established their first mint (Taksal) and issued gold and silver coins
1651- A factory was established in Hooghly. 1681- Aurangzeb attacked the British and removed them
from Hooghly. 1651- Shah Shuja (Aurangzeb's brother) granted permission for free trade in Bengal
1661- King Charles II received Bombay as dowry upon his marriage to the Portuguese Princess
Catherine of Braganza. King Charles II leased Bombay (1668) to the East India Company for 10
Pounds per year
1687 - Job Charnock arrived Sutanuti. In 1698 - Job Charnock took 3 villages (Calcutta, Govindpur,
and Sutanuti) on lease Sutanuti and establish Calcutta. Today's Kolkata is formed by merging these
three villages and Job Charnock is known as the Founder of Kolkata.
Fort William was constructed in Kolkata and in 1700, Fort William was declared the first British
Presidency City in India.
Later, Calcutta became the capital of British India in 1772 (till 1911)
Thus Bombay, Madras, Calcutta became three presidency towns of the English settlements in India.

Danes (Denmark)
1616 - They arrived in India
1620 - Their first factory was established at Tranquebar (TN) was founded.
1676 - They established a colonial capital in Serampore (WB). Serampore was their headquarters in
India.
1845 - They failed to strengthen themselves in India and they sold all their settlement in India to the
British.

French
French EIC was established in 1664 by Colbert, a Minister under Louis XIV.
The first French factory in India was established at Surat in 1668 by Francis Caron. Later, Maracara
set up a factory at Masulipattinam in 1669
In 1672 Francois Martin attacked on Sher khan Lodhi, captured Pondicherry (1673) establishing
their first fort - Fort Louis. Francois Martin was the first governor of Pondicherry, the headquarters
of the French possessions in India)
Other French factories in India were Chandranagore (Bengal - with the help of Nawab Shaista
Khan), Mahe and Karaikal.
Dupleix was the French Governor at that time - Mughals also referred to him as Dupleix Nawab

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 Ascendancy of the British
British Strategy in India

‣ Three Method Ideology [War - Treaties - War]

‣ They never won any state in a single war. Their approach involved first identifying the enemy's
weaknesses, then securing a treaty, preparing backup forces, and finally launching an attack to win
the war

British vs France
The Carnatic Wars were fought between the British and the French for supremacy of power
The downfall of the Mughal Empire led to the independence of Deccan under Nizam-ul-Mulk. The
Carnatic region also formed part of the Nizam’s dominion. The ruler of the Carnatic accepted the
suzerainty of the Nizam
In 1740, the Austrian War of Succession broke out in Europe. In that war England and France were
fighting (They were fighting outside India so they started fighting in India also)
The French governor of Pondicherry, Dupleix opened attack on the English in 1746 and thus began the
First Carnatic War

1st Carnatic War (1746-1748)

‣ Battle of St. Thomas / Battle of Adyar (Madras)

• Britishers won
• The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, also known as the Treaty of Aachen was concluded in
1748 to end the Austrian Succession War. Thus the First Carnatic War came to an end.

But the English and French continued to take opposite sides in the internal politics of India. This had
resulted in the Second Carnatic War

2nd Carnatic War (1749-1754)

‣ It was triggered by the death of the Nawab of Hyderabad and A colonial war of succession started.
‣ British (Robert Clive) vs French forces (Dupleix)
‣ Battle of Ambur in 1749
‣ Robert Clive ultimately emerged victorious with the Siege of Arcot (capital of Carnatic)
‣ Dupleix was replaced by Godeheu as the French governor. The war came to an end by the Treaty
of Pondicherry in 1754

‣ Treaty of Pondicherry (1754)

• The British and French agreed not to interfere in the internal affairs of Indian rulers and
returned captured territories

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 The outbreak of the Seven Years War (1756-1763) in Europe led to the Third Carnatic War

3rd Carnatic War (1758-1763)

‣ French (under Count de Lally) captured Fort St. David and attacked the English to acquire
Madras

‣ Battle of Wandiwash (1760) - (Britishers won under Sir Eyre Coote)

• In 1761, Pondicherry came under British control

• The Treaty of Paris (1763)
‣ The war ended with the Treaty of Paris, establishing British supremacy in the subcontinent over
the French

‣ According to the 1763 Treaty of Paris, the French were only permitted to conduct business
without fortifications . The French agreed to confine its activities in Pondicherry, Karaikal,
Mahe and Yenam

The causes for the French failure can be summed up as follows -

1. Commercial and naval superiority of the English.
2. Lack of support from the French government.
3. French had support only in the Deccan but the English had a strong base in Bengal.
4. English had three important ports – Calcutta, Bombay and Madras but French had only
Pondicherry.
5. Difference of opinion between the French Generals.
6. England’s victory in the European wars decided the destiny of the French in India.

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 British in Bengal
Bengal remained one of the fertile and wealthy regions of India. The English ascendancy in Bengal
proved to be the basis for the expansion of English rule in India
1651 - Shah Shuja permitted them free trade, in exchange for 3000 rupees per year, across Bengal,
Bihar, and Odisha.
1698 - Kolkata was founded
1700 - Aurangzeb appointed Murshid Quli Khan as the Governor of Bengal. (He was 1st Independent
Nawab of Bengal)
1707 - Aurangzeb died (so Murshid Quli Khan assumed complete control over Bengal and became
the independent Nawab)
1717 - Farrukh Siyar issued the Shahi Farman (Royal Decree) - It is also considered the Magna
Carta of the Company. Because he was getting nothing from Bengal so he thought atleast something
will come.

Murshid Quli Khan (1717-1727)

‣ The first Nawab of Bengal
‣ Shifted the capital from Dhaka to Murshidabad
‣ Introduced the Ijagirdari system for revenue collection
‣ After the death of Murshid Quli Khan, his son-in-law, Shuja-ud-Din, became the Nawab
Shuja-ud-Din (1727-1733)
‣ He was initially in Bihar, and upon becoming Nawab, he transferred control of Bihar to Alivardi
Khan

Sarfaraz Khan (1739-1740)

‣ Alivardi Khan defeated him in the Battle of Giria.
Alivardi Khan (1740-1756)
‣ He offered a bribe of 2 crore rupees to the Mughal Emperor, thereby legitimising his past actions

‣ He compared Europeans to bees, famously stating: "इ तो काट लेगी न तो शहद गी” (If you
disturb the bee, it will bite; if you don't disturb it, it will give honey)

‣ Alivardi Khan had three daughters, who were married in Patna, Dhaka, and Purnia. But his all
three sons-in-law died.

‣ So his youngest daughter's son, Siraj-ud-Daulah (from Patna), was designated as the next
Nawab of Bengal

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न्हें
छे
ड़ा
हीं
दे
 Siraj-ud-Daulah (1756-1757)
His conflicts included those with - Ghaseti Begum (Dhaka), Shaukat Jung (Purnia) and The British
Subsequently, Shaukat Jung and Ghaseti Begum aligned with the British
Battle of Manihari (1756)

‣ Fought between Shaukat Jang and Siraj-ud-Daulah

4 June 1756 - Siraj-ud-Daulah attacked Kasim bazar and defeated the British
20 June 1756 - The British began fortifying Fort William without the Nawab's permission, which
challenged the Nawab's authority. So the Nawab of Bengal attacked Fort William and won, as it was a
sudden assault. Subsequently, the British fled to Fulta Island but 146 Britishers were left and they
were detained in a small room, next day only 23 survived. This incident is known as the Black Hole
Tragedy.
The remaining Britishers reached Madras, and Robert Clive met with Manikchand (Nawab of Madras).
Clive bribed Manikchand, and with his help, attacked Kolkata again. Subsequently, he made a treaty
with Siraj
Treaty of Alinagar (February 9, 1757) - (Alinagar is an old name for Kolkata)

‣ The Company's coin would be validated

‣ The Nawab had to grant all privileges sanctioned by Farrukh Siyar's firman
‣ Fortification was allowed
Now Clive attacked the French colony in 1757, but Siraj didn’t like so he attacked on Clive
In between Clive set Mir Jafar as Commander-in-Chief (Senapati) of Siraj’s army, Rai Durlabh (Dewan
- Revenue minister), Jagat Seth (his banker) and his Mother-in-law
Battle of Plassey (June 23, 1757) - (Nadia District - WB)

‣ Siraj-ud-Daulah (50,000 soldiers + French) vs Robert Clive

‣ However, Mir Jafar did not bring his army, leading to Siraj’s defeat by Clive
‣ It is said that the Battle of Plassey was won without a fight. (Everyone was traitor)
‣ It is considered the shortest fight in Indian history (1.5 hour)
‣ The victory of the British in the Battle of Plassey marked the foundation of the British rule in
India.

Mir Jafar (1757-1760)

He paid 1 crore rupees to the British, who then appointed him as the Nawab of Bengal
He was derisively called Clive's Ass. (He asked the British to collect taxes)
When Clive returned to England, Mir Jafar was removed from his position as he failed to provide
sufficient funds to the British so Mir Qasim was made Nawab.

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 Mir Qasim
He was appointed as the new Nawab after Mir Jafar
He shifted the capital to Munger
Mir Qasim possessed strong patriotic sentiments. So, he was removed, and Mir Jafar was re-
appointed as Nawab
Mir Qasim subsequently sought refuge in Awadh (Oudh), where Shuja-ud-Daulah was the Nawab
Mir Qasim's allies with Shuja-ud-Daulah + Shah Alam II (Mughal Emperor) and battle took place.
Battle of Buxar (October 22, 1764)

‣ British (Hector Munro) vs (Mir Qasim + Shah Alam II + Shuja-ud-Daulah)

‣ Britishers won & Mir Qasim died

‣ It is being said that the victory of Plassey was consolidated by the decisive victory in the Battle
of Buxar. Following the Battle of Buxar, the British gained control over almost all of India

In 1765, Robert Clive was appointed as the Governor of Bengal. In the same year, the Treaty of
Allahabad was concluded by which the Mughal Emperor granted the Diwani rights to the English East
India Company. Thus the British power in India was thoroughly established.
After these two battles, the British began establishing Residency in Indian State
Subsequently, they expanded their influence to Southern Mysore

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 Mysore
Wadiyar Dynasty - Founded by Venkata II in 1612

‣ 1704 - The Mysore king was Chikka Krishna

Hyder Ali (1760-1782)

He began his career as a petty army officer in the Mysore army. Due to his bravery, he was appointed
head of the army in Dindigul, where he trained his troops in European style. After Chikka Krishna,
Nandaraja became the next king, but Hyder Ali emerged as the de facto ruler

1759 - Hyder Ali vs Marathas (Hyder Ali was Senapati of Army)

Around the same time, his friend Khande Rao killed Nandaraja, and Hyder Ali subsequently became
the ruler in1760, supported by the Rajamata (Queen Mother)
He changed the name of Vednoor to Hyder nagar
He shifted the capital from Mysore to Srirangapatnam
Hyder Ali constructed the Chandeshwari Temple and also built the Vishnu statue and temple in
Srirangapatnam
Challenges for Hyder Ali -

‣ Revolts by Polygars (local Zamindar/landowners)

‣ The Marathas
‣ The British All these powers planned to attack Hyder Ali

‣ The Nizam of Hyderabad

‣ Recognising this threat, Hyder Ali formed a treaty with the Marathas, offering them 32 lakh
rupees. The Marathas agreed, the Nizam of Hyderabad also later withdrew his support from the
British alliance

First Anglo-Mysore War (1767-1769)

‣ Hyder Ali vs the British (Hyder Ali won)

‣ Reasons for the War - French were supporting in training Hyder Ali's army
‣ Hyder Ali gained control of Madras
‣ It was concluded with the Treaty of Madras (1769)

• Conquered territories were to be returned to each other

• The treaty aimed for mutual assistance in case of an attack by foreign powers

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 Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780-1784)

‣ Hyder Ali & Tipu Sultan vs the British (Warren Hastings + Maratha)

‣ Causes of the War - The Marathas attacked Mysore in 1771. The British refused to honour the
Treaty of Madras and did not provide support to Hyder Ali. As a result, Hyder Ali's territories
were seized by the Marathas. He had to buy peace with the Marathas by paying them 32 lakh
rupees and an annual tribute. This greatly angered Hyder Ali, who developed a strong hatred
towards the British.

‣ Alongside there was an outbreak of hostilities between the English and the French (an ally of
Haider) during the American War of Independence. The British captured Mahe, a French
settlement within Haider’s territories. Haider Ali formed a grand alliance with the Nizam of
Hyderabad and the Marathas against the British in 1779. And attacked on the Britishers in 1780.

‣ Battle of Arcot - Hyder Ali Haider Ali defeated Colonel Baillie and captured Arcot in 1780
‣ In the next year, Warren Hastings, by a clever stroke of diplomacy, divided the Confederacy. He
made peace with the Nizam, won the friendship of Bhonsle and came to an understanding with the
Scindia (both Marathas). Consequently, Haider was isolated without any alliance.

‣ Battle of Portonovo - Hyder Ali was defeated by Sir Eyre Coote at Porto Novo in March 1781
defeated

‣ In December 1782, Haider died of cancer at the age of sixty and his death was kept secret till his
son Tipu Sultan assumed power.

‣ Sir Eyre coote ended the war inconclusively with the Treaty of Mangalore (1784) - Both parties
agreed to return captured territories and prisoners to each other

Tipu Sultan (1782-1799)

He was son of Hyder Ali
He adopted the title of Badshah in 1786
He referred to himself as Nagrik Tipu.
His capital was Srirangapatnam (Karnataka) (here his army was trained by the French there)
He joined the French Jacobin Club. (Napoleon Bonaparte was also a member of this club)
He sowed the Tree of Liberty in Srirangapatnam
He reconstructed the Sringeri Temple
He successfully used Mysorean Rockets against the British. This technology was later adopted by the
British, leading to the development of Congreve Rockets.

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 Third Anglo-Mysore War (1790-1792)

‣ Tipu vs (British + Maratha + Nizam of Hyderabad)

‣ Causes of the War -

• Like his father he wanted to eliminate the English from India. His other designs were to
wreak vengeance on the Nizam and on the Marathas as they had betrayed his father during
the hour of need.

• Tipu Sultan strengthened his position by undertaking various internal reforms. This created
worries to the British, the Nizam of Hyderabad and the Marathas. Moreover, Tipu made
attempts to seek the help of France and Turkey by sending envoys to those countries. He
also expanded his territories at the cost of his neighbours, particularly the Raja of
Travancore, who was an ally of the British. In 1789, the British concluded a tripartite
alliance with the Nizam and the Marathas against Tipu.

‣ The war was fought in three phases

I. The first phase commenced when Medows, the Governor of Madras, initially directed the
campaign to invade Mysore but Tipu’s rapid movements halted the progress of the English
troops and inflicted heavy losses on them.
II. In the meantime, Cornwallis himself assumed command Tipu Sultan in December 1790.
This was the beginning of the second phase of the war. Marching from Vellore, he
captured Bangalore in March 1791, but Tipu’s brilliant strategies prolonged the war and
Cornwallis was forced to retreat to Mangalore due to lack of provisions.
III. The third phase of the war began when timely aid from the Marathas with plenty of
provisions helped him to seize Srirangapattinam in February 1792. Tipu Sultan concluded
the Treaty of Srirangapattinam with the British.

‣ Treaty of Srirangapattinam (1792)

• Tipu had to give up half his dominions.

• He had to pay a war indemnity of three crore rupees and surrender two of his sons as
hostages to the English.

• Both sides agreed to release the prisoners of war.

The Treaty of Srirangapattinam is a significant event in the history of South India.
Tipu was displeased and did not accept the terms of the treaty

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 Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1799)

‣ Cause of the War -

‣ The Treaty of Srirangapatnam failed to bring lasting peace between Tipu and the British.
‣ Wellesley set out to persuade Tipu to accept a pact of Subsidiary alliance and wrote letters
requesting the Tipu to dismiss the French, to receive an English envoy, and to make terms with the
Company and its allies. Tipu paid scant attention to Wellesley’s letters and Tipu's alignment with
the French was perceived as a threat by the British. Thus the Fourth Anglo-Mysore war started.

‣ So Mysore was attacked from all four sides. The Marathas and the Nizam invaded from the north.
Tipu's troops were outnumbered 4:1

‣ The British secured a decisive victory at the Battle of Srirangapatnam in 1799

‣ Tipu fought till his capital Srirangapattinam was captured and he himself was shot dead.
‣ Result of the War -

• The central part of the kingdom around Mysore and Srirangapatnam was restored to the
(Hindu rule) Wadiyar dynasty (A five year old boy, Krishnaraja III, a descendant of the
dethroned Hindu Raja)

• Purnaiya, the previous minister, became Diwan.

• The remaining parts of the kingdom were divided between the British and the Nizam
• Mysore entered into a Subsidiary alliance
• It remained a princely state, not directly under British rule

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 Sikhs
Banda Bahadur
He was disciple of the last Guru, Guru Gobind Singh
His original name was Lakshman Dev.
He was killed by Farrukh Siyar. After his time, the Sikh Gurus were no longer present, leading to the
division of Sikhs into different Misls. (There were a total of 12 Misls)
In the absence of a powerful leader, Ranjit Singh emerged and united all Sikhs. He belonged to the
Sukerchakia Misl

Maharaja Ranjit Singh (1801-1839)

Born in 1780. He united the 12 Misls and subjugated other local kingdoms, becoming the Maharaja of
Punjab in 1801
He earned the title Sher-e-Punjab (Lion of Punjab)
He maintained a friendly relationship with the British
During the attack of the Afghan ruler, Zaman Shah, on Punjab. Simultaneously, a revolt in
Afghanistan forced him to return. While retreating, he discarded 12 cannons in the Ravi River to
expedite his movement. Ranjit Singh retrieved these cannons and sent them back to Afghanistan. King
Zaman Shah was highly impressed and granted Lahore to Ranjit Singh, who later made it his capital in
1799.
French traveler Victor Jacquemont referred to Ranjit Singh as Napoleon Bonaparte. (Napoleon of
India - Samudragupta)
Treaty of Amritsar (1809) -

‣ Signed between Lord Minto and Ranjit Singh

‣ To set a boundary between the British & Sikh territory (stipulated that the Sutlej River would
serve as their territory boundary). They agreed to maintain an army unit (Ranjit Singh's influence
extended up to Ludhiana)
Indus Navigation Treaty (1831)

‣ Signed between William Bentinck and Maharaja Ranjit Singh

‣ To open Sutlej for navigation
After Ranjit Singh's death in 1839, a struggle for succession ensued among his many relatives. This
period marked the process of disintegration of the Sikh Empire. He was succeeded by his eldest son,
Kharak Singh
Due to the struggle for succession, the British attacked Punjab, and Ranjit Singh's son was killed. Then
wife of Ranjit singh’s Son, Rani Jind Kaur, assumed control and declared her son Duleep Singh as
the new king

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 First Anglo-Sikh War (1845-1846)

‣ According to the Treaty of Amritsar - The Punjab Army was not supposed to cross the Sutlej
River

‣ Key Developments - The British closely observed the political developments in Punjab and
exploited the prevailing instability. The British dispatched additional regiments to the Punjab
frontier and constructed barracks for these troops in the forward area. This led the Sikh (Punjab)
Army to believe that the British planned to occupy Punjab, prompting them to take
countermeasures. Upon learning that Lord Hardinge, the Commander-in-Chief, and Lord Gough,
the Governor-General, were advancing towards Firozpur, the Sikh Army decided to engage them
and crossed the Sutlej River in December 1845

‣ The First Anglo-Sikh War began in December 1845, encompassing 5 battles

‣ Subsequent battles ensued, with the English victory at Sobraon leading to the signing of the Treaty
of Lahore in 1846, which concluded the war

‣ Treaty of Lahore (1846)

• Maharaja Duleep Singh remained king, with Rani Jind Kaur serving as regent
• The area up to the Sutlej and Kashmir remained under British rule
• The Sikh army's size was limited to a specific number
• A British Resident Sir Henry Lawrence was appointed to the Sikh territories
• The British sold Kashmir to Gulab Singh for one lakh rupees
Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848-1849)

‣ Background - Initially, Maharani Jindal Kaur was treated appropriately by the British. However,
she was later removed from Lahore on charges of conspiracy against her. Also Lord Dalhousie
introduced the Doctrine of Lapse during this period

‣ Battles were fought at Ramnagar and Chillianwala (The Battle of Ramnagar was indecisive,
while the Sikhs won at Chillianwala)

‣ The final decisive battle was fought at Gujarat in 1849

‣ Battle of Gujarat (1849)

• Duleep Singh lost the war, and the Koh-i-Noor diamond was taken from him and sent to
Queen Victoria of England

• Punjab was annexed by the British in 1849

• Duleep Singh (then 12 years old) was sent to London for his education, supported by a
pension

• Lord Dalhousie was recognized for his role in the annexation of Punjab and was made a
Marquess (a nobleman of high hereditary rank)

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 Governor Generals of India

Robert Clive (1757-1760 & 1765-1767)

Robert Clive was the first Governor of Fort William (Bengal) under the Company’s rule
Battle of Plassey (1757)
Treaty of Allahabad (Battle of Buxar)

‣ Shah Alam II & Robert Clive

‣ Allowance given to Nawab of Awadh - 32 lakhs
‣ Annual payment of 26 lakhs given to the Mughal Emperor.
Dual Government
‣ Dual Govt a system established by Robert Clive in 1765, following the Treaty of Allahabad,
which divided Bengal's administration into the Diwani (revenue collection), and the Nizamat
(Police and Civil administration)
4. Diwani (Revenue) - The British East India Company gained the right to collect revenue
and civil administration from the Mughal Emperor. Revenue was to be collected by
Mohammad Reza khan (Bengal) & Raja Shitab Roy (Bihar)
5. Nizamat (Civil & Police) - The Nawab of Bengal was left in charge of the police and
criminal administration, but this power was nominal as the Company controlled the
appointment of the Deputy Subahdar.
He was the only Governor who committed suicide (after convicted with the charges of corruption)

John Cartier (1769-1772)

During his tenure the Bengal Famine (1770) was witnessed.

Warren Hastings (1772-1785)

He was First Governor-General of Bengal (and last Governor of Bengal)
Abolished dual government in Bengal

‣ The East India Company decided to act as Diwan and to undertake the collection of revenue by its
own agents. Hence, the Dual System introduced by Robert Clive was abolished

‣ For that purpose, a Board of Revenue was established at Calcutta to supervise the collection of
revenue. English Collectors were appointed in each district. The treasury was removed from
Murshidabad to Calcutta and an Accountant General was appointed. Calcutta thus became the
capital of Bengal in 1772 and shortly after of British India.

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 ‣ Warren Hastings reduced the Nawab’s allowance of 32 lakhs of rupees to half that amount. He
also stopped the annual payment of 26 lakhs given to the Mughal Emperor.
Revenue Reforms - Instituted public auctions of land to the highest bidder for revenue collection
Judicial Reforms -

‣ Each district was provided with a civil court (called Sadar Diwani Adalat) under the Collector and
a criminal court (called Sadar Nizamat Adalat) under an Indian Judge

‣ Established the first Supreme Court in Kolkata (1774) - (under the Regulating Act of 1773)
Expansionist Policy -
1. Rohilla War (1774) (Rohilkand’s ruler was Hafiz Rahmat Khan)
2. First Anglo-Maratha War (1775-1782) - concluded by the Treaty of Salbai - 1782
3. Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780-1784) - concluded by Treaty of Mangalore in 1783
He was the only Governor-General to be impeached (1785)
Miscellaneous

‣ The Bengal Gazette, the first newspaper in India, was started by James Hicky during his tenure
(1780)

‣ Founded the Asiatic Society of Bengal with William Jones (1784)

‣ Facilitated the translation of the Bhagavad Gita by Charles Wilkins

Lord Cornwallis (1786-1793)

Administrative Reforms

‣ Introduced the Permanent Settlement (1793) for the Zamindari System in India
‣ He is known as the Father of Civil Services in India. The first Indian Civil Service (ICS) exam
was cleared by Satyendra Nath Tagore in 1863

‣ Reduced the age limit for civil services from 23 to 21

Judicial Reforms

‣ Cornwallis Code was enacted in 1793. With the help of his colleague, George Barlow, Cornwallis
prepared a comprehensive code, covering the whole field of administration’, judicial, police,
commercial and fiscal. This Code was based upon the principle of Montesquieu, “The Separation
of Powers between the judiciary & the executive to ensure justice for the common man.

‣ District Judges were appointed.

‣ Indian judges or Munsiffs were appointed to all the courts at the bottom of the judicial system.
Police reforms

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 ‣ The effective implementation of judicial reforms required the reorganisation of police
administration. The District Judge controlled the police. Each district was divided into thanas or
police circles headed by an Indian official called a Daroga.
He introduced the Zamindari System for 10 years. However, under the 1793 Act, it was made
permanent. Thus, it is also called the Permanent Settlement.
Wars

‣ Third Anglo-Mysore War (1790-1792), concluded by the Treaty of Srirangapattinam (1792)

Sir John Shore (1793-1798)

Battle of Kharda (1795)

‣ fought between the Marathas and the Nizam of Hyderabad

‣ Sir John Shore followed a Non-Intervention Policy (Policy of neutrality) during this war,
despite the Nizam being under British protection

Lord Wellesley (1798-1805)

He reversed the non intervention policy of his predecessor and formulated his master plan namely the
Subsidiary Alliance

‣ It was introduced to establish British paramountcy in India. It increased the military strength of
the Company in India at the expense of the protected states.

‣ The Nizam of Hyderabad was the first Indian ruler to accept this system in 1798
‣ It was followed by Mysore (1799), Tanjore (1799), Awadh (1801), the Peshwa (1802), the
Bhonsle (1803), and Scindia (1803).
In 1803, the British captured Delhi and placed the Mughals on pension
He called himself - The Bengal Tiger
He Founded Fort William College in Kolkata (1800)
Censorship of the Press Act (1799) was passed by him. (Imposed restrictions on press)

Sir George Barlow (1805-1807)

Role - Acted as the interim Governor-General of India after Lord Cornwallis's death
Key Event - The Vellore Mutiny (1806), considered the first military revolt

Lord Minto I (1807-1813)

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 Treaty of Amritsar (1809) with Maharaja Ranjit Singh

Lord Hastings (1813-1823)

Wars

‣ Anglo-Nepal War (1814-1816), also known as the Gurkha War, concluded by the Treaty of
Sagauli (1816), which established Nepal's boundary line

‣ Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-1818) (Pindari War) - which led to the abolition of the
Peshwaship
Policy Shift - Marked the end of the policy of Non-Intervention
He was considered the maker of the Bombay Presidency.
He approved the Ryotwari system of land revenue introduced in the Madras Presidency by Sir
Thomas Munroe.
Miscellaneous

‣ The Bengali Weekly, Samachar Darpan was started in 1818 by Marshman, a Serampore
missionary.

‣ In 1817, the Hindu College was established at Calcutta

Lord Amherst (1823-1828)

First Anglo-Burmese War (1824-36) - Treaty of Yandaboo concluded at the end of the First Burmese
War.
The Barrackpore Mutiny (1824)
Annexation of Assam (1824)

Lord William Bentinck (1828-1835)

He was the last Governor-General of Bengal before becoming the First Governor-General of India
The Charter Act of 1833 made him the First Governor-General of India Social Reforms
He was undoubtedly the first Governor- General of British India who acted on the dictum that “the
welfare of the subject peoples was a main, perhaps the primary, duty of the British in India”.
Financial Reforms
He reduced the salaries and allowances of all officers and additional staff were removed. In the military
department, he abolished the system of double batta. (Batta was an allowance to troops on active
service.)
Social Reforms

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 ‣ Abolished the Sati System (1829)
‣ Suppressed the Thuggee system (For his role in the suppression of thugs, Sir William Sleeman
was known as “Thugee Sleeman”)

‣ Female infanticide or child sacrifice (He not only prohibited female infanticide but declared them
as punishable crime)
Education

‣ Introduced the English Education Act of 1835

‣ He is known as the Father of Western Education in India due to his policy of Downward
filtration.

‣ Macaulay's minutes on education were accepted, declaring that English should be the official
language of India. English education was initiated in India

‣ The Government Resolution in 1835 made English the official and literary language of India.

Lord Charles Metcalfe (1835-1836)

He is known as the "Liberator of the Indian Press." He removed all restrictions on the Open Press

Lord Auckland (1836-1842)

Renamed Sher Shah Suri's road to the Grand Trunk Road (GT Road)
First Anglo-Afghan War

Lord Ellenborough (1842-1844)

Abolished the Slavery System in India

Lord Hardinge (1844-1848)

Ended the Human Sacrifice Ritual

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 Lord Dalhousie (1848-1856)
Lord Dalhousie was the youngest Governor-General of India when he assumed charge at the age of 36
in 1848.
Introduced the Doctrine of Lapse (1848)

‣ The Doctrine of Lapse was applied by Dalhousie to Satara and it was annexed in 1848. Jhansi and
Nagpur were annexed in 1854

‣ After the Mutiny of 1857, the doctrine of lapse was withdrawn.

Annexation of Punjab after the second Anglo-Sikh War in 1849,
Annexation of Burmese after the second Burmese War (1852)
Annexation of Oudh because of mis governence (1856)
Abolished titles and pensions
Established the first electric telegraph line (e.g., from Kolkata to Agra)
In 1852 Main cities of the country viz., Calcutta, Peshawar, Bombay and Madras were telegraphically
connected.
Introduced the Post Office Act of 1854 (Postage stamps were introduced for the first time)
Railways

‣ The first railway line connecting Bombay with Thane was opened in 1853 (34 Km)
‣ Railway lines connecting from Calcutta to the Raniganj coal-fields was opened in 1854 and from
Madras to Arakkonam in 1856.

‣ (The first railway in the world was opened in 1825 in England)

Dalhousie created a separate Public Works Department.
Initiated competitive examinations for civil services
Drafted the Widow Remarriage Act
Education

‣ The educational Despatch of Sir Charles Wood (1854) was considered the Intellectual Charter of
India

‣ The Universities of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras were founded in 1857.

Under military reforms Dalhousie shifted the headquarters of Bengal Artillery from Calcutta to Meerut.
Simla was made the permanent headquarters of the army.

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 Viceroys of India
Lord Canning (1856-1862)
He served as the last Governor-General of India and the first Viceroy of India
The Revolt of 1857 took place during his tenure
Policies

‣ Abolished the Doctrine of Lapse

‣ The Widow Remarriage Act, though drafted earlier, was passed during his time (1856)
‣ The first Indian Budget was presented by James Wilson
‣ The Indian Penal Code (IPC) was passed in 1860
‣ The office of the 1st Accountant General was established in India in 1858
He was also known as the "Father of Classification of the Indian Departments."

Lord Mayo (1869-1872)

Introduced financial distribution between the central and state governments for the first time
Census - The first Census of India was conducted in 1872
Initiated jail governance reforms in India
Established the Statistical Survey of India
He was the only Governor-General/Viceroy who was assassinated in India. He was killed by Sher Ali
Afridi in Port Blair

Lord Northbrook (1872-1876)

Intercaste marriage was allowed
The Universal Marriage Act (also known as the Special Marriage Act) was introduced in 1872

Lord Lytton (1876-1880)

Enacted the Vernacular Press Act of 1878, which aimed to suppress criticism of British policies by the
Indian press. This Act crushed the freedom of the Indian press.
He passed the Arms Act of 1878, making it mandatory to acquire a license for keeping arm. The
Europeans and the Anglo- Indians were exempted from the operation of these legislations.
He lowered the maximum age for civil services examinations from 21 to 19, which effectively reduced
opportunities for Indians
He was known to write poems under the pen name Owen Meredith.

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 Famine Policy - The first Famine Commission (1878-80) under Sir Richard Strachey was appointed
and it made many commendable recommendations. The Famine Code came into existence in 1883.
Second Afghan War (1878-80) during his period. (Treaty of Gandamak)

Lord Ripon (1880-1884)

He was considered one of the most beloved Governor-Generals
Repealed the controversial Arms Act and Vernacular Press Act
Initiated the setup of local self-governing bodies in 1882, including Panchayats and Municipal bodies.
Due to these reforms, he is known as the Father of Local Self-Government in India
Judicial Reform - Introduced the Ilbert Bill, which aimed to allow Indian judges to try Europeans. C.P.
Ilbert, Law Member, introduced a bill in 1883 to abolish this discrimination in judiciary. But
Europeans opposed this Bill strongly. They even raised a fund of one lakh fifty thousand rupees and
established an organisation called the Defence Association. They also suggested that it was better to
end the English rule in India than to allow the English to be subjected to the Indian Judges and
Magistrates. The press in England joined the issue. Hence, Ripon amended the bill to satisfy the
English in India and England. The Ilbert Bill controversy helped the cause of Indian nationalism. The
Ilbert Bill Controversy is a high watermark in the history of Indian National Movement. The immediate
result of this awakening of India was the birth of the Indian National Congress in 1885
Appointed the Hunter Commission in 1882 (under the chairmanship of Sir William Hunter) to
investigate complaints about the non-implementation of Wood's Despatch of 1854 and to assess the
current state of elementary education in British territories
The first Indian Factory Act of 1881 was passed during his tenure, which prohibited child labor
(specifically, children under seven years old were prohibited from working)
He was called Father of Indian Census (as he started regular census in India from - 1881)

Lord Dufferin (1884-1888)

The Indian National Congress was founded in 1885 by A.O. Hume during his term

Lord Landsdowne (1888-1894)

The Indian Councils Act of 1892 was passed, introducing indirect elections for the first time

Lord Elgin II (1894-1899)

His tenure saw instances of political assassinations
The first British officer, W.C. Rand, was murdered. Rand was killed by the Chapekar brothers
(Ramkrishna and Damodar)

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 Lord Curzon (1899-1905)
He was often considered one of the most disliked Viceroys
He was an archaeologist by inclination
Partition of Bengal (1905) during his term
Founded the Archaeological Survey of India in 1905 (HQ - Kolkata)
Indian University Act was passed in 1904 - which brought all the universities in India under the
control of the government.
Introduced Cooperative Agricultural Reforms in Punjab
He instituted a Police Commission in 1902 under the chairmanship of Sir Andrew Frazer. (set up
training schools for both the officers and the constables and introduced provincial police service)
Calcutta Corporation Act in 1899 - by which the strength of the elected members was reduced and
that of the official members increased.
The Ancient Monuments Act, 1904 which made it obligatory on the part of the government and local
authorities to preserve the monuments of archaeological importance and their destruction an offence.

Lord Minto II (1905-1910)

Implemented the Morley-Minto Reforms of 1909

Lord Hardinge II (1910-1916)

Hardinge Bomb Conspiracy (1912) - This event involved an attempt to assassinate Viceroy Lord
Hardinge
Rabindranath Tagore (1913) was awarded the title of "Knighthood" or "Sir" by the British

Lord Chelmsford (1916-1921)

The Montague-Chelmsford Reforms (1919) were introduced
On April 10, 1919, Mahatma Gandhi was arrested for the first time at Palwal Station

Lord Reading (1921-1926)

Introduced written examinations for the Indian Civil Service (ICS) in India (1925)

Lord Irwin (1926-1931)

The First Round Table Conference was held during his tenure
The Salt March and the Civil Disobedience Movement occurred

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 Lord Willingdon (1931-1936)
The Second and Third Round Table Conferences were held
The Communal Award was introduced

Lord Linlithgow (1936-1944)

The first provincial elections in India were held in 1936, leading to the formation of Provincial
Legislative Assemblies

Lord Wavell (1944-1947)

The Wavell Plan and the Shimla Conference were held

Lord Mountbatten (1947-1948)

The June 3rd Plan (or Mountbatten Plan) was introduced
He was the last Viceroy and the first Governor-General of independent India

C. Rajagopalachari (1948-1949)
First Indian Governor-General of India
Last Governor-General of India
He was affectionately known as 'Raja ji'
He was also referred to as 'Chanakya of Modern India'
He served as the Education Minister in the Interim Government
He became the Chief Minister on January 24, 1950.
In 1954, he was awarded the Bharat Ratna for his contributions to politics

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 Revenue Administration &
Economic Policy of The British

Phases of Economic Policy

Early Phase (1600-1757)
‣ The East India Company (EIC) operated purely as a trading entity, importing goods and precious
metals into India while exporting spices and textiles

Mercantilist Phase (1757-1813)

‣ The EIC imposed its own prices, which had no relation with the actual cost of production
‣ The company leveraged its political power to monopolise trade and dictated terms to the weavers
of Bengal

‣ Revenue generated from Bengal was used to finance the export of Indian goods
Industrial Phase (1813-1858)
‣ This period marked the beginning of significant exploitation by the British
‣ The Charter Act of 1813 allowed for one-way trade, primarily facilitating the import of British
cotton into India.

‣ The Indian market was flooded with cheap, machine-made imported goods from Britain, leading
to the destruction of both India's foreign and domestic markets

Finance imperialism (1858 onwards)

‣ This phase witnessed the export of capital from India, along with the establishment of British-
controlled banks, export-import firms, and managing agency houses

‣ The exploitation facilitated through the development of railways is a prime example of finance
imperialism

Drain of Wealth
‣ This concept refers to the portion of India's national product that was not available for
consumption by its own people

‣ It was first articulated by Dadabhai Naoroji in his book, Poverty and Un-British Rule in India.
‣ R.C. Dutt - Authored the book Economic History of India (In his book he blamed the British
policies for Indian economic ills)

‣ The Drain of Wealth began in 1757, following the Battle of Plassey.

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 Land Revenue System
The British policies revolved around getting maximum income from land without caring much about
Indian interests of the cultivators.
They abandoned the age -old system of revenue administration and adopted in their place a ruthless
policy of revenue collection.
After their advent, the British principally adopted three types of land tenures.
1. Roughly 19 per cent of the total area under the British rule (Bengal, Bihar, Banaras, division
of the Northern Western Provinces and northern Karnataka) were brought under the
Zamindari System or the Permanent Settlement.
2. The second revenue system, called the Mahalwari Settlement, was introduced in about 30
per cent of the total area under British rule (in major parts of the North Western Provinces,
Central Provinces and the Punjab with some variations).
3. The Ryotwari System covered about 51 per cent of the area under British rule (comprising
part of the Bombay and Madras Presidencies, Assam and certain other parts of British India.)

Permanent Settlement
Warren Hastings introduced the annual lease system of auctioning the land to the highest bidder. It
created chaos in the revenue administration. Cornwallis at the time of his appointment was instructed
by the Directors to find a satisfactory and permanent solution to the problems of the land revenue
system in order to protect the interests of both the Company and the cultivators.
After a prolonged discussion with his colleagues like Sir John Shore (the architect of this settlement)
and James Grant he decided to abolish the annual lease system and introduce a decennial (Ten years)
settlement which was subsequently declared to be continuous. It was introduced by Governor-General
Lord Cornwallis in 1793
It was initially implemented in Bengal, Bihar, and Odisha, and later extended to northern Madras and
Varanasi
Features -

‣ The zamindars of Bengal were recognised as the owners of land as long as they paid the revenue
to the East India Company regularly. The amount of revenue that the zamindars had to pay to the
Company was firmly fixed and would not be raised under any circumstances (thats why
Zamindari system was called Permanent settlement) .

‣ In other words the Government of the East India Company got 89% (10/11th) leaving the rest
(1/11th) to the zamindars.

‣ The Ryots became tenants since they were considered the tillers of the soil. This settlement took
away the administrative and judicial functions of the zamindars.
This had resulted in a great deal of misery amongst the peasants and farmers. Therefore Lord
Cornwallis’ idea of building a system of benevolent land-lordism failed

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 Ryotwari System (1820)
This system was introduced by Thomas Munro, (then Governor of Madras)
It was recommended by Charles Reed
The Ryotwari settlement was introduced mainly in Madras, Berar, Bombay and Assam.
The term 'Ryot' refers to Peasants or Cultivators
Under this settlement, the peasant was recognised as the proprietor (owners) of land. There was no
intermediary like a Zamindar between the peasant and the government. So long as he paid the revenue
in time, the peasant was not evicted from the land.
Taxes were collected directly by the government from the peasants
The tax rates were 50% for dry land and 60% for wet land. These rates were subject to increase, unlike
the Permanent Settlement

Mahalwari System
It was introduced by Holt Mackenzie in 1822 and reviewed under Lord William Bentinck in 1833
It was initially introduced for 30 years
This system was implemented in the the Punjab, the Central Provinces and parts of North Western
Provinces
This system was also referred to as a modified Zamindari system because the village headman
effectively functioned as a Zamindar. This system incorporates elements from both the Ryotwari and
Zamindari systems
Land was divided into Mahals. A mahal could consist of one or more villages. A settlement was made
with the village, which maintained a form of common ownership known as Bhaichara or mahal
The responsibility of paying the revenue rested with the entire Mahal or the village community. So the
entire land of the village was measured at the time of fixing the revenue. So Taxes were assessed on the
Mahal
Ownership rights were also granted to peasants
Revenue was collected by the village head (66% of total revenue) for a period of 30 year.

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 Subsidiary Alliance (1798)
The predecessors of Wellesley concluded alliances with Indian princes like the Nawab of Oudh and the
Nizam of Hyderabad. They received subsidies from the Indian rulers for the maintenance of British
troops, which were used for the protection of respective Indian states. Wellesley enlarged and
consolidated the already existing system.
So this system was conceptualised in India by Lord Wellesley in 1798, though the term itself was
introduced by Dupleix
Features of Subsidiary Alliance -

‣ Any ruler entering this alliance had to disband their own armed forces and accept the stationing of
British forces within their territory. The Indian state was called The protected state and the
British hereinafter were referred to as The paramount power. It was the duty of the British to
safeguard that state from external aggression and to help its ruler maintain internal peace

‣ Indian states were prohibited from entering into any alliances with other foreign powers. The
British would take care of the foreign affairs of the allied states

‣ The ruler of the protected state should keep a British Resident at his court and disband his own
army.

‣ The paramount power should not interfere in the internal affairs of the protected state
The Nawab of Awadh was the first ruler to enter into a subsidiary alliance after the Battle of Buxar
However, the Nizam of Hyderabad was the first to accept it in 1798

1. Hyderabad (1798)
2. Mysore (after the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War) (1799)
3. Tanjore (1799)
4. Awadh (1801)
5. Maratha (Peshwa) (1802)
6. Sindhia (1803)
7. Holkar (1803)
It was initially termed a Non-intervention Policy, but this principle was often violated
The pioneer of the Subsidiary Alliance was the French Governor, Dupleix

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 Doctrine of Lapse (Lord Dalhousie)
According to the Hindu Law, one can adopt a son in case of no male heir to inherit the property. It was
customary for a ruler without a natural heir to ask the British Government whether he could adopt a son
to succeed him. According to Dalhousie, if such permission was refused by the British, the state would
lapse and thereby become part of the British India.
So An annexation policy introduced by Lord Dalhousie in 1848 during his tenure as Governor-General
of India
Features -

‣ According to this doctrine, any princely state under the direct or indirect control of the East India
Company that lacked a legitimate natural heir (son) would be annexed by the Company

‣ An adopted son of a ruler could not be proclaimed as heir to the Kingdom

‣ The adopted son would also not be entitled to any pension that his father was receiving
‣ States annexed under the Doctrine of Lapse:
1. Satara (1848)
2. Jaitpur (1849)
3. Sambalpur (1849)
4. Bhagat (1850)
5. Udaipur (1852)
6. Jhansi (1853)
7. Nagpur (1854)
8. Tanjor (1855)
The British annexed Awadh in 1856 under the pretext of alleged Misgovernance by the Nawab
It was one of the underlying factors that contributed to the Revolt of 1857
After the Mutiny of 1857, the doctrine of lapse was withdrawn.

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 The Great Revolt of 1857
First War of Independence
British Prime Minister - Palmerston
Governor-General of India - Lord Canning
British Army Commander - Colin Campbell
Mughal Emperor (Badshah) - Bahadur Shah II (Zafar)
Nature of the Revolt

‣ Sir John Lawrence was of the opinion that the Revolt was purely a military outbreak, and not a
conspiracy to overthrow British rule

‣ Vir Savarkar is hailed as the First War of Indian Independence

‣ S.N. Sen believes that the 1857 Revolt was part of the struggle for Indian independence.
‣ R.C. Majumdar maintains that the outbreaks before 1857, whether civil or military, were a series
of isolated incidents ultimately culminated in the Great Revolt of 1857.
Reasons for the Revolt -

‣ Political

• The Doctrine of Lapse, introduced by Lord Dalhousie

• Awadh was annexed in 1856 on the charge of misgovernance, Jhansi was annexed
• Nana Sahib, the adopted son of Bajirao II, was refused his pension
• Anti-British feelings were particularly strong in those regions like Burma, Assam, Coorg,
Sind, and the Punjab which were unjustly annexed to the British Empire.

‣ Economic

• Heavy taxation
• Discriminatory trade policy (imposing a high tariff in Britain against Indian goods, and by
encouraging all means the import of British goods to India)

• Destruction of traditional handicrafts, which severely impacted peasants, artisans, and small
zamindars

• Dadabhai Naoroji's Drain Theory (in his book Poverty and Un-British Rule in India)
‣ Social

• Establishment of the Supreme Court and severe punishment meted out to Indians
• Prohibition of Sati in 1829 by Lord William Bentinck, with the efforts of Raja Ram Mohan
Roy

• Widow Remarriage Act of 1856 by Lord Dalhousie, with the efforts of Ishwar Chandra
Vidyasagar

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 • The educational institutions established by the missionaries inculcated western education
and culture in the place of oriental learning. The native population felt that were losing their
social identity.

‣ Religious

• Soldiers were forced to use Enfield rifles, the cartridges of which were greased with animal
fat (from pork or beef)
Military causes [Rebellions (Pre-1857)]

‣ Indian soldiers were paid low salaries and poor prospects of promotion (could not rise above the
rank of Subedar). They were also refused for the foreign allowance or batta when they served in
foreign territories

‣ They faced racial insults

‣ The first instance was during the Battle of Buxar in 1764 (though this refers to earlier disaffection,
not a full rebellion in the context of 1857)

‣ Vellore Mutiny in 1806 (a precursor to the 1857 Great Revolt, was the outcome of such
tendencies on the part of the military authorities)

‣ Barrackpore Mutiny in 1824

• Involved the 47th Regiment

• Some soldiers refused to be sent to Burma because crossing the sea was considered against
their Hindu religious beliefs

‣ Post Office Act of 1854 - Ended free postal services for soldiers

Outbreak of the Revolt (1857)

‣ The 1857 Revolt was sparked off by the episode of the greased cartridges used in the newly
introduced Enfield Rifle (P-53 rifle). The grease was composed of fat taken from beef and pig.
The religious feelings of the Hindu and Muslim sepoys were terribly wounded. The sepoys
believed that the government was deliberately trying to destroy their religious and cultural
identity. The 19th Native Infantry at Berhampur refused to use the newly introduced Enfield Rifle
(P-53 rifle) and hence raised the banner of revolt.

‣ The events that led to the Revolt began on 29 March 1857 at Barrackpore. Mangal Pandey (a
sepoy of the 34th Bengal Native Infantry) refused to use the greased cartridges and single-
handedly attacked and killed his officer. Mangal Pandey was hanged. The regiment to which he
belonged was disbanded and sepoys guilty of rebellion punished.

‣ At Meerut in May 1857, 85 sepoys of the 3rd Cavalry regiment were sentenced to long terms of
imprisonment for refusing to use the greased cartridges. Therefore, on 10 May 1857 the sepoys
broke out in open rebellion, shot their officers, released their fellow sepoys and headed towards
Delhi crying “March to Delhi”

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 ‣ The city of Delhi fell into the hands of the rebellious soldiers on 12 May 1857. The mutineers
proclaimed the aged nominal king, Bahadur Shah II of the Mughal dynasty as the Shahenshah-
e-Hindustan (Emperor of India).

‣ Very soon the rebellion spread throughout northern and central India at Lucknow, Allahabad,
Kanpur, Banares, in parts of Bihar, Jhansi and other places.
Delhi - Bahadur Shah II (the real control was exercised by His army general Bakht Khan)
Kanpur -

‣ At Kanpur the revolt was led by Nana Saheb, the adopted son of Baji Rao II, the last Peshwa.
‣ Nana Saheb in his efforts against the British was ably supported by two of his lieutenants. One
was Tantia Tope, the other was Azimullah.

Lucknow - Begum Hazrat Mahal (Oudh)

Jhansi

‣ The combined efforts of Rani Laxmi Bai and Tantia Tope saw the capture of Gwalior.
Meanwhile, Sir Hugh Rose defeated Tantia Tope and stormed Jhansi. He then captured Gwalior.
The Rani of Jhansi died a soldier’s death on 17 June 1858. Tantia Tope was captured and hanged
Bihar -

‣ Kunwar Singh (Zamindar of Jagdishpur) near Oudh, was the chief organiser of the revolt in
Bihar.
The Nawab of Awadh was known as the Lighthouse of Rebellion.
Bareilly - Khan Bahadur
Faizabad - Maulavi Ahmadullah (Sahib)

Suppression of the Revolt -

‣ John Lawrence, a British officer, famously stated - Had a single leader of ability arisen among
them, we must have been lost beyond redemption.

‣ Delhi was recaptured on September 20, 1857, by John Nicholson. Bahadur Shah was
subsequently deported to Rangoon (in 1857), where he died in 1862. His sons were shot dead

‣ Awadh was recaptured by Campbell

‣ Jhansi was recaptured by Hugh Rose in April 1858. Rani Laxmi Bai died on the battlefield
‣ Kanpur was recaptured on December 6, 1857, by Colin Campbell
‣ Lucknow was recaptured on March 21, 1858, by Colin Campbell and Havelock
Results of the Revolt -
‣ The revolt was ultimately unsuccessful
‣ In 1858, Queen Victoria issued a declaration letter

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 ‣ Company Rule ended, and Crown rule began
‣ The Governor-General's post was changed to that of Viceroy of India
‣ The Doctrine of Lapse was abolished
‣ The British pledged not to interfere in Indian social and religious matters
Importance of the Revolt
‣ It fostered patriotism among citizens
‣ People began to unite (Hindu - Muslim)
Miscellaneous
‣ The Sepoy Mutiny in India began in Meerut. It is also known as the First War of Independence
‣ The Indian Mutiny of 1857 effectively concluded in the city of Gwalior
‣ Started: May 10, 1857 (Meerut)
‣ Ended: June 20, 1858 (Gwalior)
The Revolt of 1857 ended an era and sowed the seeds of a new one. The year 1857 is a great divide
between the two landmarks in Indian history. One was that of British paramountcy in the first half, and
the other is that of the growth of Indian nationalism in the second half of the nineteenth century.

Rani Laxmi Bai

‣ Nickname - Manu
‣ Husband - Raja Gangadhar Rao
‣ They adopted a child in 1853 (which became relevant due to the Doctrine of Lapse)

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 Socio-Religious Reform Movements

Raja Ram Mohan Roy

Brahmo Samaj
Raja Ram Mohan Roy
‣ He was born at Radha nagar (Hooghly)
‣ He is known as the Father of Bengal
‣ He is also called the Father of the Indian Renaissance
‣ He is considered the Bridge Between the Future & the Past
‣ He is known as the Father of Modern India
‣ He was able to speak different languages (including English, Sanskrit, Persian, Arabic, French,
Latin, Greek and Hebrew.)

‣ He is also known as the Father of the Indian Press

‣ He was the First Modern Intellectual
‣ He founded the Atmiya Sabha in 1815, Later, it was developed into the Brahmo Sabha in
August 1828

‣ The work of the Atmiya Sabha was carried on by Maharishi Debendranath Tagore (father of
Rabindranath Tagore), who renamed it as Brahmo Samaj

‣ He founded the Vedanta Society in 1816

‣ He was a pioneer of socio-religious reform movements in modern India.
‣ He did not believe in the supremacy of the Brahmin priests. He favoured inter-caste marriages. He
himself adopted a Muslim boy.

‣ Rammohan Roy started the first Bengali weekly Samvad Kaumudi and edited a Persian weekly
Mirat-ul-akhbar.

‣ In 1818, after his sister-in-law (Bhabhi) immolated herself by Sati upon his brother's death, he
launched a movement against Sati through his journals, 'Samvad Kaumudi and Precepts of
Jesus

‣ In 1829, the practice of Sati was abolished by Lord William Bentinck through the efforts of
Raja Ram Mohan Roy

‣ He wrote A Gift to Monotheists, also known as Tuhfat-ul-Muwahhidin in Persian

‣ He assisted David Hare in founding Hindu College in Calcutta
‣ He also started an English Brahminical magazine
‣ In 1830, Akbar II requested him to go to London to speak with William IV

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 ‣ Akbar II bestowed upon him the title of Raja.
‣ Subhas Chandra Bose called him Yugadoot (Emissary of the Age)
‣ He died in 1833

Brahmo Samaj
‣ Founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy in 1828 in Calcutta in order to purify Hinduism and to preach
monotheism.

‣ They believed in Pantheism

‣ Associated with Devendra Nath Tagore & Keshav Chandra Sen
‣ The Brahmo Samaj divided into two sects:
1. Adi Brahmo Samaj - led by Devendra Nath Tagore
2. Brahmo Samaj of India - led by Keshav Chandra Sen

Ved Samaj
‣ Also known as the 'Brahmo Samaj of South' (Active in the Madras region)
‣ Found by KC Sen & K Sridharalu Naidu (1864)

The Young Bengal Movement (1809-1831)

Henry Vivian Derozio was the founder of the Young Bengal Movement. He was born in Calcutta in
1809
He was a teacher at 'Hindu College' in Calcutta
They attacked old traditions and decadent customs. They also advocated women’s rights and their
education

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 Swami Dayanand Saraswathi
The Arya Samaj
Swami Dayanand Saraswati (1824-1887)
‣ He was born in Kathiawar in Gujarat. His childhood name was Mool Chand. Swami
Poornananda gave him the name Dayanand Saraswati

‣ He was a scholar, a patriot, a social reformer and a revivalist.

‣ He believed the Vedas were the source of true knowledge. His motto was Back to the Vedas.
‣ He was against idol worship, child marriage and caste system based on birth. He encouraged
intercaste marriages and widow remarriage.

‣ He started the Suddhi movement to bring back those Hindus who had converted to other
religions to its fold.

‣ Another slogan was India for Indians

‣ He wrote the book

• Satyartha Prakash - 1874 (it contains his ideas) - often called the Bible of Arya Samaj.
• Rigveda Bhasya
‣ He is called the Martin Luther of India.
‣ He is also known as an Earliest Neo Nationalist.
‣ He regarded the Vedas as India's Rock and Ages.
Arya Samaj
‣ Established in 1875 at Manki Chandra Part, Bombay
‣ In 1877, the Headquarters of Arya Samaj shifted to Lahore
‣ The Arya Samaj supported women's education and widow remarriage
‣ In 1907, Valentine Chirol wrote a book titled Indian Unrest, in which he referred to Dayanand
Saraswati as the Father of disturbance in India.

‣ The Arya Samaj advocated for a caste system and a four-fold Varna system determined by merit,
not by birth

‣ It supported equal rights for men and women, widow remarriage, and inter-caste marriage
‣ It opposed untouchability, caste discrimination, child marriage, and idol worship
‣ The first Dayanand Anglo-Vedic (DAV) School was founded in 1886 at Lahore
‣ In 1893, the Dayanand Anglo Vedic College' was founded by Lala Lajpat Rai

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 Prarthana Samaj
The Prarthana Samaj was founded in 1867 in Bombay by Dr. Atmaram Pandurang.
It was an off-shoot of Brahmo Samaj.
It was a reform movement within Hinduism and concentrated on social reforms like inter-dining, inter-
marriage, widow remarriage and uplift of women and depressed classes.
Justice M.G. Ranade and R.G. Bhandarkar joined it in 1870 and infused new strength to it.
Justice Ranade promoted the Deccan Education Society.

Swami Vivekananda (Ramakrishna Mission)

Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902)
‣ His original name was Narendra Nath Dutt
‣ His Guru was Ramakrishna Paramahamsa (his childhood name - Gadadhar Chattopadhyay)
‣ In 1886 Narendranath took the vow of Sanyasa and was given the name - Vivekananda.
‣ He participated in the first Parliament of the World's Religions in Chicago in sept 1893 and
and raised the prestige of India and Hinduism very high.

‣ He also published two papers - Prabuddha Bharat (English) & Udbodhona (Bengali)
‣ Romya Rama called him a Hindu Republican
‣ In 1896, he established the Vedanta Society in the USA
‣ In 1900, he participated in the second World Religious Conference in Paris
‣ Subhas Chandra Bose called him the Spiritual Father of India.
‣ Books: Gyanayog, Karmaayog, Rajyog, Bhaktiyog
‣ Sister Nivedita

• Her real name was Margaret Noble (Irish)

• She was a student of Vivekananda
• She was connected with the Ramakrishna Mission
• Books: The Web of Indian Life and The Slave Rules of Hinduism.
Ramakrishna Mission
‣ Established in 1897 at Belur Math, Howrah (Calcutta) by Swami Vivekananda
‣ It is also known as Dakshineswar Swami
‣ It is a social service and charitable society. The objectives of this Mission are providing
humanitarian relief and social work through the establishment of schools, colleges, hospitals
and orphanages after the death of his Guru, Ramakrishna Paramahamsa

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 Theosophical Society
Established in 1875 in New York by Madam H.P. Blavatsky (Russia) and Henry Steel Olcott (USA)
Their main objectives were to form a universal brotherhood of man without any distinction of race,
colour or creed and to promote the study of ancient religions and philosophies.
They arrived in India and established their headquarters at Adyar in Madras in 1882.
Later in 1893, Mrs. Annie Besant arrived in India and took over the leadership of the Society after the
death of Olcott.
Mrs. Annie Besant founded the Central Hindu School along with Madan Mohan Malaviya at Benaras
which later developed into the Banaras Hindu University.
It accepted the concepts of 'Karma' and 'Rebirth'. It opposed child marriage and the caste system. It
supported widow remarriage

Pandit Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar

He was born in 1820 in a village in Midnapur, Bengal
He protested against child marriage and favoured widow remarriage which was legalised by the Widow
Remarriage Act (1856).
It was due to his great support for the spread of education that he was given the title of Vidyasagar.

Jyotiba Phule
Jyotiba Phule belonged to a low caste family in Maharashtra.
He waged a life-long struggle against upper caste domination and Brahmanical supremacy. In 1873 he
founded the Satyashodak Samaj to fight against the caste system.
He pioneered the widow remarriage movement in Maharashtra and worked for the education for
women.

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 Jyotiba Phule and his wife established the first girls’ school at Poona in 1851.
Jyotiba Phule was considered the first 'Brahmin Feminist'
He was also known as "Mahatma"
His notable books include

‣ Gulamgiri
‣ Sarvajanik Satyadharma

Aligarh Movement
The Aligarh Movement was started by Sir Syed Ahmad Khan (1817-98) for the social and
educational advancement of the Muslims in India.
In 1875, he founded a modern school at Aligarh to promote English education among the Muslims.
This had later grown into the Mohammedan Anglo Oriental College and then into the Aligarh
Muslim university

The Deoband School

The orthodox section among the Muslim ulema organised the Deoband Movement.
It was a revivalist movement whose twin objectives were

‣ to propagate among the Muslims the pure teachings of the Quran and the Hadis and
‣ to keep alive the spirit of jihad against the foreign rulers.
The new Deoband leader Mahmud-ul-Hasan (1851-1920) sought to impart a political and intellectual
content to the religious ideas of the school

Sikh Reform Movement

Baba Dayal Das founded the Nirankari Movement. He insisted the worship of God as nirankar
(formless).
The Namdhari Movement was founded by Baba Ram Singh.
In 1920, the Akalis started a movement to remove the corrupt Mahants (priests) from the Sikh
gurudwara. The British government was forced to make laws on this matter. Later, the Akalis organised
themselves into a political party.

Parsi Reform Movement

The Parsi Religious Reform Association was founded at Bombay by Furdunji Naoroji and S.S.
Bengalee in 1851.
Naoroji published a monthly journal - Jagat Mitra (SS Bengali)
Rahnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha - founded by Dadabhai Naoroji

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 Saint Ramalinga
He was born on October 5, 1823 at Marudhur, near Chidambaram.
In 1865 he founded the Samarasa Suddha Sanmargha Sangha for the promotion of his ideals of
establishing a casteless society.

Self-Respect Movement and Periyar E.V.R.

Periyar E.V. Ramaswamy was a great social reformer.
In 1924, he took an active part in the Vaikam Satyagraha. The objective of the Satyagraha was to
secure for untouchables the right to use a road near a temple at Vaikom in Kerala.
E.V.R. opposed the Varnashrama policy followed in the V.V.S. Iyer’s Seranmadevi Gurugulam.
During 1920-1925 being in the Congrees Party he stressed that Congress should accept communal
representation
Subsequently in 1925, he started the Self-Respect Movement. The aims of the Self -Respect
Movement were to uplift the Dravidians and to expose the Brahminical tyranny and deceptive
methods by which they controlled all spheres of Hindu life
He himself conducted many marriages without any rituals. Such a marriage was known as “Self
respect Marriage.” He gave secular names to new born babies.
He founded the Tamil journals Kudiarasu, Puratchi and Viduthalai to propagate his ideals.
In 1938 at Tamil Nadu Women’s Conference appreciating the noble service rendered by E.V.R. he
was given the title “Periyar”.
On 27th June 1970 by the UNESCO organisation praised and adorned with the title Socrates of
South Asia.

Akali Movement (1922-1927)

This movement was directed against the ‘Mahants’ (corrupt priests) in Gurdwaras, who were
perceived as collaborators with the British
As the Sikh community initiated the movement, the British ceased supporting the ‘Mahants’ and
instead backed the ordinary people
The Shiromani Gurudwara Prabandhak Committee (SGPC) was established in 1925 to manage all
Gurdwaras (It was an elected body)

Borshad movement (1923)

Movement took place in Kheda, Gujarat - led by Sardar VB Patel
Local dacoits (bandits) frequently attacked the area. The British Police imposed a security tax to
protect the villagers
A movement was launched against this security tax, which was subsequently abolished

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 Vaikom Satyagraha (1924) (Kerala)
Occurred in Travancore, Kerala
Led by T.K. Madhavan
Prior to the Satyagraha, members of the Nair community were not permitted to enter temples.
Brahmins had constructed separate roads for Nairs to access the temple

Eka Movement (1921-1922)

It was a peasant movement primarily in the Awadh region (now Uttar Pradesh, India) from 1921 to
1922, characterized by peasants' collective action against high rents, forced labor, and landlord
exploitation under British colonial rule. Led by Madari Pasi

Dharma Sabha
Founded by Radha Kant Dev in 1830 in Calcutta
It supported the Sati system

Dev Samaj
Founded by Shiv Narayan Agnihotri (Lahore) in 1887
Advocated banning alcohol

Bhartiya Sevak Samaj

Founder - Gopal Krishna Gokhale (1905) - Pune

Sarda Act (1929)

Also known as the Child Marriage restraint Act
Fixed the legal marriage age: Girls - 14, Boys - 18

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 Earlier Revolts
Sanyasi Revolt (1763-1800)
Cause - Imposition of religious tax
Area - Bengal and Bihar
Affected - Hindu sanyasis & Muslim fakirs, supported by peasants and dispossessed landlords
Reason - Oppressive British revenue policies after Battle of Buxar (1764) + famine of 1770
Leaders: Majnu Shah, Bhavani Pathak, Debi Chaudhurani (legendary)
First major peasant uprising against British rule - inspired Anandamath (written by Bankim
Chandra Chattopadhyay - Vande Mataram)

Fakir Revolt (1776-77)

Area - Bengal
Led by Muslim fakirs → Majnu Shah was the most famous leader. They were joined by Hindu
sanyasis, peasants, and disbanded soldiers of Bengal Nawabs.
Reason - After the Battle of Buxar (1764), the East India Company’s harsh revenue collection ruined
peasants and landlords. The famine of 1770 worsened conditions. Fakirs and Sanyasis, who
traditionally collected alms, were denied subsistence by the British.
The revolt lasted into the 1790s but was eventually suppressed with military force. Leaders like Majnu
Shah died in 1787, weakening the movement.
It was one of the first organized resistances against British colonial rule in India. It Showed Hindu–
Muslim unity (Fakirs with Sanyasis).

Tribal Movements
The term "Gond" was used by "Thakkar Bappa" (referring to a tribe)
Indigenous people referred to outsiders (like British Zamindars) as "Dikus."

Bhil Revolt (1818-46)

It was a tribal uprising in Western India against British exploitation, led by Bhil chiefs like Seva Ram,
and suppressed by force.
Affected - Bhil tribal community of Western India (Rajasthan, Gujarat, MP, Maharashtra)
Where - Khandesh region (Maharashtra & MP).

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 Rampa Rebellion (1922-1924)
It was a tribal uprising in Andhra Pradesh led by Alluri Sitarama Raju against British forest laws and
exploitation.
Using guerrilla warfare, tribals fought bravely until Raju was captured and executed, making him a
legendary freedom fighter.

Munda Rebellion (1899-1900):

Leader - Birsa Munda
Location - Ranchi (Chota Nagpur plateau region)
Also known as - Ulgulan (Tribal uprising)
It was against land alienation, exploitation, and British forest policies. It was suppressed, but Birsa
became a martyr and symbol of tribal resistance.

Santhal Rebellion (1855-1856):

Affected - The Santhal tribe, living in the Rajmahal Hills
Leaders: Sidhu Murmu, Kanhu Murmu, Chand Murmu, and Bhairav Murmu.
It was a massive tribal uprising in Jharkhand against zamindars, moneylenders, and British rule.
Though brutally suppressed, it remains a landmark in India’s tribal resistance history.

Gopal Haridesh Mukhi - His pseudonym was 'Lokhitwadi'

India's first Women's University was established in Pune by D.K. Karve in 1916

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 Indian National Movement (1885-1905)

Factors Promoting the Growth of Nationalism in India

Political Unity
‣ For the first time, most of the regions in India were united politically and administratively under a
single power (the British rule). It introduced a uniform system of law and government.

Development of Communication and Transport

‣ The introduction of railways, telegraphs and postal services and the construction of roads and
canals facilitated communication among the people.

‣ All these brought Indians nearer to each other and provided the facility to organise the national
movement on an all India basis.

English Language and Western Education

‣ The English educated Indians, who led the national movement, developed Indian nationalism and
organised it.

‣ Western education facilitated the spread of the concepts of liberty, equality, freedom and
nationalism and sowed the seeds of nationalism.

The Role of the Press - The Indian Press, both English and vernacular, had also aroused the national
consciousness.

Social and Religious Movements of the Nineteenth Century

‣ The leaders of various organisations like the Brahmo Samaj, Ramakrishna Mission, Arya
Samaj, and Theosophical Society generated a feeling of regard for and pride in the motherland.

Economic Exploitation by the British

‣ A good deal of anti-British feeling was created by the economic policy pursued by the British
government in India.

‣ The English systematically ruined the Indian trade and native industries. Therefore, economic
exploitation by the British was one of the most important causes for the rise of Indian nationalism.

Racial Discrimination
‣ The Revolt of 1857 created a kind of permanent bitterness and suspicion between the British and
the Indians. The English feeling of racial superiority grew.

‣ India as a nation and Indians as individuals were subjected to insults, humiliation and
contemptuous treatment.

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 Administration of Lytton
‣ Lord Lytton arranged the Delhi Durbar at a time when the larger part of India was in the grip of
famine. He passed the Vernacular Press Act which curbed the liberty of the Indian Press. His Arms
Act was a means to prevent the Indians from keeping arms. All these measures created widespread
discontent among the Indians.

The Ilbert Bill controversy

‣ The Ilbert Bill was presented in the Central Legislature during the Viceroyalty of Lord Ripon. The
Bill tried to remove racial inequality between Indian and European judges in courts. This Bill was
opposed by the British residents in India. Ultimately the Bill was modified.
Thus various factors contributed to the rise of nationalism and the formation of the Indian National
Congress.

Early Political Associations

1. The British Indian Association - 1851
2. Bengal The Bombay Association - 1852
3. Dadabhai Naoroji East India Association - 1866
4. London Madras Native Association - 1852
5. Poona Sarvojanik Sabha -1870
6. The Madras Mahajana Sabha -1884

The Indian National Congress (INC)

Background

‣ The National Conference in 1883 resolved to invite prominent public figures and associations to
discuss matters of general concern. The Indian National Union formed in 1884 by A.O. Hume,
merged with the National Conference to establish the Indian National Congress in 1885
Established - December 28, 1885
Founded on the suggestion of A.O. Hume (Retired- ICS officer)
First Meeting (1885) - Mumbai

‣ Organiser - A.O. Hume

‣ President - W.C. Banerjee
‣ Venue - Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College, Bombay (originally planned for Pune but shifted due to
plague)

‣ Delegates - Attended by 72 delegates

‣ Viceroy during this time - Lord Dufferin

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 Persons attending the session belonged to different religious faiths. They discussed the problems of all
the Indians irrespective of their religion, caste, language and regions. Thus Indian National Congress
from the start was an all-India secular movement embracing every section of Indian society
Safety Valve Theory

‣ Some British historians argue that A.O. Hume's primary objective was to serve as a "safety valve"
to mitigate rising discontent among educated Indians
Lala Lajpat Rai, in his book Young India, criticized this theory, stating that Hume acted like a Fire-
extinguisher for the growing Indian nationalism, but ultimately failed

Sessions of the INC

2nd Session - Calcutta (1886)

‣ President - Dadabhai Naoroji (3 times President)

‣ Delegates - 422
‣ Swaraj word was used here
3rd Session - Madras (1887)

‣ President - Badruddin Tyabji (1st Muslim President - he appealed Muslims to join the INC)
4th Session - Allahabad (1888)

‣ President - George Yule (The first British President of the INC)

5th Session - Bombay (1889)

‣ President - William Wedderburn (He later wrote A.O. Hume's biography)

6th Session - Calcutta (1890)

‣ President - Firoz shah Mehta

7th Session - Nagpur (1891)

‣ President - P. Ananda Charlu

12th Session - Calcutta (1896)

‣ President - Rahmatullah M. Sayani

‣ "Vande Mataram" was sung for the first time at an INC session
22nd Session - Calcutta (1906)

‣ President - Dadabhai Naoroji

‣ The word "Swaraj" (self-rule) was first used by the President from the INC platform

Surat (1907)

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 ‣ President - Rash Behari Bose
‣ The Congress split into two factions - Moderates and Extremists. This session was suspended
without a resolution
Calcutta (1911)

‣ President - Bishan Narayan Dar

‣ The National Anthem (Jana Gana Mana) was sung for the first time.
Lucknow (1916)

‣ President - Ambika Charan Mazumdar

‣ Known for the Reunion of Congress (Moderates and Extremists reunited) and the Lucknow Pact
with the Muslim League
Calcutta (1917)

‣ President - Annie Besant (The first woman President of the INC)

1919 - Amritsar

‣ President - Motilal Nehru

‣ Condemned the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre; resolved to launch the Khilafat Movement
1920 Calcutta (Special Session)

‣ President - Lala Lajpat Rai

‣ Endorsed the Non-Cooperation Movement
1923 - Delhi (Special Session)

‣ President - Abul Kalam Azad (He became the youngest President of the INC)
1924 (Belgaum)

‣ President - Mahatma Gandhi (The only session he presided over)

1925 (Kanpur)

‣ President - Sarojini Naidu (The first Indian woman President of the INC)
1928 (Calcutta)

‣ President - Motilal Nehru

‣ Formation of the first All India Youth Congress
1929 (Lahore)

‣ President - Jawaharlal Nehru

‣ Demand for "Poorna Swaraj" (complete independence), with January 26 designated as
"Independence Day"

‣ launched the Civil Disobedience Movement

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 1931 - Karachi

‣ President - Vallabhbhai Patel

‣ Key Events - Endorsed the Gandhi-Irwin Pact
‣ Passed the Resolution on Fundamental Rights for the 1st time
‣ Gandhi said - Gandhi can die, but Gandhism cannot
1933 - Calcutta

‣ President - Nellie Sengupta

1937 - Faizpur

‣ President - Jawaharlal Nehru

‣ Key Feature - First INC session held in a village
‣ Discussed a "13-point program for Agriculture"
‣ Suggested the recognition of "Peasant Unions"
1938 - Haripura (Gujarat)

‣ President - Subhas Chandra Bose

‣ First time the Planning Commission was discussed, under Nehru's leadership
1939 - Tripuri (Madhya Pradesh)

‣ President - Subhas Chandra Bose (He later resigned, and Rajendra Prasad became President)
1940 - Ramgarh

‣ President - Abul Kalam Azad

‣ The Quit India Movement was launched
‣ The INC was declared "illegal" by the British (resulting in no sessions from 1941-1945)
‣ 1941-1945 - Congress sessions were suspended. Abul Kalam Azad was the longest-serving INC
President during this period (5 years)
1946 - Meerut

‣ President - J.B. Kripalani (This was the last session before Indian Independence)
1948 - Jaipur

‣ President - Pattabhi Sitaramayya

Years with No Sessions - 1930, 1935, 1941-45

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 The history of the Indian National Movement can be studied in three important phases:
I. The phase of moderate nationalism (1885-1905) when the Congress continued to be loyal to
the British crown.
II. The Extremist Phase (1906-1916)
III. The period from 1917 - 1947 is known as the Gandhian era.

Moderate Phase (1885-1905)

Key Leaders
‣ W.C. Banerjee, Surendra Nath Banerjee, Dadabhai Naoroji, Feroze Shah Mehta, Gopalakrishna
Gokhale, Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya, Badruddin Tyabji, Justice Ranade and G.Subramanya
Aiyar. (Note - Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Aurobindo Ghosh, and Bipin Chandra Pal
were prominent Extremists, not Moderates)

Demands of Moderates
‣ Expansion and reform of legislative councils.
‣ Greater opportunities for Indians in higher posts by holding the ICS examination simultaneously
in England and in India.

‣ Separation of the judiciary from the executive.

‣ More powers for the local bodies.
‣ Reduction of land revenue and protection of peasants from unjust landlords.
‣ Abolition of salt tax and sugar duty.
‣ Reduction of spending on army.
‣ Freedom of speech and expression and freedom to form associations
Methods of Moderates
‣ The Moderates had total faith in the British sense of justice and fair play.
‣ They were loyal to the British. They looked to England for inspiration and guidance.
‣ The Moderates used petitions, resolutions, meetings, leaflets and pamphlets, memorandum
and delegations to present their demands.

‣ They confined their political activities to the educated classes only.

‣ Their aim was to attain political rights and self-government stage by stage.
Objective - To foster a sense of national unity, transcending differences in race, caste, religion, and
province

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 In the beginning, the British Government welcomed the birth of the Indian National Congress. In
1886, Governor General Lord Dufferin gave a tea garden party for the Congress members in Calcutta.
The government officials had also attended Congress sessions.
With the increase in Congress demands, the government became unfriendly. It encouraged the Muslims
to stay away from the Congress.

Achievements of Moderates
‣ The Moderates were able to create a wide national awakening among the people.
‣ They popularized the ideas of democracy, civil liberties and representative institutions.
‣ They explained how the British were exploiting Indians. Particularly, Dadabhai Naoroji in his
famous book Poverty and UnBritish Rule in India wrote his Drain Theory. He showed how
India’s wealth was going away to England in the form of: (a) salaries,(b)savings, (c) pensions, (d)
payments to British troops in India and (e) profits of the British companies. In fact, the British
Government was forced to appoint the Welby Commission, with Dadabhai as the first Indian as
its member, to enquire into the matter.

‣ Some Moderates like Ranade and Gokhale favoured social reforms. They protested against child
marriage and widowhood.

‣ The Moderates had succeeded in getting the expansion of the legislative councils by the Indian
Councils Act of 1892.

Extremist Phase (1905-1917)

The period from 1905 was known as the era of extremism in the Indian National Movement. The
extremists or the aggressive nationalists believed that success could be achieved through bold means.
The important extremist leaders were Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal (often
referred to as the "Lal-Bal-Pal" trio) and Aurobindo Ghosh.

Causes of Rise of Extremism

‣ Growing dissatisfaction with the methods and achievements of the Moderates
‣ The famine and plague of 1896-97 which affected the whole country and the suffering of the
masses.

‣ The economic conditions of the people became worse.

‣ The ill-treatment of Indians in South Africa on the basis of colour of skin.
‣ The Russo-Japanese war of 1904-05 in which Japan defeated the European power Russia. This
encouraged Indians to fight against the European nation, Britain.

‣ The immediate cause for the rise of extremism was the reactionary rule of Lord Curzon: His
policies, which were seen as autocratic - such as

• He passed the Calcutta Corporation Act, (1899) reducing the Indian control of this local
body. The Universities Act (1904) reduced the elected members in the University bodies. It

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 also reduced the autonomy of the universities and made them government departments. The
Sedition Act and the Official Secrets Act reduced the freedoms of all people. His worst
measure was the Partition of Bengal (1905).

Main Objective of Extremists

‣ Their main objective was to attain Puran Swaraj or complete independence and not just self-
government.

Methods of the Extremists

‣ The Extremists had no faith in the British sense of justice and fair play. They pointed out the
forceful means by which the British had taken control of India. They believed that political rights
will have to be fought for. They had the spirit of self-reliance and self determination.

‣ The methods used by the extremists were -

• Not cooperating with the British Government by boycotting government courts, schools and
colleges.

• Promotion of Swadeshi and boycott of foreign goods.

• Introduction and promotion of national education.
• Involved a wider cross-section of society, including lower-middle classes
• Did not adhere strictly to constitutional methods, favouring confrontation over negotiation
Impact of the Extremist Period -
‣ They organized festivals like Ganesh Chaturthi and Shivaji Jayanti to spread nationalist
messages throughout India. This was seen as a significant social reform with a broader societal
impact

‣ The Swadeshi Movement gained significant momentum due to their efforts, leading to the
establishment of indigenous banks, mills, and factories.

‣ Aimed to instil self-respect and patriotism by reviving pride in India's past, including Vedic
traditions, Puranas, and historical figures like Shivaji, Maharana Pratap, and Guru Gobind Singh

‣ The Extremists' advocacy for educational reform led to the establishment of national universities
free from government control across the country

‣ Bal Gangadhar Tilak famously declared, "Swaraj is my birthright, and I shall have it!" This
slogan became a rallying cry for the movement

Achievements of Extremists
‣ They were the first to demand Swaraj as a matter of birth right.
‣ They involved the masses in the freedom struggle and broadened the social base of the National
Movement.

‣ They were the first to organise an all-India political movement, viz. the Swadeshi Movement.

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 The Partition of Bengal (1905)
Background -
‣ Following the Battle of Buxar (1764), the extensive Bengal Province (comprising present-day
West Bengal, Bihar, Odisha, Bangladesh, and Assam) came under British control

‣ Due to its vast size and administrative unwieldiness, the partition of the province had been
proposed earlier. The British government, under Viceroy Lord Curzon, conceived the Partition of
Bengal as a political tool to undermine the burgeoning nationalism in India by creating a
communal divide between Hindus and Muslims

‣ Their real motives behind partition of Bengal in 1905

• To break the growing strength of Bengali nationalism since Bengal was the base of Indian
nationalism.

• To divide the Hindus and Muslims in Bengal. (by dividing Bengal based on religious
demographics, with East Bengal becoming a Muslim-majority area and West Bengal a
Hindu-majority area

• To show the enormous power of the British Government in doing whatever it liked.
Reaction to the Partition
‣ The public immediately perceived the British "Divide and Rule" policy behind the partition
‣ On the day the partition officially came into effect (16 Oct 1905), the people of Bengal organised
protest meetings and observed a day of mourning

‣ Rabindranath Tagore called upon Hindus and Muslims to tie Rakhis to each other as a symbol of
unity and protest. There was a widespread outcry for the unity of Bengal. Rabindranath Tagore
composed the famous song Amar Sonar Bangla, which later became the national anthem of
Bangladesh

Consequences of the Partition

‣ The partition directly fuelled the launch of the Swadeshi and Boycott movements as a significant
part of the national struggle

‣ Despite widespread protest, the partition did succeed in creating a communal rift and is
considered to have contributed to the birth of the Muslim League in 1906

Annulment of the Partition (1911)

‣ Due to extensive public protest, the Partition of Bengal was annulled in 1911. Following the
annulment, new provinces were created primarily on linguistic rather than religious lines

‣ A separate Assam province was created. Bihar and Odisha were carved out of Bengal, becoming a
separate province in 1936

‣ The capital of British India was transferred from Calcutta to Delhi

‣ Despite the annulment, the partition left a lasting communal impact on the minds and emotions of
the people

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 Key Events Related to the Partition
‣ July 20, 1905 - The official decision for partition was announced
‣ August 7, 1905 - The Swadeshi movement was formally launched at a meeting in Calcutta Town
Hall, and the boycott proposal was passed

‣ October 16, 1905 - The Partition officially came into effect, and the day was observed as "Black
Sunday"

‣ October 16, 1905 - Rabindranath Tagore called for the celebration of "Rakhi Bandhan Day" to
symbolise Hindu-Muslim unity
INC session (1905) - Benaras Session

‣ President: Gopal Krishna Gokhale

Arundel Committee - Lord Hardinge attempted to reunite Bengal and address the communal divide
through the Aligarh Committee

The Swadeshi Movement (1905)

Formal Proclamation - The Swadeshi movement was formally proclaimed on August 7, 1905, with the
passing of the Boycott resolution at a Calcutta Town Hall meeting
It was a comprehensive movement that spanned approximately six years (1905-1911). Despite being
relatively short-lived, it had a profound impact on Indian nationalism
Beyond its political objectives, the movement fostered a celebration of India's rich cultural heritage
Krishna Kumar Mitra, through his newspaper Sanjivani, prominently highlighted the importance of
national education and economic self-sufficiency
The Swadeshi Movement involved programmes like the boycott of government service, courts, schools
and colleges and of foreign goods, promotion of Swadeshi goods, Promotion of National Education
through the establishment of national schools and colleges. It was both a political and economic
movement.

Interpretations of the Movement

‣ Bal Gangadhar Tilak referred to it as "Bahishkar Yog"
‣ According to Tilak and Lala Lajpat Rai, the movement served as training in self-determination,
self-help, and self-reliance.

‣ Surendranath Banerjee described it as a "Protectionist movement."

Challenges Faced by the Swadeshi Movement
‣ Lack of Organisation - The movement lacked proper organisation
‣ Failure to Unite Hindus and Muslims - This weakness was exacerbated by the establishment of the
Muslim League

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 ‣ Limited Peasant Participation - The movement failed to address the specific issues of peasants,
thus limiting their involvement
Bharat Mata Painting: Abanindranath Tagore's iconic painting of "Bharat Mata," depicting her as an
ascetic figure, was created in 1905, during the Swadeshi movement, symbolising national spirit

Formation of the Muslim League (1906)

In December 1906, Muslim delegates from all over India met at Dacca for the Muslim Educational
Conference. Taking advantage of this occasion, Nawab Salimullah of Dacca proposed the setting up of
an organisation to look after the Muslim interests. The proposal was accepted.
The All-India Muslim League was finally set up on December 30, 1906.
Leaders - Aga Khan, Nawab Salimullah of Dhaka, and Wakar-ul-Mulk
Founding President: Wakar-ul-Mulk
Permanent President: Aga Khan
Muhammad Ali Jinnah joined the party in 1913
Like the Indian National Congress, they conducted annual sessions and put their demands to the British
government. Initially, they enjoyed the support of the British. Their first achievement was the separate
electorates for the Muslims in the Minto-Morley reforms. It supported the Partition of Bengal and
actively opposed the Swadeshi movement

The Surat Split (1907)

During Swadeshi movement the aggressive nationalists forced Dadabhai Naoroji to speak of Swaraj
(which was not a Moderate demand) in the Calcutta Session of Congress in 1906. They adopted the
resolutions of Boycott and Swadeshi. The Moderate Congressmen were unhappy. They wanted Swaraj
to be achieved through constitutional methods.
Surat session (1907) -
The session was initially planned for Nagpur. The Extremists wanted Lala Lajpat Rai or Bal Gangadhar
Tilak as president, while the Moderates favoured Rash Behari Bose
"Home Province" Rule - According to Congress rules, the session president could not be from the host
province. Since Tilak's home province was the Bombay Presidency (which also included Surat), the
Moderates shifted the venue to Surat to prevent Tilak from being elected. Tilak was not even permitted
to speak at the session, further infuriating the Extremists
Both factions remained rigid in their demands, leading to an irreconcilable deadlock
The differences led to a split in the Congress at the Surat session in 1907. This is popularly known as
the famous Surat Split. The extremists came out of the Congress led by Tilak and others.
Following the split, the Moderates held a separate meeting, reaffirming the Congress's objective of self-
government within the British Empire and their commitment to using only constitutional methods

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 Delhi Durbar (1911)
Also known as the "Imperial Durbar" or "Court of Delhi"
This was a massive public assembly organized by governors to mark and celebrate the succession of an
Emperor of India - King George V
Delhi Durbar were held three times - 1877, 1903, and 1911
The Viceroy at the time was Lord Hardinge
Key declarations included

‣ The annulment of the Bengal Partition

‣ The transfer of the capital from Calcutta to Delhi

Delhi Conspiracy Case (1910)

Also known as the "Delhi Lahore Conspiracy Case."
This was an assassination attempt on Lord Hardinge, who was the Viceroy of India at the time
A "homemade bomb" was thrown into the Viceroy's elephant carriage during a ceremonial procession
to mark the transfer of the capital from Kolkata to Delhi
Lord Hardinge was injured in the attack
Rash Behari Bose escaped and fled to Japan. His servants (who were also implicated), Basant Biswas
and Manumath Biswas, were convicted
On March 22, 1912, Bihar was carved out as a separate state from the Bengal Presidency. This date is
now celebrated as Bihar Day

Gadar Party (1913)

Founded by Lala Hardayal in America
Its headquarters were located in San Francisco at the Yugantar Ashram
Sohan Singh also joined and became the first president of the Gadar Party
They started a monthly magazine named "Gadar" in several languages
The word "Gadar" was inspired by the 1857 Indian Rebellion
The Komagata Maru Incident was a significant catalyst for the formation of the party
The original name of this party was the Pacific Coast Hindustan Revolution

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 Komagata Maru Incident (1914)
This involved a Japanese steamship
It was carrying 376 passengers from Hong Kong (a British Empire territory) to Vancouver, Canada
The majority of passengers on the ship were Sikh and Punjabi Muslims
Out of the total, only 24 passengers were admitted to Canada; the rest were denied entry, and the ship
was forcibly returned to Asia
When the ship returned to Calcutta in September 1914, the passengers were instructed to take a Punjab-
bound train forcibly, which they refused. In the ensuing conflict, 22 people died, including 16
passengers.
This incident was a violation of human rights, characterized by arbitrary detention and the denial of
food and water for 48 hours

Lucknow Pact (1916)

President - Ambika Charan Majumdar

Background
‣ The Muslim League initially held a militant stance when it was formed in 1906. After World War
I, Viceroy Lord Chelmsford sought reform suggestions from Indians in exchange for their support
in the British war effort. Both Muhammad Ali Jinnah and the Muslim League were displeased
with the existing situation. The Ali brothers aimed to leverage opportunities to push for
constitutional reforms through a Hindu-Muslim pact. Muhammad Ali Jinnah was a member of
both parties at the time and was largely responsible for facilitating the pact
During the 1916 Congress session at Lucknow two major events occurred.
1. The divided Congress became united.
2. An understanding for joint action against the British was reached between the Congress and the
Muslim League and it was called the Lucknow Pact. The signing of the Lucknow Pact by the
Congress and the Muslim League in 1916 marked an important step in the Hindu-Muslim unity.
The agreement between the parties regarding a separate communal electorate formally established
communal politics in India
This pact propelled the hitherto less relevant Muslim League to the forefront of Indian politics,
alongside the Congress party
Madan Mohan Malaviya opposed the pact and stated that the "Muslim League cannot be trusted."

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 Home Rule Movement (1916)
Inspired by the Home Rule League established by Irish leader Redmond
Aim - To achieve Home Rule, which implied dominion status for India within the British Empire

Background
‣ The Congress split in 1907 and Tilak's imprisonment (1908-1914) led to a lull in the National
Movement. However, Tilak's release and Annie Besant's arrival revitalised the national movement

‣ Leaders were divided on whether to support Britain in World War I. Annie Besant famously
declared, "England's need is India's opportunity."

‣ After the Lucknow Pact, Tilak joined the Congress Party. However, both Tilak and Besant were
unable to persuade the Congress to officially support their decision to establish Home Rule
Leagues. Consequently, Tilak set up his Home Rule League in April 1916, covering
Maharashtra, Karnataka, the Central Provinces, and Berar (but notably not Mumbai)

‣ Annie Besant established her own Home Rule League in September 1916, covering the rest of
India (including Mumbai)
Objectives

‣ To achieve self-government in India

‣ To revive political activity in India while upholding the principles of the INC
Activities
‣ Joseph Baptista was the first president of Tilak's Home Rule League
‣ Tilak's newspapers, "Mahratta" and "Kesari," served as the organs for the Home Rule Movement
‣ The Home Rule Movement, however, was not widespread across all of India
Annie Besant and the Home Rule Movement
‣ Annie Besant started the weekly newspapers "Commonwheel" and "New India."
‣ She is credited with coining the term "Commonwealth."
‣ Her efforts in the Home Rule movement created significant awareness within India and alarmed
the British, leading to her arrest in 1917

‣ Her arrest sparked a nationwide protest, leading even moderates to join the league. Many
prominent Congress leaders and Muslim League leaders, including Jinnah, joined the Home Rule
League

‣ The movement contributed to the Montague Declaration of 1917 (also known as the August
Declaration), which implied that the "Demand for Home Rule would no longer be considered
seditious."

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 Failure and decline
‣ Attributed to its limited reach, it was not a mass movement and was primarily restricted to
educated people and college students

‣ Annie Besant often wavered between being satisfied with the government's talk of reforms and
actively pushing the Home Rule movement forward. She was unable to provide firm leadership to
her followers

‣ British journalist Valentine Chirol, in his book "Indian Unrest," wrote about Bal Gangadhar Tilak,
calling him the "father of Indian unrest.". Consequently, Tilak went to London to file a defamation
case, which he ultimately lost. Tilak's absence and Besant's inability to provide strong leadership
contributed to the movement's waning

‣ After World War I, Mahatma Gandhi gained prominence as a mass leader, and the Home Rule
League merged with the Congress Party in 1920

‣ Gandhi transformed the agitation into a Satyagraha (truth-force) movement

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 The INDIAN National Movement (1917-1947)

The third and final phase of the Nationalist Movement (1917-1947) is known as Gandhian Era

Advent of Gandhi
Born - October 2, 1869, in Porbandar
Father - Karamchand Gandhi
Mother - Putlibai
Wife - Kasturba (married at 13 years old)
He went to England to study law in 1888
He passed his law examination in 1891 and on 12 June 1891 he sailed back to India
He stayed in India for two years before going to South Africa in 1893 to fight a lawsuit on behalf of
Dada Abdullah & Company

Early Life [South Africa (1893-1914)]

He spent 21 years in South Africa
In April 1893 he went to South Africa and involved himself in the struggle against apartheid (Racial
discrimination against the Blacks) for twenty years.
He was arrested for defending his right to travel in the first-class compartment of a train at
Pietermaritzburg station (he was travelling from Durban to Pretoria)
His expulsion from Durban to Pretoria sparked his interest in racial discrimination and marked the
beginning of his philosophy of non-violent protest
Gandhi raised political awareness through regular communal newspapers
‣ He founded the newspaper Indian Opinion.
Gandhiji opposed Indian Franchise Bill in Africa
In 1894, Gandhi established the Natal Indian Congress, which led non-violent protests against the
oppressive treatment of white people
In 1896, he briefly visited India to gather support from 800 Indians to serve alongside him in South
Africa
Gandhi was inspired by John Ruskin’s book Unto This Last, leading him to establish the Phoenix
Farm near Durban in 1904
Satyagraha was shaped into a weapon of protest at Tolstoy Farm (1902)
He organised the first Satyagraha in 1906 to protest the Transvaal Asiatic Ordinance.

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 By the end of his stay in South Africa, the govt had passed had the Indian Relief Act, which granted
many demands of Indians and his colleagues

Searle rule - (Justice Searle) judgment invalidated Indian non-Christian marriages unless registered
‣ So Kasturba Gandhi was jailed, but Gandhi opposed it, and the rule was withdrawn

Miscellaneous
Books by Gandhi
‣ India of my Dreams (collection of Gandhiji Speech & Notes)
‣ Hind Swaraj (1909)
‣ Ana Shakti Yoga (translation completed at Kausani)
‣ Sapt Mahavart
‣ Geetamata
‣ My Experiments with Truth
Newspapers by Mahatma Gandhi
‣ Indian Opinion (1903) - Published in Africa
‣ ‘The Green Pamphlet’ - Published in Rajkot
‣ Young India (1919)
‣ Harijan (1932)
Ashrams Founded by Gandhiji:
‣ Phoenix (1904) - Durban, South Africa
‣ Tolstoy Farm (1910) - Johannesburg, South Africa
‣ Satyagraha Ashram (1915) - Ahmedabad
‣ Sabarmati Ashram (1915) - Ahmedabad
‣ Ana Shakti Ashram (1929) - Uttarakhand
‣ Sevagram Ashram (1936) - Wardha, Maharashtra

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 Gandhi in India
He arrived in India on January 9, 1915, at Apollo Port, Mumbai
9 January is celebrated as Pravasi Bharatiya Divas (Non-Resident Indian Day)
He attended the Lucknow session of the Indian National Congress
Lucknow session was the 2nd session that he attended [his first session that he attended was in 1901
(Calcutta) where he observed the proceedings and went back]
‣ He presided over the INC session only once, in 1924 at Belgaum
He established an Ambulance care to send injured soldiers to hospitals during World War I.
‣ For this he was awarded the title Keser-i-Hind in 1915 by Lord Hardinge (The term Keser-i-
Hind was coined by G.W. Leitner in 1918)
‣ He was called the Sergeant of the Army.
In 1915, he opened the Sabarmati Ashram, with Ambalal Sarabhai providing the land for it.
He met Gopal Krishna Gokhale, who became his political mentor
He met Rajkumar Shukla at Lucknow, who invited him to Champaran

Champaran Satyagraha (1917) - Bihar

This was the first Satyagraha movement in India
Reason - Farmers were suffering under heavy taxes and an exploitative land revenue system
They were forced to cultivate indigo under the Tinkathia System, where 3/20th of their land had to be
dedicated to indigo cultivation for British planters
Gandhiji was initially denied permission to investigate the matter but he refused to leave the area. He
successfully garnered support from farmers and the wider population. A court case against him was
dropped, and he was permitted to conduct an inquiry.
Following peaceful protests led by Gandhiji against planters and landlords, the government agreed to
abolish the Tinkathia System. Peasants received 25% of the illegally extracted money back as
compensation
The Champaran Satyagraha is considered the first experiment in Satyagraha in India
During this movement, Gandhiji was given the titles Bapu and Mahatma.
Sir Edward Gait was the Governor of Bihar at that time
It marked the First Civil disobedience movement in India

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 Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918)
This was a labor movement where Mahatma Gandhi employed fast unto death (a hunger strike for
the first time)
It was an industrial dispute between the owners and workers of a cotton mill in Ahmedabad. The mill
owners intended to withdraw the Plague bonus that had been given to workers. In response, the
workers demanded a 35% increase in their wages
Ambalal Sarabhai was the mill owner, while his sister, Anusuya Ben, supported Gandhiji
Gandhiji undertook a hunger strike, after which the mill owners agreed to grant a 35% increase in
salary as a bonus

Kheda Satyagraha (1918)

In 1918, the Kheda district experienced crop failure due to drought.
According to the law, farmers were entitled to remission of land revenue if their produce was less than
one-fourth of the normal output. However, the government refused to grant any remission on land
revenue payments. The Patidars community primarily resided in the Kheda region.
Gandhiji arrived there upon the invitation of Vallabhbhai Patel.
During these movements, Gandhiji met Vallabhbhai Patel. Under Gandhiji’s guidance, Sardar
Vallabhbhai Patel led the protest against the collection of taxes.
The slogan Kapadganj was coined by Mohanlal Pandya, urging people not to pay Lagan (land
revenue).
Ultimately, the authorities conceded and offered some concessions to the farmers.
In all these movements, Gandhiji successfully involved the masses, including farmers, artisans, and
even the so-called lower classes.
This was considered the First Non-Cooperation movement

The Rowlatt Act (1919)

It was officially known as the Anarchical and Revolutionary Crime Act, 1919.
In 1917, a committee (Rowlatt Committee) was set up under the presidentship of Justice Sir Sydney
Rowlatt to look into the militant Nationalist activities. On the basis of its report the Rowlatt Act was
passed in March 1919 by the Central Legislative Council.
This act authorised the British government to detain any individual suspected of terrorist activities for
two years without trial or to conduct searches without warrants. This Act was called the Black Act and
it was widely opposed. An all-India hartal was organized on 6 April 1919.
The act was passed despite unanimous opposition from the Indian members of the council.
In protest, the following members resigned from the Imperial Legislative Council:
‣ Madan Mohan Malviya
‣ Muhammad Ali Jinnah

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 ‣ Mazhar-ul-Haq
In response to this act, Gandhiji called for a nationwide Hartal (strike) on April 6, 1919, which was
known as the Rowlatt Satyagraha.

Jallianwala Bagh Massacre

Gandhiji called off the Rowlatt Satyagraha movement when it was marred by violence in several
provinces, especially in Punjab, where the situation was escalating.
The British government feared an immediate revolution in Punjab and other parts of the country.
Prior to the massacre, widespread riots and protests erupted against the Rowlatt Act. Facing a violent
situation, the Government of Punjab handed over the administration to the military authorities under
General Dyer (Martial Law). Swami Shraddhanand and Dr. Satya Pal had invited Gandhiji to
Punjab, but he was stopped in Haryana.
Sir Michael O’Dwyer was the Lieutenant Governor of Punjab at the time. Lord Chelmsford was the
Viceroy of India and Brigadier was General Dyer
On 9 April 1919 - Two prominent INC leaders, Dr. Satya Pal and Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew, were
arrested, which further fuelled the protests.
On 10 April 1919 - protestors organised a rally to appeal against their arrest.
On April 13, 1919, a meeting was called at Jallianwala Bagh at 4 PM. So on Baisakhi day, April 13,
1919, a crowd of non-violent protestors, including pilgrims celebrating Baisakhi, had gathered in the
Jallianwala Bagh public garden in Amritsar. Traitor Hans Raj provided information about this meeting
with General Dyer. General Dyer arrived with his troops and blocked the only narrow entrance to the
garden. Without warning, General Dyer ordered his troops to open fire on the unarmed crowd, which
included women and children.
Officially, 379 people were killed and 1137 were injured, according to the Hunter Committee report.
The English newspaper Morning Post collected £30,000 for General Dyer for his actions, praising him
as very nice.
Rudyard Kipling (writer of The Jungle Book) also supported General Dyer.
However, his actions were also criticised by Winston Churchill.
Hunter Committee
‣ This committee was set up to inquire into the massacre
‣ It consisted of 8 members
‣ Although the commission condemned Dyer’s actions, it did not impose any disciplinary action
against him. Punjab govt acquitted all charges against him. Dyer was relieved of his duty in the
army in 1920. He was welcomed in London and received £26,000 from the House of Lords
‣ Gandhiji and Tagore both renounced their titles in protest against the massacre and the British
failure to provide justice to the victims

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 ‣ Michael O’Dwyer, the then Lieutenant Governor of Punjab who had approved Brigadier-General
Dyer’s actions, was assassinated by Udham Singh in London in 1940
‣ Indian National Congress (INC) also formed a committee -
• Tahkikat Committee or Madan Mohan Malviya Committee:
• Chief - Madan Mohan Malviya
• Members - Gandhiji, Motilal Nehru, C.R. Das
• This committee laid the foundation for providing aid to the deceased (victims’ families)

Khilafat Movement (1920) & Non-Cooperation Movement (1920)

Causes of the Movements -
‣ Govt hostilities
• Jallianwala Bagh Massacre
• Hunter Commission report
• Montague-Chelmsford Reforms
‣ Economic Hardship (post-World War I)
The Khilafat (Caliphate) Issue
‣ Muslims worldwide, including those in India, regarded the Sultan of Turkey as their spiritual
leader, the Khalifa. During World War I, Turkey allied with Germany and Austria against Britain.
Indian Muslims had supported the British government during WWI under the understanding that
the sacred places of the Ottoman Empire would remain under the Khalifa’s control. However,
after the war, the Ottoman Empire was dismembered, Turkey was divided, and the Khalifa was
stripped of his power.
‣ This act angered Muslims, who considered it an insult to the Khalifa. The harsh terms of the
Treaty of Sevres (1920) was felt by the Muslims as a great insult to them.
‣ The Ali brothers, Shaukat Ali and Muhammad Ali, initiated the Khilafat Movement. (Maulana
Abul Kalam Azad, M.A. Ansari, Saifuddin Kitchlew and the Ali brothers were the prominent
leaders of this movement)
‣ A Khilafat Committee had been formed and on 19th October 1919, the whole country had
observed the Khilafat day.
‣ On 23 November, a joint conference of the Hindus and the Muslims had also been held under the
chairmanship of Mahatma Gandhi. Mahatma Gandhi was particularly interested in bringing the
Hindus and the Muslims together to achieve the country’s independence. Subsequently, the
Khilafat Movement merged with the Non-Cooperation Movement launched by Mahatma Gandhi
in 1920.
‣ 31 August 1920 - Khilafat Divas was declared and On this day, Gandhiji announced his intention
to launch the non-cooperation movement

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 Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-1922)
Mahatma Gandhi announced his plan to begin Non-Cooperation with the government as a sequel to the
Rowlatt Act, Jallianwala Bagh massacre and the Khilafat Movement. It was approved by the Indian
National Congress at the Nagpur session in December, 1920.
December 1920 - INC Nagpur Session (President: Veer Raghavachari)
‣ Non-Cooperation Movement (NCM) was approved by the Indian National Congress
This movement involved - Surrender of titles and honorary positions. Resignation of membership from
the local bodies. Boycott of elections held under the provisions of the 1919 Act. Boycott of government
functions. Boycott of courts, government schools and colleges. Boycott of foreign goods.
Establishment of national schools, colleges and private panchayat courts. Popularizing swadeshi goods
and khadi.
Rabindranath Tagore renounced his Knighthood title and Gandhiji returned his Keshri-e-Hind title
Jamnalal Bajaj
‣ Considered himself the fifth son of Mahatma Gandhi
‣ Renounced his title of ‘Rai Bahadur’
Gandhiji urged prominent lawyers to resign from their practices
‣ Those who resigned included C.R. Das, Motilal Nehru, M.A. Jinnah, Pt. Rajendra Prasad, Sardar
Vallabhbhai Patel, and C. Rajagopalachari, among others
It successfully achieved unity between Hindus and Muslims
Impact of Non-Cooperation Movement:
‣ There was a significant promotion of Khadi (hand-spun cloth) and National Colleges
‣ The import of foreign goods drastically declined between 1920-1922
‣ The Charkha (spinning wheel) became a common household item
Tilak Swaraj Fund:
‣ Bal Gangadhar Tilak passed away in 1 August 1920
‣ The ‘Tilak Swaraj Fund’ was approved as a homage to B.G. Tilak on his first death anniversary
British Repression
‣ The British government began arresting all prominent leaders, detaining almost 60,000
individuals

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 Chauri Chaura Incident
February 6, 1922
Chauri Chaura is a town in the Gorakhpur district of Uttar Pradesh. On February 4th, volunteers
gathered, and the police fired into the crowd, killing several volunteers. In retaliation, on February 5th,
1922, the crowd set the police station on fire. Some policemen who attempted to escape were caught
and killed; a total of 22 policemen died. A session court swiftly sentenced 192 out of 225 accused
individuals to death
Gandhiji’s Reaction
‣ He disbanded the volunteer groups
‣ A Chauri Chaura support fund was setup to demonstrate Genuine Sympathy
‣ On February 11, 1922, Gandhiji decided to halt the Non-Cooperation Movement, formally
suspending the Satyagraha. He was deeply disheartened by the violence
‣ Following this, Gandhiji shifted his focus to creativity and advocating for -
• Opening national schools, Prohibiting alcohol & Establishing village Panchayats for self-
rule
Reactions from other leaders:
Lala Lajpat Rai - सी एक न के पाप के कारण सा श को दं त करना ये कहा का य

Subhas Chandra Bose wrote in his book The Indian Struggle: एसे मौके पर जब जनता का हौसला चरम पर हो
ऐसा फैसला रा य अशां पैदा करता

Motilal Nehru also condemned the withdrawal

Gandhiji’s said - A prisoner is dead from eyes (likely a metaphorical expression of deep sorrow). He
justified his decision based on his unwavering faith in non-violence
Immediate Results/Consequences
‣ The incident created a rift between the INC and the Muslim League, leading to the gradual
disintegration of the Khilafat Movement
‣ It demoralised many young Indian nationalists, who concluded that India might not be able to
achieve independence from colonial rule through non-violence alone
‣ From the ranks of these impatient patriots emerged many of India’s most prominent
revolutionaries, including Bhagat Singh, Ram Prasad Bismil, Sachindra Nath Sanyal, and
others
Mahatma Gandhi was arrested on March 10, 1922. On March 18, he was sentenced to six years
imprisonment. He was released from jail on February 5, 1924, due to health issues

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ष्ट्री
कि
ति
स्था
है
रे
दे
डि
न्या
है
 Swaraj Party (1923)
The suspension of the Non-Cooperation Movement led to a split within Congress in the Gaya session
of the Congress in December 1922.
Leaders like Motilal Nehru and Chittranjan Das formed a separate group within the Congress
known as the Swaraj Party on 1 January 1923.
Founders - Motilal Nehru (Secretary) and C.R. Das (President)
They were referred to as Pro-Changers within the INC, advocating for council entry. Dr. Rajendra
Prasad, Vallabhbhai Patel, and others opposed the Swaraj Party, labeling themselves as No-Changers
(Non-changers), advocating for continuation of the boycott of legislatures
The Swarajists wanted to contest the council elections and wreck the government from within.
Elections to Legislative Councils were held in November 1923. In this, the Swaraj Party gained
impressive successes. In the Central Legislative Council Motilal Nehru became the leader of the party
whereas in Bengal the party was headed by C.R. Das.
In 1924, Gandhiji, after his release from jail, supported the Swaraj Party’s idea of council entry
November 1924 - Gandhi-Das Pact -
‣ This pact led to the Indian National Congress (INC) and the Swaraj Party working together, and
Gandhiji presided over the Belgaum session
1924 Belgaum Session (Karnataka) - Gandhiji presided over this INC session and supported the
Swaraj Party’s strategy to contest elections

Other Political Parties (1922-1929)

Hindu Mahasabha
‣ Founded by Madan Mohan Malviya
‣ Established in 1915 at Haridwar

Chittagong Armoury Raid (1930)

The Chittagong Armoury Raid (1930), led by Surya Sen, was a bold revolutionary attack to seize
British armouries in Bengal, disrupt communications, and declare freedom.
Though suppressed, it became a legendary symbol of India’s armed resistance.
Kalpana Dutt was a prominent female leader involved in the raid
Surya Sen
‣ Also known as ‘Master Da’
‣ Renowned for the ‘Chittagong Armoury Raid’ (1930)
‣ He formed the “Indian Republican Association” (IRA)
‣ He was hanged in 1933

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 Rise of Revolutionaries
The withdrawal of the Non-Cooperation Movement did not deter revolutionaries. Because at the same
time revolutionary activities continued in Russia, China, Turkey, and other parts of the world

Hindustan Republican Association (HRA):

Founded in 1924 by Yogesh Chatterjee and Sachindra Nath Sanyal at Kanpur
First Meeting at Kanpur - Attended by Ram Prasad Bismil, Bhagat Singh, Chandra Shekhar Azad,
and others
They decided -
‣ To use violence to achieve their goals
‣ To raise funds by robbing banks

Kakori Incident (August 9, 1925)

The Uttar Pradesh government recently renamed it Kakori Train Action.
Kakori is a village near Lucknow
Objectives of the Raid -
‣ To forcibly acquire funds from the British
‣ To create a positive image for the HRA among Indians by targeting a high-profile British
government asset
The raid was planned by Ram Prasad Bismil, Ashfaqullah Khan, and Chandra Shekhar Azad
The guard cabin of a train carrying money collected from various railway stations
They looted approximately 8,000 rupees
Ram Prasad Bismil was arrested by the British on September 26, 1925
The train involved was the 8 Down Train, a goods train traveling from Saharanpur to Lucknow
Four individuals were arrested and subsequently hanged
1. Ram Prasad Bismil (key conspirator)
2. Ashfaqullah Khan
3. Roshan Lal
4. Rajendra Lahiri
The patriotic song Sarfaroshi ki Tamanna was popularised by Ram Prasad Bismil

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 Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA)
Re-established by Chandra Shekhar Azad on September 10, 1928, in Delhi (from Firoz shah Kotla,
Stadium)
They planned to kill J.P. Saunders, who was responsible for the death of Lala Lajpat Rai during a
protest against the Simon Commission
Bhagat Singh, Sukh Dev, and Chandra Shekhar Azad killed Saunders in Lahore
Central Legislative Assembly Bombing (April 8, 1929)
‣ Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwer Dutt threw bombs into the Central Legislative Assembly
‣ They did not aim to kill anyone but sought to make their voice heard by the government
‣ The bombing occurred during discussions on the Public Safety Bill and the Trade Dispute Bill
‣ Bhagat Singh was subsequently arrested
‣ Jatin Das was also arrested and began a hunger strike, demanding that political prisoners be
treated as such to reduce their punishment. He tragically died after a 64-day hunger strike
Attempts to Save Bhagat Singh
‣ Chandra Shekhar Azad and Yashpal attempted to rescue Bhagat Singh
‣ They planned to assassinate ‘Viceroy Erwin’ by bombing his train compartment, but Erwin was
not in that specific bogey, thus he was saved
‣ February 27, 1931
• A meeting was held in Allahabad
• There were plans to send Yashpal to Russia, but the police received intelligence and
launched an attack

• Yashpal escaped & Chandra Shekhar Azad shot himself at Alfred Park in Allahabad
(Yashpal was later arrested and sentenced to 14 years in jail.)
March 23, 1931
‣ Bhagat Singh, Shivaram Rajguru, and Sukh Dev Thapar were hanged
‣ March 23 is observed as Shaheed Diwas (Martyr’s Day)
‣ They went to the gallows Singing at the time of death. Songs like Rang De Basanti and
Sarfaroshi Ki Tamanna (a poem) were associated with them, both composed by Ram Prasad
Bismil

Naujawan Bharat Sabha (Punjab)

Formed in 1926 in Punjab
Bhagat Singh and Yashpal were associated with it

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 Simon Commission (1927)
The Act of 1919 included a provision for its review after a lapse of ten years. However, due to
elections in Britain in 1929, the committee to assess India was formed prematurely in 1927
It was originally named ‘The Indian Statutory Commission’. Later it came to be known as Simon
Commission after the name of its chairman, Sir John Simon
Consisted of seven members from the British House of Commons (One of its members, Clement
Attlee, later became a future leader of the Labour Party and Prime Minister of the UK)
In its 1927 meeting, the INC decided to oppose the Simon Commission because it had no Indian
members
The commission arrived in India in 3 February 1928 (Bombay) to study constitutional reforms, a
general hartal was observed all over the country. Everywhere it was greeted with black flags and the
cries of Simon go back
At Lahore, the students took out a large anti-Simon Commission demonstration on 30 October 1928
under the leadership of Lala Lajpat Rai. In this demonstration, Lala Lajpat Rai was seriously injured
in the police lathi charge (Superintendent of Police James Scott) and he passed away after one
month.
Impact of the Simon Commission
‣ The commission’s report was published in 1930
‣ It also recommended the retention of the Communal electorate
‣ The commission opposed the Diarchy System (dual rule - which was introduced by the 1919
Act) and in its place the report recommended the establishment of autonomous government. The
Simon Commission’s Report became the basis for enacting the Government of India Act of
1935.
Support for Simon Commission
‣ B.R. Ambedkar & Safigut - A group within the Muslim League, also supported it

Nehru Report (1928)

In the meanwhile, the Secretary of State, Lord Birkenhead, challenged the Indians to produce a
Constitution that would be acceptable to all.
The challenge was accepted by the Congress, which convened an all party meeting on 28 February
1928. A committee consisting of eight was constituted to draw up a blueprint for the future
Constitution of India. The committee was chaired by Motilal Nehru, with J.L. Nehru serving as
Secretary. This marked the first attempt by Indians to draft a constitution
The Report published by this Committee came to be known as the Nehru Report (28 August 1928)
The Report favoured -
‣ Dominion Status as the next immediate step.
‣ Full responsible government at the centre

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 ‣ Autonomy to the provinces
‣ Clear cut division of power between the centre and the provinces
‣ A bicameral legislature at the centre.
However, the leader of the Muslim League, Mohammad Ali Jinnah regarded it as detrimental to the
interests of the Muslims. Jinnah convened an All India Conference of the Muslims where he drew up a
list of Fourteen Points as Muslim League demand.

Lahore Session (Dec 1929)

‣ Held near the Ravi River, under the leadership of President J.L. Nehru
‣ The concept of Purna Swaraj (complete self-rule) gained prominence after a long struggle and
demand for Purna Swaraj was formally declared
‣ On 26 January 1930 - it was declared as Purna Swatantrata Diwas
‣ The Tricolour flag was hoisted

All India Depressed Classes Association - Established by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar on August 8, 1930

Civil Disobedience Movement - (1930-34)

Background of CDM
‣ Gandhi presented his eleven demands and set a deadline for the government to accept or reject
them by January 31, 1930
‣ With no positive response from the government, Gandhi was given full authority by the Indian
National Congress (INC) to launch the CDM
‣ February 14, 1930 - Gandhi returned to Sabarmati and decided to launch the Civil Disobedience
Movement. By the end of February, Gandhi had decided to make the salt law the central focus of
the movement
Launch of Dandi March
‣ It began on Sunday, March 12, 1930, from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi, covering
approximately 385 km with 79 people
‣ Indians had historically made salt from seawater free of charge until the passing of the Salt Act of
1882. This act granted the British a monopoly over salt production and the authority to impose a
salt tax
‣ Violating the Salt Act was a criminal offence. Gandhi began his march and reached Dandi on
April 5, with approximately 50,000 people joining him. On the morning of April 6, 1930, Gandhi
broke the salt law by manufacturing salt
‣ On 9 April, Mahatma Gandhi laid out the programme of the movement which included making of
salt in every village in violation of the existing salt laws; picketing by women before the shops

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 selling liquor, opium and foreign clothes; organising the bonfires of foreign clothes; spinning
clothes by using charkha fighting untouchability; boycotting of schools and colleges by students
and resigning from government jobs by the people. Over and above all these, the programme also
called upon the people not to pay taxes to the government.
‣ Mahatma Gandhi urged Everyone to resign from their jobs and legislative positions.”
‣ He said - Students will not attend school, and colleges will be closed. We will disobey [laws]
in every possible way.
‣ Soon, the movement spread to all parts of the country. Students, workers, farmers and women, all
participated in this movement with great enthusiasm. As a reaction, the British Government
arrested important leaders of the Congress and imprisoned them.
‣ Following arrest of Gandhiji, Sarojini Naidu and Imam Sahib (Gandhi’s son) continued the
movement
‣ The British government was shaken by the movement. Its non-violent nature made it difficult to
suppress violently. It brought the Indian freedom struggle into the international spotlight,
particularly in Western media. Gandhi was released from prison in 1931 and met with Lord Irwin,
who was eager to end the Civil Disobedience Movement
Miscellaneous
‣ Other Leaders who participated in the Salt Movement
• Abdul Ghaffar Khan (North West Frontier Province)
• He was known as the Frontier Gandhi.
• He started the Red Shirt movement.
• Gandhi referred to him as Badshah Khan.
• He formed an organization called Khudai Khidmatgar.
• Yadunath - Manipur
• Tamil Nadu - C. Rajagopalachari
• Malabar Coast (Kerala) - K. Kelappan
• Odisha - Gopabandhu Chaudhary
• Assam - Mrs. Chandra Prabha
• Kashmir - Sheikh Abdullah
Subhas Chandra Bose famously called this march with Napoleon’s march to Paris.
Approximately 90,000 people were jailed during the Civil Disobedience Movement

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 Round Table Conference
The British government adopted the strategy of talking to different political parties by convening the
Round Table Conferences.

1st Round Table Conference

This was the first time that Indians and the British met as ‘equals’
It was held on November 12, 1930
The venue was St. James’s Palace in London
Key figures present included Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald and King George V
89 British members attended
The Indian National Congress (INC) did not participate, as many of its members were in jail.
Key Indian Representatives
‣ Hindu Mahasabha - M.R. Jayakar
‣ Moderates - Tej Bahadur Sapru
‣ Muslim Leader - Muhammad Ali Jinnah
‣ Sikh - Sardar Sampuran Singh
‣ Dalit Leader - Dr. B.R. Ambedkar
During this meeting, B.R. Ambedkar demanded separate electorates for the untouchables
Tej Bahadur Sapru proposed the idea of an All India Federation. This was supported by Muslims and
also by Princely States, on the condition that their internal sovereignty would be maintained
The conference concluded on January 13, 1931
No unity was achieved, and no significant results emerged from the conference. The Congress opposed
all points discussed in the First Round Table Conference

Gandhi-Irwin Pact - (1931)

In January 1931 in order to create a conducive atmosphere for talks, the government lifted the ban on
the Congress Party and released its leaders from prison. Consequently, Mahatma Gandhi were also
released from prison in January 1931
The then INC President, Sardar Patel, authorised Gandhi to hold talks with Lord Irwin
Accordingly, Gandhi met Irwin and held negotiations. This was the first time that both leaders met as
equals (March 5, 1931)
Features of the Pact

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 ‣ As per this pact, Mahatma Gandhi agreed to suspend the Civil-Disobedience Movement and
participate in the SecondRound Table Conference.
‣ All ordinances that had curtailed Congress activities were to be withdrawn
‣ The salt tax was to be removed
‣ All these demands were accepted by the British
This pact is also known as the Delhi Pact

Karachi Session (1931)

‣ President - Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel
‣ This session marked the first time that Fundamental Rights were discussed
‣ Gandhi stated, Non-violence can defeat non-cooperation.
‣ He also said, We will continue on his non-violent path.

2nd Round Table Conference

Place - London (St. James’s Palace)
Held on 7 September 1931
Number of members from India - 31
Key Participants
‣ Mahatma Gandhi and Sarojini Naidu
‣ Dr. B.R. Ambedkar
‣ Annie Besant
‣ Madan Mohan Malaviya
‣ Muhammad Ali Jinnah
Muhammad Ali Jinnah and Dr. B.R. Ambedkar demanded separate electorates, a proposal that
Gandhi opposed
The Second Round Table Conference was largely deemed a failure due to numerous disagreements
Gandhiji returned to India disappointed as no agreement could be reached on the demand of complete
independence and on the communal question.
In January 1932, the Civil-Disobedience Movement was resumed (second phase). The government
responded to it by arresting Mahatma Gandhi and Sardar Patel and declared the Indian National
Congress (INC) an illegal organization
7 April 1934 - Mahatma Gandhi officially withdrew the Civil Disobedience Movement. S.C. Bose,
N.R. Patel, and J.L. Nehru criticized and opposed Gandhi’s decision

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 Communal Award
‣ On 16 August 1932 the British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald made an announcement,
which came to be as the Communal Award. It emerged as a result of the Second Round Table
Conference and is also known as the MacDonald Award.
‣ Dr. B.R. Ambedkar advocated for separate electorates, while Mahatma Gandhi opposed it. The
British Prime Minister introduced this award to mediate
‣ According to this award, the depressed classes were considered as a separate community and as
such provisions were made for separate electorates for them. It exemplified the British policy of
divide and rule.
‣ Mahatma Gandhi protested against the Communal Award and went on a fast unto death in the
Yeravada jail on 20 September 1932.
‣ Madan Mohan Malaviya, Dr. Rajendra Prasad, and C. Rajagopalachari approached Dr. B.R.
Ambedkar to persuade him to reconsider

Poona Pact (September 25, 1932)

This was an agreement between Mahatma Gandhi and Dr. B.R. Ambedkar concerning the
reservation of electoral seats for depressed classes within the British government’s legislative bodies
It was signed by Ambedkar on behalf of Dalits, and by Madan Mohan Malaviya on behalf of Hindus
and Gandhi, as a means to end Gandhi’s fast
The idea of separate electorates for Dalits was abandoned
However, the number of seats reserved for depressed classes in provincial legislatures were increased
from 71 to 147
An 18% reservation for the lower caste was also established in the Central Assembly
The Communal Award was subsequently withdrawn

3rd Round Table Conference

Only 48 members from India participated
The INC was not invited, as its leaders were in jail
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar attended
British Indians were represented by Aga Khan
Not much was achieved in this conference either
The recommendations from this conference were published in a White Paper in 1933
These recommendations were analysed, and the Government of India Act of 1935 was subsequently
passed based on them

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 Bardoli Movement (1928)
Background -
‣ It is in Gujarat. In 1928, it was hit by floods and famines. This affected farmers financially
‣ Ignoring the pleas of the farmers, the Bombay Presidency increased the tax rates by 22%
‣ In January 1928, farmers of Bardoli contacted V.B. Patel to lead the movement
‣ Gandhiji also lent support to the movement through his writings in Young India magazine.
‣ A large number of women took active part in the movement. These women gave the title of
Sardar to V.B. Patel.
‣ Farmers were asked not to give tax at any cost. They resisted eviction and confiscation (zabt) in a
unique way. They had informers in the government offices who would give prior information as to
if and when zabti notice was going to be carried out. The whole village would then move to
another place and the officers would be faced with an empty village when they came to confiscate
the property.
‣ The movement received nationwide attention and support
‣ Outcome
• Government set up the Maxwell-Broomfield Commission to look into this matter
• The revenue was reduced to 6.03%

Government of India Act (1935) -

‣ It was the longest Act enacted by the British Parliament
‣ Separation of Burma

The Second World War and National Movement

In 1937 elections were held under the provisions of the Government of India Act of 1935. Congress
Ministries were formed in seven states of India.
On 1 September 1939 the Second World War broke out. The British Government without consulting
the people of India involved the country in the war.
The Congress vehemently opposed it and as a mark of protest the Congress Ministries in the Provinces
resigned on 12 December 1939. The Muslim League celebrated that day as the Deliverance Day.
In March 1940 the Muslim League demanded the creation of Pakistan

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 Individual Satyagraha (August offer)
Background
‣ Britishers included India in WWII without the consent of Indians. Britishers were in dangers of
being occupied by the Nazis and in this light INC softened its stand. INC said that support for the
war would be provided if the power was transferred to an interim govt in India
So, The then Viceroy Linlithgow made a set of proposals called the August offer on 8 August 1940.
For the 1st time, the right of Indians to frame their on constitution was acknowledged
It was also called August Kranti
The August Offer envisaged that
‣ After the War a representative body of Indians would be set up to frame the new Constitution.
‣ Dominion status was the objective for India
‣ Executive council of Viceroy would be having Indian more than Britishers.
It was rejected by the INC. It demanded complete freedom from colonial rule
JL Nehru remarked that the Dominion status was dead as a doornail.
Gandhi was not satisfied with is offer and decided to launch Individual Satyagraha.
Individual Satyagraha was limited, symbolic and non-violent in nature and it was left to Mahatma
Gandhi to choose the Satyagrahis. The Satyagrahis also started a march towards Delhi which was
called Dehli chlo movement
‣ Acharya Vinoba Bhave was the first to offer Satyagraha and he was sentenced to three months
imprisonment.
‣ Jawaharlal Nehru was the second Satyagrahi and imprisoned for four months. The individual
Satyagraha continued for nearly 15 months.
‣ 3rd - Braham Dutt
Muslim league also rejected it saying that nothing short of partitioning the country would be acceptable
to them.
After the Failure of August Proposals the British govt sent the Crips Mission to India.

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 Cripps Mission (1942)
Background
‣ PM - Winston Churchill
‣ In the meantime, the Viceroy, Lord Linlithgow expanded his Executive Council by including five
more Indians into it in July 1941.
‣ However, in the midst of worsening wartime international situation, the British Government in its
continued effort to secure Indian cooperation sent Sir Stafford Cripps to India on 23 March
1942. This is known as Cripps Mission.
The main recommendations of Cripps were -
‣ The promise of Dominion Status to India
‣ Protection of minorities
‣ Setting up of a Constituent Assembly in which there would be representatives from the Princely
States along with those of the British Provinces
‣ There would be provision for any Province of British India not prepared to accept this
Constitution, either to retain its present constitutional position or frame a constitution of its own.
Gandhi called Cripp’s proposals as - A Post-dated cheque on a crashing bank
The Muslim League was also dissatisfied as its demand for Pakistan had not been conceded in the
proposal.
The proposal of giving freedom to the provinces to be a separate union turned out to be a model for the
country’s partition

Quit India Movement (1942)

The failure of the Cripps Mission and the fear of an impending Japanese invasion of India led Mahatma
Gandhi to begin his campaign for the British to quit India.
Mahatma Gandhi believed that an interim government could be formed only after the British left India
and the Hindu-Muslim problem sorted out.
Wardha Proposal
‣ Gandhiji gave proposal of Quit India Movement (QIM) to INC but INC denied it
‣ Gandhiji became angry. Later Proposal was passed by Working Committee of Congress in
Bombay
President of INC - Abul Kalam Azad
The All India Congress Committee met at Gowalia Tank Maidan - Bombay (Also known as August
Kranti Maidan) on 8 August 1942 and passed the famous Quit India Resolution. On the same day,
Gandhi gave his call of do or die.
Also known as August Kranti or August Movement.

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 On 8th and 9th August 1942, the government arrested all the prominent leaders of INC under
Operation Zero Hour. For once, this pre-planned action of the government left the Indian people
without leadership.
Mahatma Gandhi was kept in prison at Poona. Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, Abul Kalam Azad, and
other leaders were imprisoned in the Ahmednagar Fort. At this time, leadership was provided by
Ram Manohar Lohia, Achyuta and S.M. Joshi. The role of Jayaprakash Narain in this movement
was important
Gandhiji’s Instructions
‣ Government servants - Do not resign, but proclaim loyalty to INC
‣ Soldiers - Be with the army but do not fire upon your countrymen
‣ Peasants - If zamindars are anti-government, do not pay revenue (tax) to them
‣ Princes - Support the Local people
In 1944 Mahatma Gandhi was released from jail. Quit India Movement was the final attempt for
country’s freedom. The British Government ordered for 538 rounds of firing. Nearly 60,229 persons
were jailed. At least 7,000 people were killed.
Miscellaneous
‣ C. Rajagopalachari was resigned from INC as he was not in favour of complete independence
‣ Radio channel to motivate people - Ram Manohar Lohia also gave his voice
‣ After hunger strike from Gandhiji - His health deteriorated so he was released from jail (Aga
Khan Palace) in 1944
‣ In some places, Parallel Governments were also set up
• Ballia (UP) - by Chittu Pandey
• Tamluk (WB) - Jatiya Sarkar (also called “Tamralipta Jatiya Sarkar”) - by Matangini Hazara
• Satara (MH) - by N.V. Chavan
‣ Tej Bahadur Sapru, B.R. Ambedkar and Hindu Mahasabha didn’t support the Quit India
Movement

Indian National Army

During the course of the Second World War, armed revolutionary activities continued to take place.
On 2 July 1943, Subhas Chandra Bose reached Singapore and gave the rousing war cry of Dilli Chalo.
He was made the President of Indian Independence League and soon became the supreme commander
of the Indian National Army. He gave the country the slogan of Jai Hind.
The names of the INA’s three Brigades were the Subhas Brigade, Gandhi Brigade and Nehru
Brigade. The women’s wing of the army was named after Rani Laxmibai.
The Indian National Army marched towards Imphal after registering its victory over Kohima. After
Japan’s surrender in 1945,

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 the INA failed in its efforts. Under such circumstances, Subhas went to Taiwan. Then on his way to
Tokyo he died on 18 August 1945 in a plane crash.
The trial of the soldiers of INA was held at Red Fort in Delhi. Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, Bhulabhai
Desai and Tej Bahadur Sapru fought the case on behalf of the soldiers.

Wavell Plan and Shimla Conference (1945)

The Wavell Plan was first presented at the Shimla Conference in 1945
The Shimla Conference was convened in order to agree on the Wavell Plan for “Indian self-
government.”
Both the plan and conference failed on account of INC and Muslim League not coming to an
agreement. Jinnah insisted that only League members could be the Muslim representatives in the
councils, and opposed to the Congress nominating Muslim members
The Wavell Plan, thus, was dissolved with the failure of the conference. And it was the last chance to
avoid partition
After this war ended and new Labour government was elected in Britain

Cabinet Mission
After the Second World War, Clement Attlee became the Prime Minister of England. On 15 March,
1946 Lord Atlee made a historic announcement in which the right to self-determination and the framing
of a Constitution for India were conceded.
Consequently, 3 members of the British Cabinet were sent to India. This is known as the Cabinet
Mission.
3 Members -
1. Pathick Lawrence - Secretary of State
2. Stafford Cripps - President of Board of Trade
3. A.V. Alexander - First Lord of Admiralty
Aim
‣ Its Aim was to discuss the transfer of power from British to Indian leadership.
‣ Lord Wavell was not a member of the cabinet but he was involved.
Objectives
‣ Framing a Constitution for India (Provision was made for three groups of provinces to possess
their separate constitutions.)
‣ To formulate a constitution-making body (the Constituent Assembly of India) - Both the Muslim
League and the Congress agreed to be part of the Constituent Assembly. Consequently, elections

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 were held in July 1946 for the formation of a Constituent Assembly. An Interim Government was
formed under the leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru on 2 September 1946.
‣ To establish an executive council with the support of major Indian parties
Reason for Failure
‣ The Congress party wanted a strong centre with minimum powers to the provinces
‣ At this mission, the Congress rejected the demand of Pakistan. The Muslim League wanted strong
political safeguards for the Muslims like parity in the legislature
‣ Since both parties could not find any common path, so the mission came up with its own set of
proposals in May 1946
‣ Constituent Assembly was formed in Dec 1946. Congress-led governments were formed in most
provinces, including NWFP. In Bengal and Sindh - Muslim League formed governments. When
election results did not favour Muslim League, Jinnah withdrew his acceptance to the Cabinet
Mission Plan. He geared to agitate for Pakistan and urged Muslims to demand Pakistan by any
means. He called for Direct Action Day on 16 August 1946
‣ Sardar V.B. Patel was the first to acknowledge the inevitability of the Partition of India as a
means to stop the brutal violence
‣ Jinnah celebrated Pakistan Day on 27th March 1947

Mountbatten Plan (3 June 1947)

On 20 February l947, Prime Minister Atlee announced in the House of Commons the definite
intention of the British Government to transfer power to responsible Indian hands by a date not later
than June 1948. Thus, to effect the transference of that power Atlee decided to send Lord
Mountbatten as Viceroy to India.
Lord Mountbatten became India’s Viceroy on 24 March 1947
May 1947
‣ Mountbatten came up with a plan under which he proposed that provinces be declared
independent successor states and then be allowed to choose whether to join the Constituent
Assembly or not. This plan was called Dickie Bird Plan
‣ Nehru said it would lead to balkanization (division of the state into smaller entities) of the
country. So this plan was also called Plan Balkan.
Mountbatten Plan
‣ Viceroy came up with another plan called on 3 June so it was also called the 3 June Plan.
‣ This plan was accepted by both INC & League. So this plan was put into action by the Indian
Independence Act 1947 on 18 July 1947
‣ Provisions of Mountbatten Plan
• The partition of the country into India and Pakistan would come into effect from 15
August 1947

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 • There would be a separate Constituent Assembly for Pakistan to frame its constitution
• Princely states would enjoy the liberty to either join India or Pakistan or could even
remain independent
• As per the plan, Bengal and Punjab assemblies met and voted on the partition Accordingly,
it was decided to partition these two provinces along religious lines
• A Boundary Commission (Radcliffe Boundary Commission, headed by Sir Cyril
Radcliffe) would demarcate the boundaries of the provinces of the Punjab and Bengal.

Demand for Pakistan

1930 - Mohammad Iqbal gave the structure of a Muslim country
1933 - ‘Pakistan’ word was used for the first time by Choudhary Rahmat Ali
1940 -
‣ Session of All-India Muslim League (Lahore) - President was M.A. Jinnah
‣ Demand for a separate country (Pakistan) was made at the Lahore Resolution
1943 - Karachi Session
‣ Muslim League adopted the slogan Divide and Quit given by Jinnah
‣ Gandhiji gave title of Quaid-e-Azam to Jinnah
14 August 1947 - Pakistan became a separate country and its capital was Karachi
M.A. Jinnah became Governor-General of Pakistan
Pakistan - Sindh, British Balochistan, NWFP, West Punjab, East Bengal
Mohammad Iqbal
‣ He said - “Sar-e-Jahan se Acha Hindustan Hamara”
‣ He gave “Inquilab” slogan (Zindabad - word was added by Hasrat Mohani)
‣ He gave the structure of a Muslim country

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 Important Leaders
Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel
‣ The first Home Minister of India
‣ He integrated all the states by 15 August 1947
‣ Kashmir, Hyderabad, Junagadh, Goa (Portuguese) & Puducherry (French) - These were later
acceded to Indian federation.

Madan Mohan Malaviya

‣ He was given title of Mahamana by Gandhiji
‣ Ravindranath Tagore gave him the status of Karmayogi
‣ Devnagari was introduced in the British - Judicial Courts because of Malviya’s efforts with British
government

Surendranath Banerjee
‣ He was called the Indian Burke.
‣ He firmly opposed the Partition of Bengal.
‣ He founded the Indian Association (1876) to agitate for political reforms.
‣ He had convened the Indian National Conference (1883) which merged with the Indian National
Congress in l886.

G. Subramanya Aiyar
‣ He preached nationalism through the Madras Mahajana Sabha.
‣ He also founded the The Hindu and Swadesamitran.
Dadabhai Naoroji
‣ He was known as the Grand Old Man of India.
‣ He is regarded as India’s unofficial Ambassador in England.
‣ He was the first Indian to become a Member of the British House of Commons.
Gopal Krishna Gokhale
‣ He was regarded as the political guru of Gandhi.
‣ In 1905, he founded the Servants of India Society to train Indians to dedicate their lives to the
cause of the country

Kadambini Ganguly
‣ She along with Chandramukhi Basu, was among the first women to earn a B.A. degree from
Calcutta University) became the first woman to address the INC session.

‣ Kadambini Ganguly was also Asia's first female surgeon

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 Leaders of the Extremists
Bal Gangadhar Tilak
• Popularly known as Lokmanya Tilak.
• He was also famously dubbed the "Father of Indian Unrest" by Valentine Chirol, the editor of
The London Times

• Political Career:
• Joined the Indian National Congress in 1890
• His iconic slogan was: "Swaraj (self-rule) is my birthright, and I shall have it!"
• Journalism - Published two influential newspapers:
• Kesari (Marathi)
• Mahratta (English)
• He faced sedition charges multiple times, notably spending six years in Mandalay Prison
(1908-1914). His imprisonment followed articles defending Prafulla Chaki and Khudiram
Bose, who mistakenly killed two Englishwomen, believing they were targeting Magistrate
Douglas Kingsford

• Rejoined the Indian National Congress in 1916

• Co-founded the All India Home Rule League in 1916, along with Annie Besant and G.S.
Khaparde

• Cultural Initiatives
• Used Hindu festivals like Ganesh Chaturthi and Shiv Jayanti to foster unity and nationalist
sentiment

• Popularised the Sarvajanik Ganeshotsav since 1893, which remains one of Maharashtra's
largest festivals

• Social Views:
• Despite being a radical nationalist leader, his social views were generally conservative. He
was notably against Hindu women receiving modern education

• Tilak opposed the Age of Consent Bill (1891), which proposed raising the marriageable age
of girls from 10 to 12. Although he personally agreed with the reform, he viewed the Act as an
unwarranted interference by the British in the social and religious affairs of Indians

• His work -
• Arctic Home of the Vedas ( posited the Arctic region as the original home of Aryans)
• Gita Rahashya - he wrote it in jail
• Opposing the British education system in India, he established the "Deccan Educational Society"
to impart nationalist education to Indian students

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 • He initiated the Swadeshi movement in South India and, to promote it, collaborated with Jamshedji
Tata to establish "Bombay Swadeshi Stores."

• The Government of India released a coin in 2007 to commemorate Tilak's 100th birth anniversary
• He famously declared, No tax to the British, earning him the title "Lokmanya."
• He never served as the President of the Indian National Congress
Lala Lajpat Rai
‣ He is popularly known as the Lion of Punjab
‣ He played an important role in the Swadeshi Movement.
‣ He founded the Indian Home Rule League in the US in 1916.
‣ He was deported to Mandalay on the ground of sedition.
‣ He received fatal injuries while leading a procession against the Simon Commission and died on
November 17, 1928.
Bipan Chandra Pal
‣ He began his career as a moderate and turned an extremist.
‣ He played an important role in the Swadeshi Movement.
‣ He preached nationalism through the nook and corner of Indian by his powerful speeches and
writings.
Aurobinda Ghosh
‣ He was another extremist leader and he actively participated in the Swadeshi Movement.
‣ He was also imprisoned. After his release he settled in the French territory of Pondicherry and
concentrated on spiritual activities.

Shyamji Krishna Varma

‣ Founded - Indian Home Rule Society in London in 1905
‣ India House

• Also established by Shyamji Krishna Varma in London

• It established a hostel for Indian students and became a crucial meeting place for Indian
revolutionaries in London

‣ Madam Bikaji kama was associated with it

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 Madame Bhikaji Cama
‣ She was associated with the Indian Home Rule Society
‣ She is known as the "Mother of Indian Revolution."
‣ She is famously associated with the phrase "Vande Mataram."
‣ The journal "The Indian Sociologist" was founded by Shyamji Krishna Varma
‣ Indian Independence League
‣ Also called the Bhartiya Swatantrata League
‣ Established by Taraknath Das in California, USA
‣ He founded the newspaper "Swatantrata Hindustan."

Annie Besant
‣ She was Irish
‣ She arrived in India in 1893
‣ She became a member of the Theosophical Society and traveled to India as part of her literary
work

‣ She advocated for national awakening while actively fighting social evils such as caste
discrimination and child marriage. She devoted significant time and effort to improving education
in India

‣ She joined the Indian National Congress

‣ She launched the All India Home Rule League in 1916
‣ In 1917, she became the first woman president of the Indian National Congress
‣ She remained a part of the Theosophical Society until her illness and death in 1933 (85 age)
‣ Newspapers: "Commonweal" and "New India"

Lala Lajpat Rai

‣ Born in Punjab in 1865
‣ He was a lawyer by profession
‣ He was popularly known as "Punjab Kesari" or the Lion of Punjab
‣ He was influenced by Swami Dayanand Saraswati and joined the Arya Samaj in Lahore
‣ He was a prominent member of the Extremist group
‣ Due to his political activism, he was deported to a jail in Burma in 1907 without trial However, he
returned after a few months due to lack of evidence

‣ He founded the Home Rule League of America in 1917 in New York

‣ He founded the Arya Gazette

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 ‣ He co-founded the Punjab National Bank in 1894
‣ He was leading a silent protest against the Simon Commission in Lahore when he was brutally
lathi-charged by Superintendent of Police James Scott. He died due to the injuries sustained
during the lathi-charge

‣ Bhagat Singh and other revolutionaries intended to kill Scott but mistakenly killed Assistant
Superintendent John Saunders due to mistaken identity

‣ He authored the book

1. Unhappy India
2. The story of my deportation
3. Arya Samaj

Gopal Krishna Gokhale

‣ He was popularly known as the "Socrates of Maharashtra."
‣ He joined the Indian National Congress (INC) in 1889, motivated by his mentor M.G. Ranade,
who was also his political guru

‣ He established the "Servants of Indian Society" in 1905 with the aim of expanding education
among Indians

‣ He played a significant role in the Morley-Minto Reforms. He was also a renowned economist
‣ He founded the "Ranade Institute of Economics."
‣ He visited Mahatma Gandhi in South Africa in 1912 at Gandhi's request
‣ He served as the political guru to Mahatma Gandhi, who returned to India at Gokhale's request
‣ Newspapers: "Maharatta" and "Janna Prakash."
‣ He was the President of the INC at the Benares session in 1905
‣ Bal Gangadhar Tilak referred to him as the "Diamond of India."

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 Key Political Organisations
Bengal
Bangabhasha Prakashika Sabha (1836) - Established by associates of Raja Ram Mohan Roy
Bengal British India Society (1843) - Founded by George Thomson
British Indian Association (1851) - Its main newspaper was the Hindu Patriot, edited by Harish
Chandra
Indian Association (1876) - Established in Calcutta by Surendra Nath Banerjee and Anand Mohan
Bose.

Bombay
Bombay Association (1852) - Founded by Dadabhai Naoroji
Bombay Presidency Association (1885) - Key figure: Firoz shah Mehta
Poona Sarvajanik Sabha (1870) - Govind Ranade (Mahadev Govind Ranade)

Madras
Madras Native Association (1852) - Founded by Lakshminarasu Chetty (C.Y. Mudaliar later became
associated with it)

London
East India Association (1866) - Founded by Dadabhai Naoroji in London

Miscellaneous
The Maulanaiya Dacoity
‣ It was committed in the Champaran district of Bihar in 1929
‣ Yogendra Shukla & his associates were the main accused
Abhinav Bharat Society (1904)
‣ Established by V.D. Savarkar in 1904 in Nashik
‣ This society engaged in revolutionary activities involving handcuffs, revolvers, and ropes.
Pandurang Mahadev even traveled to Paris to learn bomb-making techniques

‣ It believed in armed insurrection to overthrow British rule and was responsible for the
assassinations of a few British officials

Bengal Revolutionary Movement

‣ Barindra Kumar Ghosh (Aurobindo Ghosh's brother) and Bhupendra Nath Dutt (Swami
Vivekananda's brother) were pioneers of revolutionary activities in Bengal

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 ‣ Barindra and Bhupendra Nath jointly started the newspaper - Yugantar
‣ Anushilan Samiti

• The Anushilan Samiti was launched by P. Mitra

• Key Members - Barindra Kumar Ghosh, Bhupendra Nath Dutt, and Pramathanath
Mitra were prominent figures

• The Samiti was deeply inspired by the thoughts of Swami Vivekananda and Bankim
Chandra Chatterjee's novel "Ananda math." Sister Nivedita was also associated with it

Thank You

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