Communication Theories

Unit One 1. Introduction

1.1. What is Communication?

Communication is the process through which people create, transmit, receive, and interpret
messages to share information, ideas, emotions, and meanings. It is fundamental to human
interaction and occurs in various forms and settings—interpersonal, group, organizational, mass
media, and intercultural contexts.

Key Elements of Communication:

1. Sender (Source): The person or group who initiates the message.

2. Message: The information, idea, or feeling conveyed.
3. Channel: The medium through which the message is sent (e.g., speech, writing, media).
4. Receiver: The person or group who interprets the message.
5. Feedback: The receiver's response, which completes the communication loop.
6. Noise: Any interference that distorts the message (e.g., physical, semantic,
psychological).
7. Context: The environment or situation in which communication occurs.

Types of Communication:

 Verbal Communication: Spoken or written words.

 Nonverbal Communication: Body language, facial expressions, gestures, tone.
 Visual Communication: Use of images, symbols, or visual aids.
 Mediated Communication: Through technologies like radio, TV, internet.

Functions of Communication:

 Information sharing
 Persuasion
  Relationship building
 Expression of emotions
 Cultural transmission
 Decision-making and problem-solving

1.2. What is Theory?

A theory is a systematic and organized set of concepts, definitions, and explanations that helps us
understand, predict, and sometimes control a phenomenon. In communication, a theory offers a
framework to understand how communication works in different contexts and why it works the
way it does.

Key Characteristics of a Theory:

1. Systematic: Theories are structured and logically organized.

2. Explanatory: They explain relationships between concepts or events.
3. Predictive: They help forecast future behaviors or outcomes based on patterns.
4. Testable: Good theories can be tested through research and observation.
5. Applicable: They provide tools for solving real-world communication problems.

Functions of Theory in Communication:

 To Describe: Identify and define communication processes.

 To Explain: Clarify why and how communication occurs.
 To Predict: Anticipate communication outcomes in various situations.
 To Control or Influence: Improve communication by applying principles drawn from
theory.
 To Critique: Evaluate and challenge existing systems or practices.

1.3. What is Media/Communication Theory?

Media/Communication Theory refers to a set of frameworks and concepts used to analyze,

explain, and predict how communication—especially through mass media—affects individuals,
groups, and society. These theories help us understand how messages are created, transmitted,
interpreted, and how they influence audiences in different contexts.

Core Purpose of Media/Communication Theories:

To explore and explain:

 How media messages are produced

 How they are received and interpreted
 What effects they have on people and culture

Types of Communication Theories:

1. Media Effects Theories

Focus on how exposure to media influences thoughts, attitudes, and behaviors.
o Example: Hypodermic Needle Theory, Cultivation Theory, Agenda-Setting Theory
2. Interpersonal Communication Theories
Explain communication between individuals and in relationships.
o Example: Symbolic Interactionism, Uncertainty Reduction Theory
3. Group and Organizational Communication Theories
Analyze communication in groups, teams, and institutions.
o Example: Functional Group Decision Making, Cultural Approach to
Organizations
4. Intercultural and Gender Theories
Address how communication differs across cultures and genders.
o Example: Face-Negotiation Theory, Muted Group Theory

1.4. Traditions in the Field of Communication Theory

Communication theorist Robert Craig (1999) identified seven key traditions in the field of
communication theory. Each tradition provides a distinct perspective on how communication
works and what it means in different contexts.

1. Socio-Psychological Tradition

 Focus: Communication as interpersonal influence.

 Key Idea: Studies how communication affects attitudes and behaviors.
 Methods: Quantitative, cause-effect relationships.
 Example: Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM), Cognitive Dissonance Theory

2. Cybernetic Tradition

 Focus: Communication as a system of information processing.

 Key Idea: Emphasizes feedback, control, and networks.
 Methods: Systems theory, feedback loops, and signal transmission.
 Example: Shannon-Weaver Model, Information Systems Theory

3. Rhetorical Tradition

 Focus: Communication as artful public address.

 Key Idea: Centers on persuasion, argumentation, and public speaking.
 Rooted in: Classical theories, especially Aristotle's Rhetoric (ethos, pathos, logos).
 Example: Political speeches, legal arguments, advertising.

4. Semiotic Tradition

 Focus: Communication as the process of sharing meaning through signs and symbols.
 Key Idea: Meaning is not in words themselves, but in how people interpret signs.
 Related to: Linguistics and cultural studies.
  Example: How a flag, logo, or emoji carries meaning beyond its literal appearance.

5. Socio-Cultural Tradition

 Focus: Communication as the creation and enactment of social reality.

 Key Idea: Language shapes how we see the world and our identities.
 Perspective: Communication both reflects and produces culture.
 Example: Speech Codes Theory, Standpoint Theory

6. Critical Tradition

 Focus: Communication as a tool to challenge power and promote social change.

 Key Idea: Analyzes how communication maintains or resists domination and inequality.
 Influenced by: Marxism, feminism, post-colonialism.
 Example: Muted Group Theory, Critical Theory of Organizations

7. Phenomenological Tradition

 Focus: Communication as the experience of self and others through dialogue.

 Key Idea: Emphasizes personal interpretation and lived experience.
 Method: Interpretive and qualitative.
 Example: Coordinated Management of Meaning (CMM), Relational Dialogues

1.5 Features of a Good Theory

A good theory in communication (or any discipline) is one that not only explains a phenomenon
clearly but also provides useful tools for predicting, understanding, and applying ideas in real-
world contexts. Below are the key features that make a theory effective and valuable.

1. Explanatory Power

 A good theory clearly explains how and why things happen in a communication process.
 It helps uncover hidden patterns or causes behind observed behaviors.
Example: Cultivation Theory explains how repeated exposure to television can shape viewers'
perception of reality.

2. Predictive Power

 It can forecast future outcomes or behaviors under specific conditions.

 This helps in planning and decision-making in media, marketing, public relations, etc.

Example: Agenda-Setting Theory predicts that media coverage can influence what people
perceive as important.

3. Testability (Falsifiability)

 A good theory must be measurable and testable through research and empirical evidence.
 It must be open to being proven wrong or refined over time.

Poor example: A theory that cannot be disproven is not scientific.

4. Practical Utility

 The theory should be useful in real-life applications—for improving communication,

solving problems, or guiding strategy.

Example: Uses and Gratifications Theory helps content creators design messages that meet
audience needs.

5. Scope and Generalizability

 A good theory should apply to a broad range of situations and not be limited to one
narrow case.
 It should have wide relevance across contexts and cultures when possible.

6. Internal Consistency

 All parts of the theory should work together logically without contradiction.
  It should have a coherent framework.

7. Heuristic Value

 A strong theory stimulates new research, questions, or ideas.

 It opens new paths for thinking or investigation.

Example: Social Penetration Theory has inspired studies in online dating, workplace
relationships, and more.

8. Simplicity (Parsimony)

 The best theories explain the most with the fewest assumptions or concepts.
 A theory should be clear, concise, and not overly complicated.

Unit Two- Behaviorism and Media Effects

Behaviorism and media effects theories explore how media influences individual and group
behavior. These theories often treat audiences as responders to external stimuli, focusing on
observable behaviors rather than internal mental processes. They are some of the earliest and
most influential perspectives in media and communication studies.

2.1 Lasswell’s Chain of Communication

Harold D. Lasswell, a political scientist and communication theorist, developed one of the
earliest models of communication in 1948. His model is known as the Lasswell Formula or
Lasswell’s Chain of Communication.

Lasswell’s Formula:

"Who says what, in which channel, to whom, with what effect?"

Purpose of the Model:

  To analyze mass communication processes, particularly in propaganda, politics, and
media.
 To identify the stages where communication can be controlled, evaluated, or improved.
 To understand how messages influence audiences and achieve specific effects.

Applications:

 Widely used in media research, advertising, public relations, and political

communication.
 A foundational tool for designing campaigns and measuring media effectiveness.

Strengths of Lasswell's Model:

 Simple and easy to understand

 Highlights key components of communication
 Introduces the importance of effect and feedback

Criticisms of the Model:

 Assumes linear communication (one-way process).

 Does not account for feedback or interaction.
 Treats the audience as passive.
 Does not consider context, noise, or interpretation.

Example:

A government official (who) gives a televised speech (in which channel) about national security
(says what) to the public (to whom) in order to build trust and reduce fear (with what effect).

2.2 Wertham – Seduction of the Innocent

Fredric Wertham, a German-American psychiatrist, authored the controversial book Seduction of
the Innocent in 1954, in which he argued that comic books were a major cause of juvenile
delinquency and moral decay among young people in America.

About the Book: Seduction of the Innocent

 Wertham claimed that violent and sexual content in comic books was corrupting the
minds of children.
 He focused on themes like crime, horror, and sexuality, suggesting they promoted:
o Violence
o Disrespect for authority
o Anti-social behavior
o Sexual perversion

Key Arguments:

1. Comics cause behavioral problems in children.

2. Graphic content desensitizes young readers to violence.
3. Superhero comics promote unrealistic and harmful ideals.
4. Some comics, according to Wertham, contain hidden sexual and homoerotic subtexts.

Impact on Society and Media:

 Massive public reaction—parents, educators, and lawmakers grew concerned.

 Led to the U.S. Senate Subcommittee on Juvenile Delinquency hearings in 1954.
 As a result, the comic book industry adopted the Comics Code Authority (CCA):
o A self-censorship body that restricted content (e.g., no excessive violence, no
anti-authority messages).

Media Effects Perspective:

 Wertham’s work represents an early example of the belief in powerful media effects,
particularly on vulnerable audiences like children.
  It aligns with the hypodermic needle theory idea—that media has direct, uniform, and
harmful effects.

Criticisms of Wertham’s Claims:

 Poor methodology: Anecdotal evidence, no controlled research.

 Selective use of data to support his arguments.
 Later reviews (decades later) revealed that Wertham misrepresented data and omitted
contradictory findings.

2.3 Cantril – The Invasion from Mars

Hadley Cantril, a social psychologist, conducted a landmark study in 1940 titled The Invasion
from Mars: A Study in the Psychology of Panic. The study analyzed public reaction to the 1938
radio broadcast of "War of the Worlds", directed and narrated by Orson Welles.

The 1938 Broadcast:

 A fictional dramatization of an alien invasion aired as part of a radio drama series.

 Presented in the format of fake news bulletins, which many listeners mistook for real
events.
 Sparked panic among segments of the U.S. population, with some fleeing their homes or
calling authorities.

Purpose of Cantril's Study:

Cantril aimed to understand why some people panicked while others did not.

Key Findings:

1. Media Effects Are Not Uniform:

o Not everyone believed the broadcast.
o Individual interpretation varied based on:
 Critical thinking ability
  Level of education
 Emotional stability
 Religious beliefs (some saw it as a divine sign)
 Prior knowledge of the program
2. Situational and Psychological Factors Matter:
o People with higher education and media literacy were more likely to verify
information.
o Others trusted the voice on the radio without questioning.
3. Selective Perception:
o Listeners filtered messages through personal beliefs and experiences.

Implications for Media Theory:

 Challenged the Hypodermic Needle Theory which assumed direct and powerful media
effects on all audiences.
 Introduced the idea that audience responses vary significantly.
 Paved the way for limited effects theories, such as:
o Two-Step Flow
o Uses and Gratifications
o Selective Exposure and Perception

Significance in Communication Studies:

 Showed that audience psychology plays a crucial role in how media messages are
received.
 Highlighted the importance of context, credibility of source, and audience background.
 Influenced the development of media literacy education and media effects research.

2.4 Hypodermic Needle Theory (Magic Bullet Theory)

Definition:
The Hypodermic Needle Theory, also known as the Magic Bullet Theory, is one of the earliest
models of communication and media effects. It suggests that media messages are directly
“injected” into the passive audience's mind, having an immediate and powerful influence on their
behavior and attitudes.

Key Idea:
The media acts like a needle or bullet, delivering a message straight to the audience, who are
viewed as a homogeneous and passive group that instantly accepts the message without critical
thought or resistance.

Historical Context:

 Developed in the 1920s and 1930s when mass media such as radio and film became
widespread.
 Influenced by propaganda techniques during World War I and II, where governments
used media to influence public opinion.
 The theory emerged from studies suggesting that media could have a strong, direct, and
uniform effect on audiences.

Assumptions:

 Audiences are passive and lack the ability to resist media influence.
 Media messages are powerful and can shape opinions and behaviors instantly.
 The effect of media is immediate and uniform across different individuals.

Examples:

 Propaganda films during wartime persuading citizens to support the war effort.
 Panic caused by Orson Welles’ 1938 radio broadcast of “The War of the Worlds,” which
some believed to be real news.

Criticisms:
  Oversimplifies the communication process by ignoring individual differences, selective
perception, and social context.
 Modern research shows audiences are active and interpret media messages in diverse
ways.
 Effects of media are often indirect, gradual, and mediated by other social factors.

Significance:

 Though outdated, it laid the foundation for later theories exploring media effects.
 Highlights early concerns about the power of mass media in shaping public opinion.

2.5. Two-Step Flow Theory & Phenomenistic Approach

Two-Step Flow Theory

Definition:
The Two-Step Flow Theory suggests that media effects do not flow directly from the media to
the audience in a single step. Instead, information first reaches opinion leaders, who then
interpret and pass it on to others in their social circle, influencing them indirectly.

Key Idea:

 Media → Opinion Leaders → General Audience

 Opinion leaders act as intermediaries or filters who personalize and contextualize media
messages for others.

Origin:

 Developed by Paul Lazarsfeld and his colleagues in the 1940s during studies of voting
behavior and media influence.
 It challenged the earlier Hypodermic Needle Theory by emphasizing the social nature of
media influence.

Characteristics:
  Audience members rely on trusted opinion leaders rather than media directly.
 Media influence is indirect, mediated by social relationships.
 Opinion leaders are usually more exposed to media and more knowledgeable about
certain topics.

Example:

 A political news story may influence voters more through discussions with community
leaders or influencers than through direct exposure to the media message itself.

Phenomenistic Approach

Definition:
The Phenomenistic Approach focuses on how personal experiences, perceptions, and
interpretations influence how individuals receive and respond to media messages.

Key Idea:

 Audience members are active interpreters who filter messages through their own beliefs,
values, and social context.
 Media messages are not received uniformly; different people may derive different
meanings from the same message.

Relation to Two-Step Flow:

 Both theories emphasize the role of social context and active audience participation in
communication.
 The Phenomenistic Approach provides a more individualized understanding, while Two-
Step Flow highlights social mediation.

Implications:

 Media effects are complex, dependent on the audience’s own interpretations and social
influences.
  Communication is a dynamic process shaped by interpersonal relationships and personal
experiences.

2.6. Uses and Gratifications Theory

Definition:
Uses and Gratifications Theory (UGT) focuses on why and how people actively seek out specific
media to satisfy particular needs or desires. Unlike earlier theories that view audiences as passive
recipients, UGT sees the audience as active participants in the communication process.

Key Idea:

 People use media deliberately to fulfill various personal and social needs.
 The audience is goal-oriented and chooses media content based on what gratifications
they want to achieve.

Historical Background:

 Developed in the 1940s and 1950s, but gained prominence in the 1970s with research by
Elihu Katz, Jay Blumler, and Michael Gurevitch.
 A reaction against mass communication theories that emphasized the powerful, uniform
influence of media.

Main Assumptions:

 Audience members are active, not passive.

 Media compete with other sources of satisfaction.
 People have control over their media use and select content that meets their needs.
 Media fulfill multiple needs simultaneously.

Common Needs Satisfied by Media (Gratifications):

  Cognitive needs: Acquiring information, knowledge, and understanding.
 Affective needs: Emotional, pleasurable, or aesthetic experiences.
 Personal integrative needs: Enhancing credibility, status, and self-confidence.
 Social integrative needs: Strengthening contacts with family, friends, and social groups.
 Tension release needs Escapism, diversion, and entertainment.

Examples:

 Watching a news program to stay informed (cognitive need).

 Listening to music to relax or feel happy (affective need).
 Following social media to connect with friends (social integrative need).

Significance:

 Highlights the active role of the audience in media consumption.

 Emphasizes media choice and individual differences in motivation.
 Useful for understanding new media and digital media consumption habits.

Criticisms:

 Focuses on individual motivation but may neglect the broader social context and media
power structures.
 Relies heavily on self-reported data, which can be biased.

2.7. Cultivation Theory (George Gerbner)

Definition:
Cultivation Theory, developed by George Gerbner in the late 1960s and 1970s, examines the
long-term effects of television viewing on audiences’ perceptions of reality. It argues that heavy
exposure to television shapes viewers’ attitudes, beliefs, and social realities over time.

Key Idea:

 Television is a primary source of shared cultural imagery and social messages.

  Prolonged exposure to TV content cultivates a common worldview that may be distorted
or biased.
 Heavy viewers come to perceive the real world in ways consistent with the TV world,
often more fearful or skewed than reality.

Core Concepts:

 Mainstreaming: Heavy viewers from diverse backgrounds tend to develop similar

perceptions of reality, influenced by the dominant TV messages. TV homogenizes
viewers’ attitudes.
 Resonance: When the real-life environment of viewers aligns with the TV portrayals, the
cultivation effect is stronger, reinforcing the TV’s version of reality.

Focus:

 Often studied in the context of violent content, crime, and fear of victimization (the
“mean world syndrome”).
 Examines how repeated media images shape people’s beliefs about crime rates, social
trust, and personal safety.

Examples:

 Heavy viewers of crime dramas may overestimate the likelihood of becoming a crime
victim.
 Television’s portrayal of gender roles can influence viewers’ perceptions about gender
norms.

Significance:

 Highlights the cumulative and gradual nature of media effects rather than immediate or
direct influence.
  Emphasizes the role of television as a socializing agent shaping cultural norms and
attitudes.

Criticisms:

 Focuses mainly on television and may not account for newer media forms like the
internet and social media.
 The theory is correlational and does not always establish direct causation.
 It assumes heavy viewers are a homogeneous group in their interpretations.

2.8 Agenda-Setting Theory

Definition:
Agenda-Setting Theory explains how the media influences the public by determining which
issues are considered important. The media does not tell people what to think, but it strongly
influences what people think about.

Key Idea:

 The media sets the agenda by selecting certain topics to highlight and giving them more
coverage.
 The prominence and frequency of issues in the media affect the public’s perception of
their importance.

Origin:

 Developed by Maxwell McCombs and Donald Shaw in the 1970s during studies of the
1968 U.S. presidential election.
 Based on the idea that the mass media has the power to shape the public agenda.

How It Works:

1. Media highlights specific issues (news stories, headlines).

2. The public notices these highlighted issues and perceives them as more important.
 3. This influences public opinion and can impact political and social priorities.

Types of Agenda-Setting:

 First-level agenda setting: Media influence on what topics people think about.
 Second-level agenda-setting (attribute agenda-setting): Media influence on how people
think about an issue by emphasizing specific attributes or perspectives.

Examples:

 Extensive media coverage of climate change can raise public concern and prompt
political action.
 Media focus on crime stories can increase public fear about safety, even if actual crime
rates are low.

Significance:

 Highlights the media’s powerful role in shaping societal priorities.

 Shows the link between media coverage and public discourse.

Criticisms:

 Does not account for individual differences in media use and interpretation.
 In the age of social media and diverse information sources, the media’s agenda-setting
power may be diluted.
 Some argue that the public can also influence the media agenda, making it a two-way
process.

Unit Three -Interpersonal communication theories

3.1 Symbolic Interactionism Theory

Definition:
Symbolic Interactionism is a sociological and communication theory that explains how people
create and interpret meanings through social interaction using symbols, especially language.

Key Idea:

 Humans interact by using symbols (words, gestures, objects) that have shared meanings.
 Meaning is not inherent in objects or actions but is created and modified through social
interaction.
 Individuals develop their self-concept based on how they think others perceive them (the
“looking-glass self”).

Origin:

 Rooted in the work of George Herbert Mead and later expanded by Herbert Blumer in the
early 20th century.
 Influenced by pragmatism and focused on everyday human behavior and communication.

Core Principles (Blumer’s three premises):

1. Meaning: People act based on the meanings things have for them.
2. Language: Meaning arises out of social interaction through language and communication.
3. Thought: Individuals interpret meanings and modify them through an internal
conversation or reflection.

Applications in Communication:

 Communication is a process of meaning making where both sender and receiver negotiate
meanings.
 Identity and self-concept are continuously shaped through interactions with others.
 Social reality is constructed through ongoing symbolic interactions.

Examples:
  A handshake means greeting and respect because people have agreed on its symbolic
meaning.
 The word “freedom” means different things depending on cultural and social context.
 Individuals adjust their behavior based on how they perceive others see them.

Significance:

 Emphasizes the active role of individuals in creating social realities.

 Highlights the importance of language and symbols in communication.
 Influential in fields like sociology, psychology, and communication studies.

Criticisms:

 Sometimes criticized for focusing too much on micro-level interactions and neglecting
larger social structures.
 May overlook power dynamics and social inequalities

3.2 Expectancy Violation Theory (EVT)

Definition:
Expectancy Violation Theory, developed by Judee Burgoon, explains how people react to
unexpected behaviors from others in interpersonal communication. It focuses on how violations
of expected social norms influence perceptions and interactions.

Key Idea:

 People have expectations about how others should behave in communication, especially
nonverbal behavior like personal space, eye contact, and gestures.
 When someone violates these expectations, the reaction can be positive or negative
depending on the context and the violator’s characteristics.

Origin:
  Introduced by Judee Burgoon in the late 1970s.
 Builds on the idea that people anticipate others’ behaviors in social situations.

Core Concepts:

 Expectancies: What people predict will happen in a communication encounter, based on

social norms and experiences.
 Violation Valence: The positive or negative value assigned to the unexpected behavior. It
depends on how the behavior is interpreted.
 Communicator Reward Valence: The overall assessment of the violator based on their
ability to reward or punish the receiver (e.g., attractiveness, status).

How It Works:

 If the violator has high reward valence, the violation is more likely to be perceived
positively.
 If the violation is negative and the violator has low reward valence, it leads to discomfort
or negative judgments.

Examples:

 Someone standing too close in a conversation (violating personal space) might be seen as
intrusive or friendly depending on his or her relationship.
 Unexpected direct eye contact from a stranger may be perceived as aggressive or
confident.

Significance:

 Helps explain how nonverbal behaviors impact communication effectiveness.

 Useful in intercultural communication where expectations differ widely.
 Provides insight into managing impressions and relational dynamics.

Criticisms:
  Focuses mainly on nonverbal communication and may underemphasize verbal cues.
 Interpretation of violations can be subjective and vary greatly.

3.3 Interpersonal Deception Theory (IDT)

Definition:
Interpersonal Deception Theory (IDT), developed by David Buller and Judee Burgoon, examines
how individuals manage deception during face-to-face communication and how people detect (or
fail to detect) lies in real-time interactions.

Key Idea:

 Deception is a complex, dynamic process involving both verbal and nonverbal

communication.
 Both the deceiver and the receiver are actively involved — the deceiver attempts to
manage the message, and the receiver evaluates it while also influencing the exchange.
 Most deception is subtle and often goes undetected due to social norms, politeness, or
trust.

Types of Deception in IDT:

1. Falsification: Telling something that is entirely false.

2. Concealment: Withholding relevant information.
3. Equivocation: Being deliberately vague or ambiguous.

Core Components:

 Strategic Communication Behaviors (by the deceiver):

o Message management: Controlling content to appear truthful.
o Nonverbal control: Regulating eye contact, facial expressions, and posture.
o Image management: Maintaining a credible impression.
 Leakage (unintentional cues):
 o Signs of stress, inconsistencies, or nervous behaviors (e.g., fidgeting, speech
errors) that may hint at deception.
 Interactional Dynamics:
o Deception is harder to detect in real-time because both parties adapt to each other.
o Receivers often judge truthfulness based on relational closeness, context, and
preconceived trust.

Assumptions of IDT:

 Deceivers try to appear honest while also controlling verbal and nonverbal cues.
 Receivers are not passive — they may question, interpret, and respond, which shapes the
outcome.
 Relational factors (e.g., familiarity, liking, power) affect both the ability to lie and detect
lies.

Example:

 A student lies to their teacher about why an assignment is late. While they maintain eye
contact and speak confidently (strategic control), their nervous hand movements or
inconsistent story details may act as leakage.

Significance:

 Useful in analyzing deception in everyday conversation, romantic relationships, job

interviews, and law enforcement.
 Challenges the idea that lies are easily detected — many go unnoticed due to the natural
flow of conversation.

Criticisms:

 It may be hard to clearly separate strategic behavior from natural nervousness.

  Relies on subtle cues that can vary across cultures and individuals.
 Not always accurate in predicting deception, especially in digital communication.

3.4 Coordinated Management of Meaning (CMM)

Definition:
The Coordinated Management of Meaning (CMM) is a communication theory developed by W.
Barnett Pearce and Vernon Cronen. It explains how individuals use communication to create,
interpret, and coordinate meaning in social interactions.

Key Idea:

 Communication is not just about exchanging information — it creates social reality.

 People coordinate their actions and meanings through interaction, often without realizing
it.
 Misunderstandings occur when individuals interpret messages based on different contexts
or meanings.

Core Concepts:

1. Hierarchies of Meaning:

CMM suggests that messages are interpreted based on different levels or layers of meaning:

 Content: The actual words used.

 Speech Act: The intent behind the words (e.g., questioning, promising, insulting).
 Episode: The context or situation (e.g., an argument, a job interview).
 Relationship: The nature of the relationship between communicators.
 Life Scripts: The individual’s identity, values, and personal history.
 Cultural Patterns: Broader societal norms and beliefs.

Each layer influences how we interpret and respond to communication.

2. Coordination:
  People try to coordinate their actions and meanings during communication, even if they
interpret the situation differently.
 Coordination does not always mean agreement, but rather finding a way to act together
meaningfully.

3. Coherence:

 The process of making sense of the conversation.

 People use the hierarchy of meaning to construct a coherent understanding of the
interaction.

Example:

Imagine two coworkers in a meeting:

 One says, “That’s an interesting idea.”

o Content: The words seem neutral or positive.
o Speech Act: Could be agreement or polite dismissal.
o Episode: A professional brainstorming session.
o Relationship: Formal coworker dynamic.
o Interpretation: Depends on tone, facial expression, past experiences, and
organizational culture.

Miscommunication happens when they interpret these layers differently.

Significance:

 CMM shows that meaning is constructed in conversation, not just transferred.

 Useful in understanding interpersonal conflict, intercultural communication, and
organizational dynamics.
 Encourages mindful communication — being aware of how our messages are created and
interpreted.

Criticisms:
  Can be abstract and difficult to apply without training.
 Not always predictive — it focuses more on understanding communication than on
forecasting outcomes.

3.5. Uncertainty Reduction Theory (URT)

Definition:
Uncertainty Reduction Theory (URT), developed by Charles Berger and Richard Calabrese in
1975, explains how individuals communicate to reduce uncertainty when meeting someone new.
It focuses on the initial interactions between strangers and how people seek information to better
predict the behavior of others.

Key Idea:

 When people meet for the first time, they experience uncertainty.
 To feel more comfortable, they engage in communication to gather information and
reduce that uncertainty.
 The more we know about someone, the more predictable their behavior becomes —
making interaction smoother and more meaningful.

Types of Uncertainty:

1. Cognitive Uncertainty – Uncertainty about what the other person is thinking or who they
are.
2. Behavioral Uncertainty – Uncertainty about how the other person will behave or how we
should behave around them.

Axioms of URT:

Berger and Calabrese proposed eight axioms, including:

 1. When uncertainty increases, information-seeking increases.
2. As nonverbal warmth increases, uncertainty decreases.
3. Increased uncertainty leads to decreased intimacy.
4. Similarities between people reduce uncertainty.

(Note: These axioms are interrelated and were later refined into theorems.)

Example:

Two new students meet on the first day of class.

 They start asking each other questions (interactive strategy) to reduce uncertainty.
 As they find shared interests (similarity), they become more comfortable and begin to
develop a relationship.

Significance:

 Helps explain relationship development, especially in early stages.

 Useful in interpersonal, intercultural, and organizational communication.

Criticisms:

 Focuses primarily on initial interactions; less useful for long-term relationships.

 Assumes people are always motivated to reduce uncertainty, which isn't always true (e.g.,
some prefer ambiguity).
 Does not fully account for emotional, cultural, or contextual differences in
communication.

3.6 Cognitive Dissonance Theory

Definition:
Cognitive Dissonance Theory, developed by Leon Festinger in 1957, explains the discomfort
people feel when they hold two or more conflicting beliefs, attitudes, or values, or when their
behavior contradicts their beliefs. This discomfort motivates them to reduce the inconsistency
and restore psychological balance.

Key Idea:

 People seek internal consistency between their thoughts (cognitions) and actions.
 When inconsistency (dissonance) occurs, they are psychologically uncomfortable.
 To reduce dissonance, individuals change their beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors, or justify
the inconsistency.

Causes of Cognitive Dissonance:

1. Decision-making: Choosing between two attractive options can cause regret or conflict.
2. Forced compliance: Acting against one's beliefs due to external pressure.
3. Effort justification: Justifying effort or pain endured to achieve something.
4. New information: Learning something that contradicts existing beliefs.

Example:

A person believes in healthy living but eats fast food daily. This creates dissonance.
To reduce it, they might:

 Stop eating fast food (change behavior),

 Convince themselves that fast food isn't too unhealthy (change cognition), or
 Justify it by saying they exercise regularly (add new cognition).

Applications:

 Marketing & Advertising: People justify purchases to reduce buyer's remorse.

 Health Communication: Dissonance can motivate behavior change (e.g., quitting
smoking).
 Politics & Religion: Belief systems are reinforced to reduce conflict with opposing views.

Significance:
  Explains how beliefs and behaviors influence each other.
 Shows how people protect their self-image and sense of integrity.
 Important in persuasion, attitude change, and behavioral psychology.

Criticisms:

 Difficult to measure dissonance objectively.

 People's ability to rationalize can vary widely.
 Cultural differences may influence how dissonance is experienced and resolved.

3.7 Social Judgment Theory (SJT)

Definition:
Social Judgment Theory, developed by Muzafer Sherif and Carol Sherif in the 1960s, explains
how people evaluate and respond to persuasive messages based on their existing attitudes. The
theory focuses on how personal anchors (pre-existing beliefs) influence whether a message is
accepted, rejected, or ignored.

Key Idea:

 People compare new information to what they already believe.

 Their response depends on how closely the message aligns with their current viewpoint.
 The greater the difference between the message and their belief, the more likely they are
to reject it.

Key Concepts:

1. Latitudes of Judgment:

Social Judgment Theory divides our reaction to messages into three zones:

 Latitude of Acceptance: The range of ideas a person finds acceptable or agrees with.
  Latitude of Rejection: The range of ideas a person disagrees with or finds objectionable.
 Latitude of Non-commitment: The range of ideas a person feels neutral or unsure about.

2. Anchor Position:

 A person’s most preferred position on an issue (their starting point).

 All new messages are judged based on how far they are from this anchor.

3. Ego Involvement:

 The more personally invested someone is in an issue, the narrower their latitude of
acceptance and wider their latitude of rejection.
 Highly involved individuals are harder to persuade because they are less tolerant of
opposing views.

Example:

If someone strongly opposes gun control (anchor position):

 A message suggesting a total gun ban likely falls into their latitude of rejection.
 A message promoting basic background checks may fall into latitude of non-commitment
or even acceptance if it’s close enough to their beliefs.

Applications:

 Persuasive Communication: Effective messages fall within or near the latitude of

acceptance.
 Public Relations & Politics: Knowing the audience's anchor positions helps tailor
messages that resonate.
 Marketing: Products or campaigns are more persuasive when they align with consumers’
values or beliefs.

Significance:
  Emphasizes that persuasion is a gradual process.
 Highlights the role of pre-existing attitudes in interpreting new messages.
 Shows why extreme or confrontational messages often backfire.

Criticisms:

 Difficult to measure latitudes accurately in practice.

 Assumes people are always rational and self-aware in processing persuasive messages.
 Less applicable to audiences with little prior opinion or awareness on an issue.

3.8. Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)

Definition:
The Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) is a theory of persuasion developed by Richard Petty
and John Cacioppo in the 1980s. It explains how people process persuasive messages and how
that processing affects their attitudes and behavior.

Key Idea:

 People are persuaded through two main routes depending on how motivated and able
they are to process information:
1. Central Route – Deep, thoughtful consideration of the message content.
2. Peripheral Route – Superficial processing based on cues outside the message itself
(e.g., speaker credibility, attractiveness, or emotional appeal).

1. Central Route to Persuasion

 Involves high elaboration (careful thinking and analysis).

 Occurs when:
o The audience is motivated to listen.
o The audience has the ability to understand the message.
  Leads to lasting attitude change because it's based on reasoned judgment.

Example:
A person researching health effects of sugary drinks reads scientific articles and changes their
diet.

2. Peripheral Route to Persuasion

 Involves low elaboration (minimal thinking).

 Occurs when:
o The audience is not motivated or unable to process the message.
 Influenced by external cues like:
o The speaker’s appearance
o Emotional appeal
o Slogans or background music
 Leads to temporary or weaker attitude change.

Example:
Someone buys a product because a celebrity endorsed it, not because they researched its quality.

Factors Influencing Route Selection:

Factor Effect
Motivation More motivation = Central route
Ability More ability (time, focus, knowledge) = Central route
Distractions or fatigue Pushes audience to Peripheral route
Personal relevance High relevance encourages Central route

Applications:

 Advertising: High-involvement products (e.g., cars, insurance) use central route; low-
involvement products (e.g., snacks, clothing) often use peripheral cues.
  Health Campaigns: Persuasive messages are more effective when matched to the
audience's motivation and ability to process information.
 Political Communication: Candidates often use both logic (central) and emotional appeal
(peripheral).

Significance:

 Shows that not all persuasion works the same way.

 Helps tailor messages based on the audience's attention and interest.
 Combines cognitive psychology with communication for a better understanding of
attitude change.

Criticisms:

 Oversimplifies the complexity of persuasion.

 People may use both routes simultaneously.
 Difficult to always determine which route is being used in real-time.

Unit Four-Group and public communication theories

4.1 Functional Perspective on Group Decision Making

Definition:
The Functional Perspective on Group Decision Making is a communication theory developed by
Randy Hirokawa and Dennis Gouran. It explains how group communication contributes to
effective decision-making and problem solving by focusing on specific functions that must be
fulfilled for high-quality decisions.

Key Idea:

 Groups make better decisions when they systematically follow certain communication
functions.
  The quality of the decision depends more on how well these functions are performed than
on who is in the group or how long the group meets.

The Four Key Functions:

1. Problem Analysis
o Clearly define and understand the issue or problem.
o Ask: What is the nature, scope, and seriousness of the problem?
2. Goal Setting
o Establish clear standards or criteria for an acceptable solution.
o Ask: What outcomes are we aiming for?
3. Identification of Alternatives
o Generate a range of possible solutions or options.
o Ask: What are all the possible ways we could solve this problem?
4. Evaluation of Positive and Negative Characteristics
o Critically examine each option against the set goals or criteria.
o Ask: What are the pros and cons of each solution?

Optional Fifth Function (sometimes added):

 Selection/Implementation: Choosing the best solution and planning how to implement it.

Example:

A school committee is deciding how to improve student attendance.

1. Problem Analysis: Recognizes absenteeism rates are rising.

2. Goal Setting: Defines success as reducing absences by 25% in one semester.
3. Alternatives: Considers parent outreach, incentive programs, stricter rules, etc.
4. Evaluation: Weighs effectiveness, cost, and fairness of each option before deciding.

Assumptions of the Theory:

 Decision-making is a rational process.

 Effective communication helps meet the functional requirements.
 Groups that emphasize task-related communication are more likely to succeed.

Significance:

 Encourages structured communication in group settings.

 Highlights task-oriented behavior over social or relational communication.
 Useful in teamwork, organizational meetings, committees, and project planning.

Criticisms:
  May overemphasize rationality; real group decisions are also affected by emotions,
power, and relationships.
 Does not fully account for interpersonal conflict or groupthink.
 Assumes all members are equally motivated and informed.

4.2 Adaptive Structuration Theory (AST)

Definition:
Adaptive Structuration Theory (AST) was developed by Marshall Scott Poole and colleagues. It
explains how groups and organizations create, maintain, and transform structures (rules, roles,
norms) during social interaction — especially when using technology in decision-making and
communication.

Key Idea:

 Groups are not just shaped by structures (like procedures, rules, or technologies) — they
also reshape and adapt those structures through interaction.
 Structures are both the medium and the outcome of communication.
 AST blends social structure and human agency, showing that group behavior emerges
from the interaction between people and the tools or systems they use.

Core Concepts:

1. Structures:

 Guidelines or resources that shape group behavior (e.g., decision rules, software tools,
and traditions).
 May come from within the group or from external systems (like organizational policies or
technologies).

2. Agency:

 Group members have the power to accept, reject, modify, or ignore structures during their
interaction.
 People make choices about how to use or adapt structures to fit their goals.

3. Appropriation:

 The process of using (or adapting) structures in group settings.

  Appropriation can be:
o Faithful: Used as intended.
o Ironic or Unfaithful: Altered, resisted, or used in unintended ways.

Example:

An organization adopts a new project management software (structure).

 One team uses it faithfully as designed.

 Another team modifies it, creating their own system within the platform.
 A third team resists using it and reverts to their previous method.

Each team is adapting the structure through their communication and practices.

Applications:

 Understanding how teams adapt to new technologies (e.g., Zoom, Microsoft Teams, AI
tools).
 Explaining how rules and norms evolve in group decision-making.
 Analyzing organizational change, collaboration, and resistance to innovation.

Significance:

 Emphasizes the dynamic relationship between technology, structure, and communication.

 Highlights how people co-create systems and processes rather than just follow them.
 Useful in studying virtual teams, organizational communication, and group decision-
making.

Criticisms:

 Can be complex and abstract — difficult to apply in all practical settings.

 Doesn’t always clearly predict outcomes — focuses more on explanation than
prescription.
 May not fully account for power dynamics and inequality in group decisions.

4.3 Information Systems Approach to Organizational Communication

(Also known as: Sense making Approach / Karl Weick’s Organizational Theory)

Definition:
The Information Systems Approach, particularly associated with Karl Weick, views
organizations not as static structures but as ongoing communication processes. The theory
emphasizes how individuals in organizations make sense of uncertainty and create meaning
through continuous interaction.
Key Idea:

 Organizations are information systems where members constantly receive, interpret, and
respond to information.
 Sense making is the central concept: it is the process of giving meaning to experiences,
especially in uncertain or ambiguous situations.
 Communication is not just a tool for exchanging information — it is the very process by
which organizations exist and adapt.

Core Concepts:

1. Sense making

 The process by which people interpret ambiguous events and build shared understanding.
 Ongoing, social, retrospective, and grounded in identity and plausibility (not always
accuracy).

2. Equivocality

 Refers to the ambiguity or uncertainty of information.

 Organizations seek to reduce equivocality through communication.

3. Enactment → Selection → Retention

Weick's organizing process follows three key steps:

 Enactment: Members act and gather information from their environment (they shape
what they see).
 Selection: They choose how to interpret and respond to the information.
 Retention: They remember successful interpretations and build routines or rules based on
them.

Example:

A company faces a sudden drop in sales.

 Employees enact the situation by investigating customer feedback and sales data.
 They select explanations (e.g., poor marketing, product defects).
 Based on this, they retain new policies or strategies to prevent future drops.

Applications:
  Helps explain organizational change, adaptation, and crisis management.
 Useful in analyzing how teams make decisions under pressure.
 Guides leaders in creating clarity during periods of uncertainty.

Significance:

 Shifts focus from rigid structures to communication as the core of organizing.

 Shows how human perception and language shape organizational reality.
 Emphasizes that organizations are in constant flux, adapting through communication.

Criticisms:

 Can be too abstract or difficult to measure empirically.

 Emphasizes process over clear outcomes or structures.
 Not all organizations may fit this flexible, interpretive model (e.g., highly bureaucratic
institutions).

4.4. Cultural Approach to Organizations

Definition:
The Cultural Approach to Organizations views organizations as cultures—complex webs of
shared meanings, values, beliefs, and rituals that shape the behavior of members. This approach
was notably developed by Clifford Geertz (anthropology) and adapted to organizational
communication by Mary Jo Hatch and Clifford M. Bailey, as well as Edgar Schein.

Key Idea:

 Organizations are not just structures or systems but communities with their own cultures.
 Culture is created, maintained, and changed through communication—stories, rituals,
symbols, language, and artifacts.
 Understanding an organization requires understanding its culture, which influences how
members perceive and act.

Core Concepts:

1. Artifacts

 Visible organizational structures and processes (e.g., dress code, office layout, slogans,
and rituals).
 These are the most observable but often hard to interpret without deeper understanding.

2. Espoused Values
  Explicitly stated values and norms (e.g., mission statements, official policies).
 What the organization says it values.

3. Basic Underlying Assumptions

 Deeply embedded, taken-for-granted beliefs and behaviors that are often unconscious.
 These assumptions truly guide behavior and decision-making.

How Culture is expressed:

 Stories and Myths: Narratives that communicate important values and history.
 Rituals: Repeated activities that reinforce culture (e.g., meetings, celebrations).
 Symbols: Objects or actions that represent cultural values.
 Language: Jargon or slogans unique to the organization.

Example:

At a tech company:

 Artifacts: Open office space, casual dress code, ping-pong tables.

 Espoused Values: Innovation, creativity, collaboration.
 Basic Assumptions: Risk-taking is valued; failure is seen as part of learning.

Significance:

 Emphasizes the interpretive nature of organizations.

 Helps explain why organizational change is difficult — culture is deeply ingrained.
 Useful for leaders and communicators in understanding and shaping organizational
identity.

Criticisms:

 Can be vague and difficult to measure culture objectively.

 May overlook power dynamics and conflicts within organizations.
 Risk of romanticizing culture without addressing dysfunction.

4.5 Critical Theory of Communication Approach to Organization

Definition:
The Critical Theory of Communication Approach to Organization applies principles from critical
theory to analyze power, control, and inequality within organizations. It emphasizes how
communication shapes and reflects dominance, ideology, and resistance in workplace settings.
Key Idea:

 Organizations are sites of power struggles where dominant groups maintain control
through communication practices.
 Communication is not neutral; it can reproduce or challenge organizational ideologies
and power relations.
 Employees can either accept, negotiate, or resist these power structures through
discourse.

Core Concepts:

1. Power and Domination

 Power is exercised through control of information, discourse, and decision-making.

 Organizational structures often serve the interests of dominant groups (e.g., management)
at the expense of others (e.g., workers).

2. Ideology

 Shared beliefs and values that justify and maintain the status quo.
 Ideologies can mask inequalities by presenting current practices as natural or inevitable.

3. Resistance

 Workers and marginalized groups resist domination through subtle or overt acts,
including counter-discourses, humor, or sabotage.

4. Emancipation

 The goal is to raise awareness of oppressive structures and empower individuals to

challenge and change them.

Theorists and Influences:

 Influenced by the Frankfurt School critical theorists (e.g., Habermas, Horkheimer).

 Key scholars in organizational communication include Stanley Deetz and Thomas Kuhn.

Example:

 In a factory, management uses communication that emphasizes loyalty and productivity,

masking inequalities in working conditions.
  Employees may resist by forming unions, engaging in informal talk, or sharing stories
that question management’s narratives.

Significance:

 Encourages a critical examination of organizational communication beyond surface-level

efficiency.
 Highlights how power and ideology influence communication and organizational life.
 Advocates for democratic communication practices and participative decision-making.

Criticisms:

 Can be too focused on conflict and power, neglecting cooperation and consensus.
 Sometimes seen as pessimistic or ideological.
 Practical application in organizations may be difficult due to entrenched power structures.

4.6. The Rhetoric

Definition:
The Rhetoric is a foundational theory of communication, originally developed by the ancient
Greek philosopher Aristotle. It focuses on the art of persuasion through effective speaking and
writing, emphasizing how communicators can influence audiences.

Key Idea:

 Communication is a purposeful act aimed at persuading or influencing an audience.

 Successful persuasion depends on the speaker’s ability to appeal to the audience’s reason,
emotions, and character.

Aristotle’s Three Modes of Persuasion (Rhetorical Appeals):

1. Ethos (Credibility)
o The speaker’s character and credibility.
o An audience is more likely to be persuaded if they trust and respect the speaker.
o Established through expertise, honesty, and goodwill.
2. Pathos (Emotional Appeal)
o Appeals to the audience’s emotions (e.g., fear, pity, anger, joy).
o Effective rhetoric can evoke feelings to motivate action or change attitudes.
3. Logos (Logical Appeal)
o Use of logic, facts, statistics, and reasoned arguments.
o Persuasion through clear evidence and rational thought.

The Five Canons of Rhetoric:

Aristotle and later rhetoricians outlined five essential elements for crafting effective speeches or
texts:

1. Invention: Finding persuasive arguments and content.

2. Arrangement: Organizing ideas logically and effectively.
3. Style: Using language effectively to express ideas.
4. Memory: Mastery of the material and ability to recall it.
5. Delivery: Effective presentation, including voice and gestures.

Applications:

 Public speaking, political speeches, advertising, legal arguments.

 Modern communication fields like marketing, PR, and media rely heavily on rhetorical
principles.
 Helps analyze how messages persuade and influence in various contexts.

Example:

A politician’s speech that combines credible expertise (ethos), emotional stories of hardship
(pathos), and clear policy proposals with supporting data (logos) is more likely to persuade
voters.

Significance:

 One of the earliest and most influential communication theories.

 Provides a framework to understand and improve persuasive communication.
 Emphasizes the importance of audience analysis and ethical persuasion.

Criticisms:

 Can be used manipulatively if persuasion disregards truth or ethics.

 Traditional rhetoric focuses mostly on speaker and audience, sometimes neglecting
context or media effects.

4.7. Dramatism

Definition:
Dramatism is a communication theory developed by Kenneth Burke that views life and
communication as a form of drama. It analyzes how people use language and symbolic actions to
create meaning, persuade others, and define their identity.

Key Idea:
  Communication is like a drama or play, where people are actors performing roles.
 To understand communication, we analyze the motives and meanings behind people’s
language and actions.
 The focus is on how individuals construct reality through their symbolic use of language.

The Concept of “Guilt” and “Redemption”

 Burke believed much of human communication revolves around the idea of guilt, which
can be anything that creates tension or conflict (not just moral guilt).
 People use redemption strategies to resolve guilt, often through:
o Mortification: Confessing or taking responsibility.
o Scapegoating: Blaming others.

Example:

A CEO announces a company restructuring (the Act) during a financial crisis (Scene). The CEO
(Agent) uses a formal speech (Agency) to explain the reasons and reassure employees (Purpose).
Analyzing this using the pentad helps reveal the underlying motives and messages.

Applications:

 Analyzing speeches, literature, social movements, and everyday conversations.

 Understanding how people construct narratives to justify actions or persuade others.
 Used in rhetoric, literary criticism, psychology, and organizational communication.

Significance:

 Offers a unique way to understand motivation and meaning in communication.

 Emphasizes the symbolic nature of language.
 Helps uncover hidden agendas and power dynamics.

Criticisms:

 The theory can be complex and abstract for practical use.

 Heavy focus on language may overlook nonverbal communication.
 Sometimes criticized for being too interpretive without clear guidelines.

4.8. Narrative Paradigm

Definition:
The Narrative Paradigm is a communication theory developed by Walter Fisher in the 1980s. It
proposes that humans are natural storytellers, and that storytelling (narrative) is the primary way
people make sense of the world and communicate meaning.

Key Idea:

 People understand and evaluate messages based on narratives rather than purely on
logical arguments.
 Communication is persuasive when it tells a coherent and credible story that resonates
with the audience’s experiences and values.

Core Concepts:

1. Narrative Rationality

People judge stories using two key criteria:

 Coherence: How well the story fits together; whether it makes sense internally (consistent
characters, plot, and events).
 Fidelity: How truthful or reliable the story seems; whether it resonates with the listener’s
beliefs and experiences.

2. Humans as Storytellers

 Fisher argues that all meaningful communication is a form of storytelling.

 Stories help people explain events, justify actions, and shape identity.

3. Paradigm Shift

 Moves away from the traditional rational-world paradigm (where logic and evidence are
supreme) to a paradigm where narrative logic guides understanding.

Example:

A politician tells a story about their upbringing overcoming hardship and serving the community.

 The story’s coherence makes it believable.

  The story’s fidelity aligns with the audience’s values of hard work and service, making it
persuasive.

Applications:

 Analyzing speeches, media, advertising, and interpersonal communication.

 Understanding how culture and identity are constructed through stories.
 Used in conflict resolution, therapy, and organizational communication.

Significance:

 Highlights the power of storytelling in persuasion and meaning-making.

 Recognizes the emotional and moral dimensions of communication.
 Encourages communicators to craft messages that connect on a narrative level.

Criticisms:

 Some argue it undervalues logical, scientific reasoning.

 Can be subjective; different audiences may interpret stories differently.
 Difficult to apply in contexts that require objective analysis.

Unit Five-Intercultural communication theories/gender and communication

theories

5.1 Anxiety/Uncertainty Management (AUM) Theory

Definition:
Anxiety/Uncertainty Management Theory (AUM) was developed by William Gudykunst to
explain how people communicate effectively in initial intercultural encounters by managing their
anxiety and uncertainty.

Key Idea:

 When interacting with people from different cultures, individuals experience anxiety and
uncertainty about how to behave or interpret messages.
 Effective communication depends on managing both anxiety and uncertainty to optimal
levels.
 Too much or too little anxiety/uncertainty can hinder communication.

Core Concepts:

1. Anxiety

 The feelings of fear or apprehension during interactions with strangers or culturally

different individuals.
  High anxiety may lead to avoidance or misunderstanding; too low anxiety may cause lack
of attention.

2. Uncertainty

 The inability to predict or explain another person’s behavior in an interaction.

 Some uncertainty is natural, but too much can create discomfort.

3. Mindfulness and Effective Communication

 Mindfulness (awareness and attention to one’s own and others’ behavior) helps reduce
misunderstandings.
 Managing anxiety and uncertainty allows for more accurate interpretations and successful
interactions.

Key Assumptions:

 Communication competence in intercultural settings requires balancing anxiety and

uncertainty.
 The goal is to reach an optimal level where people are alert and motivated but not
overwhelmed.
 Effective intercultural communication involves ongoing adjustment

Example:

When traveling abroad, a person feels nervous (anxiety) and unsure about social customs
(uncertainty). By observing carefully and asking questions respectfully, they manage these
feelings and communicate more effectively.

Applications:

 Cross-cultural communication training and education.

 International business negotiations.
 Intercultural friendships and relationships.
 Conflict resolution between different cultural groups.

Significance:

 Highlights the emotional aspects of intercultural communication.

 Offers strategies to improve communication competence in diverse settings.
 Bridges communication theory with real-world intercultural challenges.

Criticisms:

 Measuring anxiety and uncertainty objectively is challenging.

 May oversimplify complex cultural differences.
  Focuses primarily on initial encounters, less on long-term intercultural relationships.

5.2 Face-Negotiation Theory

Definition:
Face-Negotiation Theory was developed by Stella Ting-Toomey to explain how people from
different cultures manage "face"—their self-image or social identity—during communication,
especially in conflict situations.

Key Idea:

 “Face” refers to the public self-image a person wants to maintain.

 People negotiate face concerns during interactions to avoid embarrassment or loss of
respect.
 Cultural differences influence how individuals manage face and handle conflict.

Core Concepts:

1. Face

 Face is the projected image of oneself in a relational situation.

 It can be “positive face” (desire to be liked, appreciated) or “negative face” (desire for
autonomy and freedom from imposition).

2. Face work

 The communicative strategies people use to maintain, protect, or restore face during
interactions.
 Can include politeness, avoidance, humor, apologies, or confrontation.

3. Cultural Differences in Face Management

 Individualistic cultures (e.g., U.S., Western Europe) prioritize negative face, valuing
independence and direct communication.
 Collectivistic cultures (e.g., China, Japan) emphasize positive face, valuing harmony and
indirect communication.

Conflict Styles Related to Face:

 Avoiding: Withdrawing to preserve face.

 Obliging: Giving in to maintain harmony.
 Compromising: Finding middle ground.
  Dominating: Asserting one’s own face needs.
 Integrating: Collaborating for mutual face-saving.

Example:

In a business meeting, a manager from an individualistic culture may openly criticize an

employee (direct face threat), while the employee from a collectivistic culture might perceive
this as embarrassing and prefer indirect feedback to save face.

Applications:

 Helps understand and resolve cross-cultural conflicts.

 Useful in international business, diplomacy, and multicultural teams.
 Guides communication strategies to maintain respect and harmony.

Significance:

 Highlights the role of culture in communication styles and conflict management.

 Emphasizes the importance of face-saving in maintaining relationships.
 Provides tools for effective intercultural communication.

Criticisms:

 May oversimplify cultural differences by grouping cultures too broadly.

 Some cultures may not fit neatly into individualistic or collectivistic categories.
 Focuses primarily on conflict, less on everyday communication.

5.3 Speech Codes Theory

Definition:
Speech Codes Theory was developed by Dell H. Gudykunst and Gerry Philipsen to explain how
communication patterns reflect the distinct cultural norms, values, and meanings within different
social groups or communities.

Key Idea:

 Every culture or social group has its own “speech code”—a system of communication
rules, meanings, and norms that shape how people talk and interpret messages.
 Speech codes influence what is considered appropriate communication in a given cultural
context.

Core Concepts:

1. Speech Codes
  Defined as distinctive sets of symbols, meanings, premises, and rules related to
communication used by a particular culture or community.
 Reflect deeper cultural beliefs and social norms.

2. Multiplicity of Speech Codes

 Multiple speech codes can exist within a single society, varying by region, ethnicity,
social class, profession, or gender.
 Understanding these codes is key to effective intercultural or intergroup communication.

3. Cultural Specificity

 Speech codes are culture-specific; what is polite or appropriate in one culture may be
different in another.
 Misunderstanding speech codes can lead to communication breakdown.

Principles of Speech Codes Theory (Philipsen’s 6 Principles):

1. Distinct speech codes exist in all cultures.

2. Speech codes are integral to communication within a culture.
3. Speech codes involve culturally distinctive psychology, sociology, and rhetoric.
4. The speech code provides the rules for communication and what is meaningful.
5. The significance of speech codes is demonstrated through analysis of communication
conduct.
6. The study of speech codes contributes to understanding cultural life.

Example:

In some cultures, indirect communication and politeness are crucial (e.g., Japanese keigo
honorifics), while in others, directness is valued (e.g., U.S. business meetings). Recognizing
these speech codes helps avoid misunderstandings.

Applications:

 Intercultural communication training and conflict resolution.

 Improving communication in multicultural workplaces.
 Enhancing cross-cultural relationships and negotiations.

Significance:

 Emphasizes the role of language and communication patterns in shaping culture.

 Provides insight into why communication styles differ across social groups.
 Helps develop cultural competence and sensitivity.

Criticisms:
  Difficult to identify and analyze all speech codes within complex societies.
 May overlook power dynamics that influence communication.
 Some argue it is challenging to generalize speech codes beyond specific groups.

5.4 Genderlect Style

Definition:
Genderlect Style is a communication theory developed by Deborah Tannen that explains how
men and women have distinct communication styles shaped by different cultural influences. It
views male and female communication as two different “Genderlect” (gender dialects), each
with unique goals and conversational patterns.

Key Idea:

 Men and women communicate differently because they are socialized into different
cultural styles of speaking.
 These differences are not deficiencies but distinct cultural communication styles that can
lead to misunderstandings if not recognized.

Core Concepts:

1. Men’s Communication Style: Report Talk

 Focuses on status, independence, and information exchange.

 Men often use language to assert dominance, solve problems, and maintain status.
 Conversations are competitive and involve directness and instrumental goals.

2. Women’s Communication Style: Rapport Talk

 Focuses on connection, relationships, and intimacy.

 Women use language to build rapport, support, and consensus.
 Conversations are cooperative, involve listening, and emphasize empathy.

Differences in Communication Patterns:

Aspect Men (Report Talk) Women (Rapport Talk)

Purpose To inform, achieve status To connect, build relationships
Style Direct, competitive Indirect, supportive
Conflict Often avoid showing vulnerability Use conversation to explore feelings
Listening Less verbal feedback More verbal and nonverbal feedback
Example:

In a workplace meeting, men might focus on presenting facts and asserting opinions, while
women might emphasize collaboration and checking in on others’ feelings. Misunderstandings
arise when each style is interpreted through the lens of the other.

Applications:

 Improving gender communication in personal and professional settings.

 Enhancing conflict resolution by recognizing communication style differences.
 Useful in counseling, education, and organizational communication.

Significance:

 Highlights how gender is expressed through communication styles rather than biology
alone.
 Encourages respect for different conversational goals.
 Helps reduce gender-based misunderstandings and conflicts.

Criticisms:

 Can oversimplify or stereotype gender differences.

 Not all men and women fit these patterns; individual variation is significant.
 Some argue it ignores other social factors like culture, class, or context.

5.5. Standpoint Theory

Definition:
Standpoint Theory is a communication and feminist theory developed by scholars like Sandra
Harding and Nancy Hart sock. It argues that people’s perspectives and knowledge are shaped by
their social positions, especially related to power, privilege, and oppression.

Key Idea:

 Individuals experience the world differently based on their social location (e.g., gender,
race, class).
 Those in marginalized or oppressed groups have a unique and often clearer standpoint on
social realities because of their experiences.
 Knowledge is situated—meaning it is influenced by where one stands in society.

Core Concepts:

1. Social Location
  A person’s place in social hierarchies shapes what they know and how they see the world.

2. Marginalized Standpoints

 Marginalized groups (women, racial minorities, working class) can have a more complete
understanding of social structures because they experience oppression firsthand.
 Their perspectives challenge dominant viewpoints.

3. Power and Knowledge

 Knowledge is linked to power; dominant groups shape what is accepted as “truth.”

 Standpoint Theory reviews traditional knowledge systems for ignoring marginalized
voices.

Example:

A working-class woman may understand workplace discrimination differently and more deeply
than a privileged male executive, offering insights that challenge mainstream narratives.

Applications:

 Feminist research and scholarship.

 Critical race theory and social justice advocacy.
 Enhancing inclusivity in organizational communication.
 Encouraging reflexivity in knowledge production.

Significance:

 Highlights the importance of diverse perspectives in understanding social realities.

 Calls attention to power imbalances in communication and knowledge.
 Promotes emancipatory knowledge that can empower marginalized groups.

Criticisms:

 Risks essentializing groups by assuming all members share the same standpoint.
 Can be difficult to define a single standpoint for diverse groups.
 Sometimes criticized for relativism or challenges to universal truth claims.

5.6. Muted Group Theory

Definition:
Cheris Kramarae and others to explain how certain social groups developed muted Group
Theory,—especially women—are marginalized or “muted” in dominant communication systems,
making it difficult for them to express their experiences fully.
Key Idea:

 Dominant groups (often men in patriarchal societies) create language and communication
norms that reflect their worldview.
 Marginalized groups have difficulty expressing themselves because the dominant
language does not adequately represent their experiences.
 This leads to silencing or muting of marginalized voices.

Core Concepts:

1. Dominant Language System

 Dominant groups shape language and communication structures.

 These systems often exclude or distort the realities of non-dominant groups.

2. Muted Groups

 Groups whose experiences are not fully represented or heard due to exclusion from
dominant discourse.
 Women are the primary focus, but the theory also applies to racial minorities, LGBTQ+
communities, and others.

3. Strategies of Muted Groups

 To communicate effectively, muted groups may:

o Develop alternative ways of expression (e.g., art, coded language).
o Adapt to dominant language but often lose part of their original meaning.
o Engage in resistance by challenging dominant norms.

Example:

Women may find it difficult to discuss issues like domestic violence in public forums dominated
by male perspectives because existing language and frameworks minimize or ignore their
experiences.

Applications:

 Feminist communication studies.

 Advocacy for inclusive language and diverse communication styles.
 Raising awareness about power dynamics in language.
 Encouraging the creation of spaces where marginalized voices can be heard.

Significance:

 Reveals how language can perpetuate social inequalities.

 Encourages re-examination of communication norms to include diverse perspectives.
  Supports efforts for empowerment and social change through language.

Criticisms:

 Some argue it may overemphasize the role of language while underestimating other
factors.
 Critics question whether all marginalized groups are equally muted.
 Practical solutions to “unmute” groups can be challenging to implement.

The End