BIOMOLECULES PROTEINS

○​ The most abundant organic compounds in

○​ Biomolecules refer to organic molecules
living organisms; are 15% of the body’s dry
essential for life, including carbohydrates,
weight.
proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids.
○​ Building block: Amino acids (composed of
Summary:​ Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, and
sometimes Sufur)
○​ PEPTIDE BONDS: Links amino acids
○​ There are 20 essential amino acids in
organisms.

Fun facts:
○​ WATER: The main inorganic compound in all
➢​ R GROUP — Groups that give different amino
living organisms. acids different properties.
○​ CARBON: The building block of life; basis for
forming the structures of living things and carries
out most of life’s functions. Food sources rich in proteins: Meat, fish, beans, nuts, milk
○​ CARBON SKELETON: The chain of carbon. products, flour, and certain vegetables.
○​ POLYMER: A macromolecule consisting of a series ○​ BEANS: Good source of isoleucine and lysine.
of monomers bonded together.
○​ MONOMERS: Building block of biomolecules; 2 kinds of proteins in humans:
Same in carbohydrates, different in proteins 1.​ ESSENTIAL PROTEIN — 8; We can acquire this
(because there are many kinds of amino acids). from foods we eat.
○​ Organic molecules (macromolecules) are larger 2.​ NON-ESSENTIAL PROTEIN — 12; produced
than inorganic compounds. through protein synthesis.
○​ MACROMOLECULE: Large molecule formed by
joining smaller organic molecules together, 4 kinds of peptide bonds:
usually by dehydration synthesis reaction ➢​ SINGLE: Simplest form—one peptide bonds links
2 amino acids.
○​ Nitrogen & Sulfur: Found in proteins ○​ Ex: Glycine-Alanine
○​ Nitrogen & Phosphorus: Found in nucleic acids
➢​ DIPEPTIDE: Connects 3 amino acids in a chain. 2
and some lipids.
single peptide bonds in a short chain.
○​ Ex: Glycine-Alanine-Valine
➢​ DEHYDRATION REACTION — Connecting 2
monomers to form polymers. ➢​ TRIPEPTIDE: Link 4 amino acids in sequence.
➢​ HYDROLYSIS REACTION — Disassembling ○​ Ex: Glycine-Alanine-Valine-Serine
polymers by the addition of water. ➢​ POLYPEPTIDE: Chain of multiple peptide bonds
that links many amino acids together.
○​ Ex: Insulin—links 51 amino acids.

Protein Synthesis:
https://youtu.be/oefAI2x2CQM?si=uiDSNmeMZMezUrTB
 ○​ These are in the form of carrier and channel
proteins in the plasma membrane, which aid
cells in being selective in moving substances
in and out of the cell.
○​ Ex: HEMOGLOBIN in red blood cells; helps in
oxygen transport.

4. DEFENSE PROTEINS — Important in the body’s

defense system against bacteria and viruses.
○​ Ex: ANTIBODIES — Produced by a specific
type of white blood cells, B Lymphocytes.
Destroy foreign substances via cell lysis or by
aggregating the cell via agglutination.
○​ ANTIGEN: Foreign substance in the
body.

5. REGULATORY OR SIGNAL PROTEINS

DIFFERENT TYPES OF PROTEINS ○​ HORMONES — Signal proteins that regulate
body functions.
1.​ Structural Proteins
○​ Ex: INSULIN regulates glucose
2.​ Enzymatic Proteins
concentration in the blood.
3.​ Transport Proteins
4.​ Defense Proteins
6. CONTRACTILE PROTEINS — actin & myosin; are
5.​ Regulatory Or Signal Proteins
found in the cell to allow locomotory movement and
6.​ Contractile Proteins
cause muscle contraction.
7.​ Storage Proteins

1. STRUCTURAL PROTEINS 7. STORAGE PROTEINS — They serve as reserves of

○​ KERATIN: Found in hair and nails. Makes up amino acids that can be used later to nourish the
about 90% of your hair. growth and development of organisms.
○​ COLLAGEN: Most abundant protein (25 to 33% ○​ Found in: Egg whites (albumin), seeds, and
of body weight) in vertebrates. milk

2. ENZYMATIC PROTEINS — Enzymes catalyze or CARBOHYDRATES

speed up chemical reactions. ➢​ A major source of energy and the most
○​ Ex: AMYLASE for starch, PROTEASE for abundant type of biomolecules.
proteins, and LIPASE for lipids. ➢​ Components: Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen
(1:2:1)
Characteristics of enzymes:
★​ Highly specific
○​ Ex: MALTASE specifically catalyzes the BUILDING BLOCKS OF CARBOHYDRATES
breakdown of maltose into simple sugar.
1. MONOSACCHARIDES
★​ Required in minutes amounts ➢​ The simplest sugars. It contains 3-7 carbons
○​ Ex: 1 molecule of CATALASE can catalyze the and one aldehyde or ketone group,
breakdown of 5 million molecules of hydrogen
peroxide in 1 second.
➢​ Highly soluble in water and can easily pass
through membranes.
★​ Affected by temperature ➢​ The starting materials to construct other
◦
○​ Most active at 37 𝐶; inactive at very low molecules such as fats.
temperatures, and denatured at very high and
low temperatures.
➢​ Identified based on the number of carbon
atoms they made up.
★​ Affected by pH
○​ Denatured enzymes due to pH level can go back ○​ TRIOSE; Glyceraldehyde (C3H6O3)
to their normal shape.
○​ PENTOSE; Ribose (C5H10O5)
○​ Ex: AMYLASE works best at pH 7 and becomes
○​ HEXOSES; (C6H12O6) — Most common
denatured or destroyed at highly acidic or basic
conditions. monosaccharides

3. TRANSPORT PROTEINS
 ■​ Ex: Fructose (corn sugar), galactose, Examples of Storage Carbs:
mannose, and glucose also called dextrose ○​ STARCH: Glucose; may contain 200 glucose.
(blood sugar) ○​ Main storage of polysaccharides in plants; stored in
various plant tissues, particularly in tubers, seeds, and
○​ GLUCOSE — Instant source of energy. Indispensable roots.
component of mammalian blood and is found at least in ○​ Found in tubers, cassava, carrots, corn, and cereals.
small quantities in all animals. ○​ Easily digested by animals because the enzyme
○​ FRUCTOSE — Commonly found in plants, but rarely found in amylase is needed to hydrolyze the compound present
animals. It is the sweetest known sugar in fruits, such as ripe in animals.
mangoes, melon, and sugar apple (atis).
○​ RIBOSE & DEOXYRIBOSE — Simple sugars form the ○​ GLYCOGEN: Glucose; storage carbs in animals; accumulates
backbones of RNA (ribonucleic acids) and DNA in the liver and muscle cells of vertebrates.
(deoxyribonucleic acids). ○​ Glucose of glycogen > Glucose of starch
○​ These are unused glucose stored in the liver for future
use.
2. DISACCHARIDES
Starch & glycogen are good storage carbs since both:
➢​ Chemical formula: C12H22O11
➔​ Can easily broken down into glucose molecules.
➢​ 2 molecules of monosaccharides joined
➔​ Are insoluble in water; do not affect osmotic pressure in
together through condensation or cells.
dehydration synthesis. ➔​ Have compact shapes; occupy less space.
➔​ Cannot diffuse through cell membrane; large size.
Examples:
○​ SUCROSE: Glucose & fructose. Table sugar. Found in
Examples of Structural Carbs:
sugarcane, sugar beets, carrots, etc. Not found in mammals. ○​ CELLULOSE: Glucose. Found on plants’ cell walls. The most
○​ MALTOSE: 2 Glucose. Occur in malted cereals and sprouting abundant organic compound on Earth.
grains. ○​ Highly insoluble carbs; function for support and
○​ LACTOSE: Galactose & glucose. Present in milk and dairy protection for plant cells.
products. ○​ Animals can’t digest; they don’t have the enzyme
cellulase. But Ruminants, like cows, horses, and
carabaos, eat cellulose-rich materials such as grass
HYDROLYSIS
and hay but rely on bacteria present in them to digest
cellulose.
○​ Fiber source in humans; helps lower cholesterol and
produce soft fectal materials, reducing constipation,
hemorrhoids, and rectal cancer.
★​ Types: Soluble & Insoluble Fiber

3. POLYSACCHARIDES ○​ CHITIN: Found on the outer coverings of crustaceans and

➢​ Complex sugars made up of chains or insects; and has protective and supportive functions.
○​ Rigid and flexible.
branches formed by condensation reactions.
○​ Highly insoluble and doesn’t expand in water, making
➢​ Chemical formula: (C6H10O3)n | n = no. of animals survive in aquatic environments.
monosaccharides present. ○​ Medical use: Efficient source of surgical structures or
➢​ Capable of acting as energy storage or threads. Facilitated in surgical healing, suggesting
structural molecules as parts of cell structures. satisfactory biocompatibility.
○​ STORAGE P: Starch (plants) and ○​ Also used for industrial, pharmaceutical, and
glycogen (animals) biotechnological purposes.

○​ STRUCTURE P: Chitin and cellulose

LIPIDS
➢​ Includes fats and fat-like substances.
➢​ Hydrophobic (water-fearing); but soluble in
organic solvents (benzene, ether, and
chloroform).
➢​ Has no true monomer.
➢​ Components: Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen.
➢​ Chemical formula: C57H110O6
Function of Lipids: ➢​ Mainly found in plants.
➢​ Solvent for fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K) ➢​ Ex: Vegetable oil and corn oil
and hormones. ➢​ Healthier than saturated fats.
➢​ Prevents water loss from the skin surface. The
OTHER EXAMPLES OF LIPIDS
thin layer of oil secreted by sebaceous gland
in the skin prevents water evaporation. 1. PHOSPHOLIPIDS — Made up of 2 fatty acid
molecules and 1 phosphate group. The main
➢​ Essential parts of cell structures (e.g.,
component of the cell membrane.
phospholipids: major building block of cell
membranes). 2. WAXES — Important component of many organisms.
➢​ Insulating materials to prevent heat loss and ➢​ Cuticle covering the surface of leaves and
protection against extreme cold. Aquatic stems of plants.
materials have thick layers of fats beneath ➢​ Protective coverings on the skin and fur of
the skin to retain body heat (e.g., whales). some animals.
➢​ Source and storage of energy. Large
hydrogen content of fats = higher degree of 3. STEROIDS — Lipids with
cabron skeleton of 4 fused
oxidation (removal of hydrogen) is required.
rings.
Lipids produce twice as much energy per ➢​ Ex: Cholesterol, bile
pound as carbs. salts, sex
hormones, and
Composition of Lipids: vitamin D
●​ 1 mol GLYCEROL (An alcohol containing 3
carbons) Fun facts:
●​ 3 mol FATTY ACID ➢​ CHOLESTEROL: Found in the tissues of animals, but
not in plants.
○​ Maintain cell membrane structure.
○​ Precursor to the formation of steroids.
○​ Produces by the liver; can be acquired from
meat, poultry, eggs, and dairy products.
○​ Excess cholesterol is deposited on the inner walls
of arteries, which may cause heart ailments.

4. TRIGLYCERIDES — “Blood fats”, circulate in the

bloodstream along with cholesterol.
➢​ Acquired from meat and plant oils; also from
the body.
➢​ Excess = high risk of heart and blood vessel
Hydrolysis of a fat molecule:
disease

5. SPHINGOLIPIDS — Found in the brain, lungs, and

nerve tissues.
➢​ The surfactants help reduce tension in the
lungs to maintain its tight shape.

TYPES OF LIPIDS NUCLEIC ACIDS

➢​ Storage of genetic information.
➢​ The physical carrier of inheritance.

NUCLEOTIDE — The building block of DNA & RNA

➢​ Made up of 5-carbon sugar, phosphate group,
and nitrogenous base.
○​ NITROGENOUS BASE: Can either be
double-ringed purines (Guanine &
Adenine) | Single-ringed purines
(Cytosine, Thymine, and Uracil)
1. SATURATED — Solid at room temperature.
➢​ Mostly found in animals. JAMES WATSON & FRANCIS CRICK — First described
➢​ Ex: Lard, margarine, and butter.
the double-stranded helix structure of DNA.
2. UNSATURATED — Liquid at room temperature.
CHARGAFF’S RULE Parts of Enzyme:
○​ Adenine & Thymine
○​ Cytosine & Guanine

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN DNA AND RNA

DNA RNA
(deoxyribonucleic (ribonucleic acid)
acid)

Sugar Deoxyribose Ribose (C5H10O5)

(C5H10O9) ○​ APOENZYME: Protein portion
○​ CO-FACTORS: Activate enzymes; not a protein
Strand Double-stranded Single-stranded ○​ HOLOENZYME: Conjugated enzyme

Nitrogenous Adenine Adenine

bases Thymine Uracil LOCK & KEY HYPOTHESIS — The shape of active sites
Guanine Guanine
is complementary to the substrate.
Cytosine Cytosine

Location Mainly in the nucleus Found in the 6 CLASSES OF ENZYMES

but also found in cytoplasm and
mitochondria and nucleus
TYPES REACTION EXAMPLE
chloroplast CATALYZED

OXIDOREDUCTASES Where electrons Alcohol

tend to travel from Dehydrogenase

ENZYMES one molecule to

another.
Alcohol + NAD +
Aldehyde + NADH +
H+
○​ PROTEINS that speed up or CATALYZE
chemical reactions.
TRANSFERASES Transportation of Hexokinase
○​ METABOLISM: Chemical reactions in living functional groups Glucose + ATP →
things. among acceptors D-Hexose-6-phosp
and donors. hate + ADP
THE MOST IMPORTANT TYPES OF REACTIONS
HYDROLASES Catalyze hydrolysis Lipase
1. DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS (CONDENSATION) — Triglyceride + H2O
BUILDING large molecules called polymers by joining → Diglycerides
fatty acids
monomers together.
LYASES Adds water, carbon Fumarase
2. HYDROLYSIS — BREAKDOWN of a large molecule dioxide, or ammonia Malate →
called polymer into its building blocks, monomers. across double bonds Fumarase + H2O
or eliminate these to
create double bonds
Facts:
➔​ Each enzyme can only catalyze a very specific
chemical reaction due to its shape. INHIBITOR — Substances affecting enzyme activity
by binding to the enzyme and altering its function.

➔​ When the substrate enters the active site, the

enzyme helps a specific chemical reaction to
occur.
➔​ PRODUCT: The result of the chemical reaction.

Factors affecting enzyme function:

○​ Temperature, pH, and the concentration of
substrates. Examples in medical treatment:
○​ Cellular pH is kept at near a value of 7 1.​ SATINS — For cholesterol levels in the blood;
because of BUFFERS involved in cholesterol synthesis.
2.​ PROTON PUMP INHIBITORS (PPI’s) — To
 treat acid reflux and ulcers.
3.​ ANTIBIOTICS — Inhibit enzymes in bacteria
○​ Ex: penicillin: disrupts the structure
and function of cell wall synthesis)

ADP-ATP CYCLE
ADENINE TRIPHOSPHATE (ATP) — The energy
currency of the cell.

MAKING ATP
➢​ Cells regenerate ATP using energy from
catabolic reactions (breaking down larger
molecules into smaller ones), primarily during
cellular respiration.

functions of ATP in cellular activities:

a.​ Active Transport
b.​ Muscle Contraction
c.​ Biosynthesis
Types of Cellular Respiration:
a.​ Aerobic Respiration

CELLULAR RESPIRATION ➔​ Glycolysis — Krebs Cycle — ETC

b.​ Anaerobic Respiration
BIOENERGETICS — The study of energy flow within
living systems. Deals with intake, processing, and AEROBIC RESPIRATION
expenditure of energy in the body.
a. GLYCOLYSIS | 📍 Cytoplasm
➢​ Gylco (glucose) and lysis (split)
➢​ Occurs in both aerobic and anaerobic
➢​ Glucose → pyruvate
➢​ End product: Pyruvate, ATP, and NADH
➢​ Net reaction: Glucose + 2ADP + 2 Pi + 2NAD+
—> 2Pyruvate + 2 ATP + 2NADH
 c. ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN | 📍
Inner
Mitochondrial membrane (cristae)
➢​ Oxidative phosphorylation
➢​ Most ATP are synthesized here
➢​ Carbon dioxide → ATP
https://youtu.be/zJNx1DDqIVo?si=5v6KYdRKG80L3YeP

PHOTOSYNTHESIS
https://youtu.be/dAF5FngVa7A?si=Y4dYtr2z6sv5zD6K

PHOTOPHOSPORYLATION — Using light energy to

produce ATP in the chloroplasts.

b. KREBS CYCLE |📍 Mitochondrial matrix

➢​ Carboxylic cycle or citric cycle
➢​ Aerobic respiration
➢​ Glucose → Carbon dioxide

MESOPHYL CELL — This is where photosynthesis takes

place.
Contains:
○​ STOMATA: Entrance and exit of gasses.
○​ CHLOROPLAST: A plastid that conducts
photosynthesis.
○​ THYLAKOIDS: Tiny disc-shaped
interconnected membranous sacs.
○​ GRANUM/GRANA: Thylakoids stacked up on
each other.
 ○​ PHOTOSYSTEM: A large protein-pigment ○​ Contains excited electrons from photons.
complex in the thylakoid membranes.
★​ Captures light energy and converts PHOTOSYSTEM II was discovered second, but it functions
it into chemical energy; plays a vital first in the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis.
role in the light-dependent reactions.
/
PHOTOSYSTEM I was discovered first, but it functions
○​ CHLOROPHYLL: A green pigment molecule after Photosystem II in the actual process of electron flow.
found within photosystems. Absorbs light
energy (mainly red and blue wavelengths) and
transfers the energy to the reaction center of
the photosystem for photosynthesis.
○​ STROMA: Thick liquid portion

LIGHT-DEPENDENT REACTION
https://youtu.be/Le7KOX91w7U?si=LpIJh2qPmt0Y2oLa

➢​ Reactant: Water, NADP+, ADP + P

➢​ Products: ATP, NADPH, and oxygen
➢​ P680 - WATER - P700

CALVIN CYCLE
https://youtu.be/SltE4zP8-9w?si=ojBBw14yEz9DCe7w

➢​ “Dark Reaction”
➢​ Reactant: Carbon dioxide, ATP, NADPH
➢​ Products: Sugar, NADP+ ADP + P
➢​ P680 - WATER - P700

ADDITIONAL NOTES
ATPase
○​ The enzyme used to break ATP to ADP.

PENICILLIN
○​ A well-known antibiotic that fights bacterial
infection by inhibiting enzymes involved in
bacterial cell wall synthesis.

GLUCOSE
○​ The building block of carbohydrates

When is energy released from an ATP molecule?

○​ When the bond between 2nd and 3rd
phosphate is broken.

GLYCERALDEHYDE 3-PHOSPHATE (G3P)

○​ The starting material to form glucose.

WATER
○​ The molecule formed when there is an
electron transport chain.

6 CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2) MOLECULES

○​ The amount of CO2 required to yield 1
glucose.

AUTOTROPHS
○​ Organisms that can make their own foods.

HETEROTROPHIC
○​ Eat other organisms.

CHLOROPHYLL