Maximum how many peptides of minimum 8 amino acids are

possible from the DNA sequence given below?

5`- GGATCGGATCATGTAGCATGCCATTGAG - 3` 9 AA from Top strand

3`- CCTAGCCTAGTACATCGTACGGTAACTC - 5`
5`- GGATCGGATCATGTAGCATGCCATTGAG - 3` 9 AA from Top strand
3`- CCTAGCCTAGTACATCGTACGGTAACTC - 5`
5`- GGATCGGATCATGTAGCATGCCATTGAG - 3` 8 AA from Top strand
3`- CCTAGCCTAGTACATCGTACGGTAACTC - 5`
5`- GGATCGGATCATGTAGCATGCCATTGAG - 3` 8 AA from Top strand
3`- CCTAGCCTAGTACATCGTACGGTAACTC - 5`
5`- GGATCGGATCATGTAGCATGCCATTGAG - 3` 8 AA from Top strand
3`- CCTAGCCTAGTACATCGTACGGTAACTC - 5`
5`- GGATCGGATCATGTAGCATGCCATTGAG - 3` 7 AA from Top strand
3`- CCTAGCCTAGTACATCGTACGGTAACTC - 5`

10 peptides (5 from top and 5 from bottom strand)

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Prokaryotes vs Eukaryotes

Figure 17.3 of Campbell’s Biology: a global approach

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Translating an mRNA into Protein

• Genetic code in the DNA for a
protein is synthesized as a
complementary mRNA =
transcription

• The mRNA will be “read” by

translators known as tRNAs
(transfer RNAs) = translation
• This “reading” activity occurs
inside a special gigantic RNA-
Protein complex known as the
ribosome

Figure 17.14 of Campbell’s Biology: a global approach

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Translating an mRNA into Protein

• In the cytoplasm of a cell all 20 amino
acids are present - either by synthesis
or by diet
• Essential amino acids cannot be
synthesized by cells, need to get them from
diet: histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine,
methionine, phenylalanine, threonine,
tryptophan, and valine
• Typically meat, fish and some plant products
must be eaten to obtain essential amino
acids

• tRNA molecules have a specific amino

acid attached at one end and a 3-letter
sequence known as the anti-codon at
the other end
• Based on the code in the mRNA, the
anti-codon of the tRNA recognizes it
and the amino acid is added to a
protein that is being made
Figure 17.14 of Campbell’s Biology: a global approach
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What is a transfer RNA?

• A RNA molecule of ~80-85
bases
• Processed and folded into a
characteristic shape -
clover leaf
• The clover leaf shape of
tRNA is conserved in all
kingdoms of life

• The anticodon occupies nucleotide

positions 34–36 on the tRNA
• An amino acid is attached to the
3`end of the tRNA

Figure 17.15 of Campbell’s Biology: a global approach PMID: 25263172

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“Charging” of transfer RNA with a specific amino acid

• Correct matching of tRNA and amino

acid is carried out by enzymes called
aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases
• Each type of aminoacyl-tRNA
synthetase fits only a specific
combination of amino acid and tRNA
• There are 20 different synthetases,
one for each amino acid
• Each synthetase is able to bind to all
the different tRNAs that code for its
particular amino acid (codons are
degenerate)
• The synthetase catalyzes the
covalent attachment of the amino
acid to its tRNA
Figure 17.16 of Campbell’s Biology: a global approach
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There are 61 codons, there must be 61 types of tRNAs?

No. There are fewer tRNAs than codons

The “first” anticodon base of the tRNA and

the third base of the mRNA codon need
NOT match exactly!

This is known as Wobble

base pairing

Allows for a tRNA molecule to recognize

multiple codons for the same amino acid

Figure 17.15 of Campbell’s Biology: a global approach PMID: 25263172

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Wobble and superwobble base pairing

Example: tRNA with the anticodon 3`-UCU-5` can base-pair with either
the mRNA codon 5`-AGA-3` or 5`-AGG-3`, both of which code for arginine

superwobble

Figure 17.15 of Campbell’s Biology: a global approach PMID: 25263172

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Isoacceptor and Isodecoder tRNA and their importance

• Isoacceptors - tRNAs encoding
the same amino acids but having
different anticodon sequences,
thus decoding different codons
for the same amino acid
• Isodecoders - tRNAs encoding
the same amino acid and having
the same anticodon sequences
but differ in the tRNA sequences
elsewhere
• In many disease conditions, the
type of isoacceptor or
isodecoder tRNA used to make a
protein is known to change
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Making a tRNA molecule ready for translation of mRNA

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The ribosome - the complex inside which mRNA-tRNA meet

• A ribosome consists of a large subunit and a small subunit, each made up of proteins and
one or more ribosomal RNAs (rRNAs)
• In eukaryotes, the subunits are made in the nucleolus
• Ribosomal RNA genes are transcribed, and the RNA is processed and assembled with
proteins imported from the cytoplasm.
• Completed ribosomal subunits are then exported via nuclear pores to the cytoplasm.
Figure 17.17 of Campbell’s Biology: a global approach
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A functional ribosome is made of how many ribosomal RNAs and proteins?

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The reason antibiotics work!

Most antibiotics target the prokaryotic ribosomes
- leaving the eukaryotic ribosomes unaffected

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