1) What is Remote Sensing?
Elements of Remote Sensing
Remote Sensing is the process of collecting information about an object or area from a distance,
without direct contact.
Elements:
Energy Source (e.g., Sun)
Atmosphere (medium for energy travel)
Target/Object (reflects or emits energy)
Sensor (captures energy)
Data Transmission
Data Processing
Interpretation & Analysis
Applications
2) Basics & Principles of Remote Sensing
Basics: Uses sensors to detect reflected or emitted energy from Earth's surface.
Principles:
Energy from a source hits objects.
Objects reflect/absorb energy differently.
Sensors capture this for analysis.
3) Electromagnetic Spectrum (EMS)
EMS is the range of all types of electromagnetic radiation, like:
Visible light
Infrared
Microwave
Used in remote sensing to detect features based on reflection and absorption.
4) Interaction of EMR with Earth’s Surface & Atmosphere
Surface: Different materials reflect EMR differently.
Atmosphere: EMR can be scattered or absorbed by dust, clouds, gases.
5) Ground Borne, Air Borne, and Space Borne Platforms
Ground Borne: Sensors on ground (close observation)
Air Borne: Sensors on planes/drones (medium area)
Space Borne: Sensors on satellites (large area, global view)
6) Types of Remote Sensing
Passive: Uses sunlight (e.g., optical sensors)
Active: Sends its own signal (e.g., RADAR, LiDAR)
Also based on wavelength:
Visible
Infrared
Microwave
7) Platforms of Remote Sensing
Ground-based: From towers or hand-held devices
Airborne: From aircraft or drones
Spaceborne: From satellites
8) Applications of Remote Sensing
Weather forecasting
Agriculture (crop health)
Forest monitoring
Urban planning
Disaster management
Ocean study
9) Basics, Advantages & Limitations
Basics: Collects data from distance using sensors.
Advantages:
Large area coverage
Monitors inaccessible places
Repeated observations
Limitations:
Weather interference (clouds)
High cost
Needs expert analysis
1) Types of Image Resolution
There are four main types of image resolution:
Spatial Resolution: Size of one pixel on the ground (e.g., 10m, 30m). Higher resolution
= more detail.
Spectral Resolution: Number and width of spectral bands the sensor can capture (e.g.,
visible, infrared).
Radiometric Resolution: The ability to detect slight differences in energy. It refers to the
number of gray levels (e.g., 8-bit = 256 levels).
Temporal Resolution: How often a sensor revisits the same area (e.g., every day, every
16 days).
2) Elements of Visual Image Interpretation
These are the key elements used to identify objects in images:
Tone/Color: Brightness or color of features.
Shape: Form or outline (e.g., rectangular, circular).
Size: Relative or absolute size.
Texture: Smooth, rough, etc.
Pattern: Arrangement (e.g., grid, random).
Shadow: Helps determine height or shape.
Site: Location or setting.
Association: Relationship with nearby objects.
3) Fundamental Steps in Digital Image Processing
1. Image Acquisition: Getting the satellite image.
2. Pre-processing: Correcting errors (e.g., noise removal, geometric correction).
3. Image Enhancement: Making images clearer.
4. Image Classification: Grouping pixels into classes (e.g., water, forest).
5. Post-processing: Refining classified data.
6. Analysis & Output: Final interpretation and map creation.
4) What is Image Enhancement? Explain Contrast Enhancement
Image Enhancement: Techniques used to improve the visual quality of an image.
Contrast Enhancement: Increases the difference between light and dark areas to make features
clearer. It helps in highlighting hidden or dull features.
5) What is Image Transformation?
Image Transformation: Converting image data into a different form for better analysis.
Common types:
NDVI (Normalized Difference Vegetation Index) for vegetation.
Principal Component Analysis (PCA) for reducing data layers.
Band Ratioing: Dividing one band by another to highlight features.
6) Supervised Classification – Meaning & Steps
Supervised Classification: A method where the user defines known land cover types (training
samples) and the software classifies the entire image based on that.
Steps:
1. Select Training Areas: Identify known features (e.g., forest, water).
2. Extract Signatures: Get pixel values from those areas.
3. Classification: Apply algorithm (e.g., Maximum Likelihood).
4. Post-classification: Refine results (e.g., filtering).
5. Accuracy Assessment: Check how accurate the classification is.
1) What is GIS?
GIS (Geographic Information System) is a computer-based system used to collect, store,
analyze, and display geographic (location-based) data.
It helps in mapping and analyzing features and events on Earth.
2) Components of GIS
1. Hardware: Computers, GPS, scanners, etc.
2. Software: GIS applications like ArcGIS, QGIS.
3. Data: Spatial (maps) and non-spatial (attributes).
4. People: Users and GIS professionals.
5. Methods: Rules and models for data analysis.
3) Vector Data Model & Raster Data Model
Vector Data Model: Uses points, lines, and polygons to represent features (e.g., roads,
buildings, rivers).
Raster Data Model: Uses grid cells or pixels. Each cell has a value (e.g., satellite
images, elevation data).
4) Spatial Data, Metadata, and Attribute Data
Spatial Data: Shows location (e.g., map of roads, rivers).
Attribute Data: Describes features (e.g., road name, length).
Metadata: Information about the data (e.g., source, date, accuracy).
Examples:
Spatial Data: Coordinates of schools.
Attribute Data: School name, number of students.
5) Input, Output & Storage Devices in GIS
Input Devices: GPS, keyboard, mouse, scanner, digitizer.
Output Devices: Monitor, printer, plotter.
Storage Devices: Hard drives, cloud storage, servers, USBs.
6) Applications & Limitations of GIS
Applications:
Urban planning
Agriculture
Disaster management
Transportation
Environmental monitoring
Limitations:
High cost of software and data
Requires skilled users
Data accuracy affects results
7) Advantages of GIS over Maps & CAD
GIS vs Maps: GIS is interactive and can analyze data; maps are static.
GIS vs CAD: GIS handles spatial analysis; CAD is for design and drawings.
GIS offers:
Layer-based data visualization
Real-time updates
Spatial analysis tools
8) Data Sources of GIS
1. Satellite Images: For large-area data (e.g., land use, vegetation).
2. GPS: For collecting ground-based location data.
3. Aerial Photos: Detailed images from aircrafts.
4. Survey Data: Accurate ground measurements.
5. Existing Maps: Topographic or land-use maps.
6. Census Data: Population or demographic info.
1) Types of Map Coordinate Systems in GIS
Map coordinate systems help locate features on Earth.
Geographic Coordinate System (GCS):
o Uses latitude and longitude.
o Based on a 3D model of Earth (spherical).
o Example: WGS84.
Projected Coordinate System (PCS):
o Converts 3D Earth to 2D maps using projections.
o Uses X (Eastings) and Y (Northings).
o Example: UTM (Universal Transverse Mercator).
2) Map Projection & Methods of Map Projection
Map Projection: A method to represent Earth's curved surface on a flat map.
Types of Map Projection Methods:
Cylindrical Projection (e.g., Mercator): Good for equatorial areas.
Conic Projection (e.g., Albers): Suitable for mid-latitudes.
Azimuthal Projection: Projects Earth onto a flat plane; useful near poles.
Note: Every projection distorts shape, area, distance, or direction.
3) Geospatial Analysis
Geospatial Analysis is the process of using GIS tools to examine geographic patterns,
relationships, and trends.
Examples:
Identifying flood risk zones
Analyzing traffic patterns
Mapping forest cover change
4) Retrieval & Reclassification in GIS
Retrieval: Querying the GIS database to find specific data.
Example: Show all schools in a district.
Reclassification: Changing the values of raster data into categories.
Example: Group land cover values into classes like "Urban", "Forest", "Water".
5) Buffering and Neighborhood Function
Buffering: Creating a zone around a feature at a specified distance.
Example: 500m buffer around rivers to find flood zones.
Neighborhood Function: Analyzing a group of nearby cells (in raster data) to determine
output value.
Example: Smoothing or filtering images, detecting hotspots.
6) Salient Features of Remote Sensing Tool – ENVI or ERDAS
ENVI (Environment for Visualizing Images):
Specializes in processing satellite and aerial images.
Supports advanced image classification, enhancement, and filtering.
Integrates with GIS tools like ArcGIS.
Supports hyperspectral and multispectral image analysis.
User-friendly interface for image correction and analysis.
ERDAS IMAGINE:
Designed for raster data analysis.
Offers powerful tools for image classification, 3D visualization, and mosaicking.
Good for land cover mapping, change detection.
Strong in orthorectification and photogrammetry.
7) Salient Features of GIS Tools – GeoMedia, ArcMap, ArcGIS
GeoMedia:
Developed by Hexagon.
Real-time data access and integration.
Strong in dynamic mapping and spatial querying.
Connects to multiple databases.
ArcMap (Part of ArcGIS Desktop):
Offers tools for map creation, editing, and spatial analysis.
Supports both vector and raster data.
Integrated geoprocessing toolbox.
ArcGIS (by Esri):
A complete GIS platform.
Supports web GIS, 3D GIS, and real-time mapping.
Cloud-based version: ArcGIS Online.
Scalable from desktop to enterprise GIS.
8) Functions of Database & DBMS
Database:
A structured collection of data stored electronically.
Organizes spatial (maps) and non-spatial (attributes) data in GIS.
DBMS (Database Management System):
Software that manages data in a database.
Functions include:
o Data Storage & Retrieval
o Data Security & Integrity
o Query Processing
o Backup & Recovery
o Multi-user Access Control
9) Short Note: Concept of Metadata
Metadata means "data about data."
It describes information about a dataset such as:
What the data is (title, content)
When it was collected (date/time)
Where it applies (location/coverage)
Who created it (source)
How it was collected (methods)
Example: Metadata for a land use map might include date of satellite image, resolution,
projection used, and data source.
