OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH PRACTICES

1.0 Introduction
OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH PRACTICES
OBJECTIVES
1. Identify workplace hazards and risk
2. Identify and implement appropriate control measures to hazards and risk
3. Implement OSH programs, procedures and policies/guidelines

Occupational safety and practices

Occupational safety and health (OSH) is generally defined as the science of the anticipation,
recognition, evaluation and control of hazards arising in or from the workplace that could
impair the health and well-being of workers, taking into account the possible impact on the
surrounding communities and the general environment.
A wide range of structures, skills, knowledge and analytical capacities are needed to
coordinate and implement all of the “building blocks” that make up national OSH systems so
that protection is extended to both workers and the environment.

Occupational health refers to the branch of public health that is concerned with promoting
and maintaining the physical, mental, and social well-being of workers in relation to their
working environment.
It focuses on preventing work-related injuries, illnesses, and hazards, as well as enhancing
the overall health and productivity of employees.
The field of occupational health encompasses various areas, including workplace safety,
occupational medicine, industrial hygiene, ergonomics, and occupational psychology. Its
primary goal is to create a safe and healthy work environment that minimizes risks to
workers’ health and maximizes their well-being.
Occupational health professionals work in collaboration with employers, employees, and
regulatory bodies to identify and address workplace hazards, develop and implement health
and safety policies, conduct risk assessments, provide medical surveillance, deliver health
promotion programs, and ensure compliance with occupational health and safety regulations.
Overall, occupational health aims to protect the health of workers, prevent workrelated
injuries and illnesses, and improve the quality of working life for employees in all industries
and sectors.

Work – related illness and injuries has been a feature of employment since the beginning of
industrialization. Changes in managerial thinking with regard to occupational safety and
health have paralleled developmental stages in personnel relations as a whole. The trend has
been from lack of concern to workers as individuals to a scientific-management approach
(with alienation of public opinion, and increasing governmental regulation). Current
businesses are moving to modern concepts of business leadership where employees are
valued and allowed to participate in management and social responsibility.

The Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 (OSHA)

This landmark legislation aroused feelings ranging from high praise to bitter criticism.
OSHA became effective April 28, 1971. The law applied to more than 4 million
establishments engaged in interstate commerce, and employing 57 million workers. The
stated objective was ‘to assure so far as possible every working man and woman in the nation
safe and healthful working conditions and to preserve our human resources’. Congress
passed the Occupational Safety and Health Act in 1970 "to assure so far as possible every
working man and woman in the nation safe and healthful working conditions and to preserve
our human resources. The only employers it doesn't cover are self-employed persons, firms
in which only immediate members of the employer's family work, and some workplaces
already protected by other federal agencies or under other statutes. The act covers federal
agencies, but its provisions usually don't apply to state and local governments in their role as
employers. The act created the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)
within the Department of Labor. OSHA's basic purpose is to administer the act and to set and
enforce the safety and health standards that apply to almost all workers in the United States.
The Department of Labor enforces the standards, and OSHA has inspectors working out of
branch offices around the country to ensure compliance.

THE OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ACT

The Occupational Safety and Health Act No.15 of 2007 repealed the Factories Act Cap 514.
The Factories Act was meant to „make provisions for health, safety and welfare of persons
employed in factories and other places of work, and for matters incidental thereto and
connected therewith. In ‟ the year 2007, the Occupational Safety and Health Act was enacted
which is seen as moving from the regulated style on safety and health to a self-regulated style
of management.43 It is therefore noteworthy that the enactment of the Occupational Safety
and Health Act marked a big step towards moving from a reactive approach to safety and
health at the work place to a more proactive attitude to workers welfare.44. As will be seen
elsewhere in this paper the activities of the labour administration in the field of occupational
health and safety are based on the concept of the “duty of care”. The primary objective of the
various institutions under the Act should be to create a proactive occupational safety and
health risk management culture with all potential risk creators in the labour market to ensure
that those who create the risks in the workplace and those who work with them have the
primary duty of solving the risks rather than relying on the government as seen in the former
statutory arrangements45.

The main aim of the Occupational Safety and Health Act

The Occupational Safety and Health Act 2007 aims at securing the safety, health and welfare
of workers and the protection of persons other than the workers against risks to safety and
health arising out of, or in connection with, the activities of persons at work.

Powers of occupational health officer in OSHAct 2007

-Power to deal with cause of imminent danger.
-Power to take samples.
-Power of occupational safety and health officer to conduct proceedings.
-An occupational safety and health officer shall, for the purpose of the execution of this Act,
have power to do all or any of the following things— to enter, inspect and examine, by day
or by night, a workplace, and every part thereof, when he has reasonable cause to believe that
any person is employed therein, and to enter, inspect and examine, by day, any place which
he has reasonable cause to believe to be a workplace and any part of any building of which a
workplace forms part and in which he has reasonable cause to believe that explosive, highly
inflammable or any other
-power to issue Improvement notices
-power to issue prohibition notices

LEGISLATION ON SAFETY AND HEALTH AT WORK OSH

legislation is essential as a first step for the implementation of improved measures for safety
and health as well as the prevention of accidents and diseases in the world of work. OSH law
tackles issues at the national level as well as at the enterprise level. At the national level, it
can include provisions on the labour inspection infrastructure, the call for a national
representative committee on OSH, in addition to the governance of training institutions on
OSH and inclusion of OSH in scholar curricula, to mention a few. At the level of the
enterprise, legislation can involve issues from the planning and design phase of the enterprise
and supply of equipments and substances to matters of maintenance passing through
employer duties, worker rights and environmental considerations. Occupational safety and
health is a broad area with legislative grounds sometimes difficult to track at the
implementation level. According to the ILO Promotional Framework for Occupational Safety
and Health Recommendation, 2006 (No. 197), a national OSH profile should include, among
others, information on the following elements: laws and regulations, responsible authorities
or bodies, mechanisms for ensuring compliance with national laws and regulations, and
services in accordance with national law and practice.

Section 101 of the Occupational Safety and Health Act, requires that in workplaces where
employees are exposed to wet or to any injurious or offensive substances, the employers
must provide and maintain clothing 2rand appliances that are adequate, effective and suitably
protective, including, where necessary, suitable gloves, footwear, goggles and head coverings

Section 99 of the Occupational Safety and Health Act, specifies that a worker shall not be
employed at any machine or in any process liable to cause ill health or bodily injury, unless
he/she has been fully instructed as to the dangers likely to arise in connection therewith and
has received sufficient training in work at the machine or in the process; or is under adequate
supervision by a person who has a thorough knowledge and experience of the machine or
process.

This training has to be carried out on recruitment; transfer or change of job; the introduction
or change of new work equipment or materials; and the introduction of new technology. The
training shall be adapted to take into account new changed risks, and be repeated
periodically. The cost of training shall be incurred by the employer. In conclusion the major
 areas of coverage of the OSH Act 2007 comply with the international labour standards as
stipulated in Article 4 and 5 of the occupational safety and health conventions 1981 under the
fundamental principles of occupation health and safety.

History of occupational health and safety in Kenya

Kenya was under the colonial rule of Britain and thus much of the Occupational health and
safety legislation were influenced the British legislation. In Kenya occupational health and
safety legislation has been under the Factories Act(Chapter 514 of the laws of Kenya). In
2007 the Kenyan Parliament enacted the ‘Occupational Safety and Health Act, 2007’. There
was also the Workmen Compensation Act, Cap 236 which has been replaced with ‘The Work
Injury Benefits Act (WIBA)’

Historical perspective/Evolution of OSH

The scope of occupational safety and health has evolved gradually and continuously in
response to social, political, technological and economic changes. In recent years,
globalization of the world’s economies and its repercussions have been perceived as the
greatest force for change in the world of work, and consequently in the scope of occupational
safety and health, in both positive and negative ways. Liberalization of world trade, rapid
technological progress, significant developments in transport and communication, shifting
patterns of employment, changes in work organization practices, the different employment
patterns of men and women, and the size, structure and life cycles of enterprises and of new
technologies can all generate new types and patterns of hazards, exposures and risks.
Demographic changes and population movements, and the consequent pressures on the
global environment, can also affect safety and health in the world of work.
1.1 Background
Occupational safety and health (OSH) is generally defined as the science of the anticipation,
recognition, evaluation and control of hazards arising in or from the workplace that could impair
the health and well-being of workers, taking into account the possible impact on the surrounding
communities and the general environment.
OR
Occupational Safety and Health (OSH) is an area concerned with protecting the safety, health
and welfare of people engaged in work or employment. The goals of occupational safety and
health programs include fostering a safe and healthy work environment. It is a multi-disciplinary
activity targeting four basic aspects namely;
(1) The protection and promotion of workers health by preventing and controlling occupational
diseases and accidents;
(2) The development and promotion of healthy and safe work, work environments and work
organizations;
(3) Enhancement of physical, mental and social well-being of workers; and
(4) Enabling workers to conduct socially and economically productive lives and to contribute
positively to sustainable development (WHO 2010).
OSH has for decades dominated international agenda prompting continued support for the
International Labor Organization (ILO) to execute their mandate on behalf of the international
community through regional and national governments.
Among these is the protection of workers against occupational diseases and injury according to
WHO (2010a). This position implies that disease and injury should neither be a norm at the work
place nor lack of resources should be used to justify non provision of safe and healthy work
environment by the employer.
A safe and healthy work environment promotes work productivity and is a key element of
worker human dignity (ILO, 2010). Health care workers are known to be at a higher risk of
infection from blood-borne pathogens than the general population.
Those most at risk are those whose activities entail exposure to blood and body fluids. Important
blood –borne pathogens in this regard include Hepatitis B (HBV), Hepatitis C (HCV) and
HIV/AIDS. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that Sharps injuries contribute
30% of new cases of HBV and 2.5 % of annual infections of HIV among health care workers in
Sub-Saharan Africa (WHR 2002).
To mitigate this, national governments in turn are supposed to design operational programs
through which ILO recommendations are adopted and implemented with regards to OHS (ILO
2010). The World Health Organization (WHO) also developed a nine-year (2008 to 2017) global
plan of action on health workers OHS requirements. The MOH is already working on this action
plan to ensure that Kenya health worker OSH requirements are addressed. The Ministry has
already several guideline documents that have contributed to worker safety within the ministry.
These include: Biosafety Biosecurity guidelines, National Infection Prevention and Control
guidelines for health care services in Kenya among others.
In Kenya, the status of OSH conditions has been an issue of growing importance over time.
Currently, the directorate of Occupational Safety and Health Services (DOSHS) is anchored in
the Government of Kenya, Ministry of Labor, Social Security and Services.
Occupational safety and health issues in Kenya can be traced back to 1951’s Factories’ Ordnance
Act, which later became the Factories Act Cap 514 laws of Kenya. In 2004, the Government
gazetted a subsidiary legislation titled “Factory and Other Places of Work “(Safety and Health
Committee) Rules, 2004” Legal Notice No. 31 that created Safety Committees in factories and
other places of work that regularly employed more than 20 employees. These committees were
tasked with the responsibility for overseeing OSH implementation, and performing safety audits
(GOK 2010). However, shortfalls remained with reports that more than half of the work related
accidents and injuries went unreported or unattended, necessitating the birth of Occupational
Safety and Health Act (OSHA) 2007 intended to give a more elaborate approach to OSH issues
(Nyakang’o 2005).
The enactment of the OSHA 2007 signified a new beginning in management of OSH in Kenya
that includes all work places. This Act requires all government sectors to develop policies and
guidelines that domesticate the Act.
Literature suggests that OSH compliance is a problem that cuts across the public and private (for
profit and not-for-profit) sectors. Consequences of non-compliance are enormous and can result
in closure of health facilities, and payment of fines.
Moreover, spread of occupational diseases and workplace injuries are increased with poor OSH
standards. To respond to the call for improved implementation of OSHA, 2007, several partners
– both GOK and donors – have prioritized implementation of key aspects of OSH across various
sectors. However, there remain challenges to mainstream OSH across the health sector.
To have a clearer picture of implementation of OSH policy and compliance in the health sector, a
baseline OSH risk assessment analysis was carried out by MoH together with IntraHealth
International in 97 health facilities across Kenya between 2012 and 2013. The facilities covered
the current classification of health facilities in Kenya which are tiers 2 to 4 (level 2 to 5). The
overall purpose of this assessment was to evaluate the standards of OSH implementation and
recommend a working policy to fill the gap to the recommended National & International
Standards that are domesticated in Kenya. The assessment revealed that the Ministry of Health
lacks an all-inclusive OSH program and designated safety resource persons that would generate
good safety culture at all levels.
Occupational health and safety is a cross-cutting disciplinary area concerned with protecting the
safety, health and welfare of people engaged in work or employment. All occupational health
and safety programs are therefore geared towards fostering a safe working environment. As such
this area has dramatically developed a lot of interest in Kenya following the enactment of the
new Constitution of Kenya and the Occupational Health and Safety Act No. 15 which came into
force on 26th October 2007, and saw many workplaces which had hitherto operated without
institutional and individual capacity for health and safety management having to develop the
requisite mechanisms in order to improve the safety of the working environment and escape
liabilities. Bernadino Ramazzini, is considered as the Father of occupational health, and he stated
that when a physician takes the history of a patient, one question that must be added should be
“what is your occupation”. The reason is to determine whether there is relation or association of
what manifest as a disease and the workplace.
SCOPE AND PURPOSE OF THE POLICY GUIDELINE
Scope
The OSH policy guideline should primarily provide guidance to:
 All employees within the health sector (National government, County governments,
quasi-government, private as well as NGOs);
 Prospective employees of the health sector;
 Clients, contractors, and visitors at any health facility in Kenya
 Health institutions including training institutions
Safety and health inspectors and practitioners seeking to secure compliance with the OSHA
2007, may refer to this guidance to illustrate good practice. They are also intended to serve as a
reference guide to the health worker.
PURPOSE:
The purpose for this guideline is to promote a safe and healthy work environment in Kenya’s
health sector.
OBJECTIVES
The objectives of this policy guideline are:
a. To provide a framework for implementing safe and healthy work practices in the Kenya’s
health sector
b. Promote a safe and healthy work environment, work practices and procedures for all staff of
the health sector in order to minimize work-related injuries and occupational diseases.
c. Promote a culture of safe and healthy attitudes and practices
d. Ensure that health and safety management in the workplace constitutes a core management
function of health sector institutions that is on-going and promotes a culture of co-operation
between the major stakeholders.
e. Promote the incorporation of OSH educational programmes aimed at reducing workplace
hazards and risks into the work plans of health facilities.
f. Facilitate compliance to OSH policy and legislation by clients, contractors, and visitors at any
health facility in Kenya
g. Provide guidance for minimum OSH requirements for various tiers of health facilities in
Kenya.
h. Provide OSH risk assessments guidance and tools for use in the health sector.
i. Provide Guidance on OSH training and capacity building in the health sector.
j. Provide suggested tools for OSH monitoring, evaluation and documentation.
Occupational health should aim at:
1. The promotion and maintenance of the highest degree of physical, mental and social well-
being of workers in all occupations.
2. The prevention amongst workers of departures from health caused by their working
conditions.
3. The protection of workers in their employment from risks resulting from factors adverse to
health.
4. The placing and maintenance of the worker in an occupational environment adapted to his
physiological and psychological capabilities.
5. The adaptation of work to man and of each man to his job.
The main focus in occupational health is on three different objectives:
(i) the maintenance and promotion of workers’ health and working capacity;
(ii) the improvement of working environment and work to become conducive to safety
and health
(iii) Development of work organizations and working cultures in a direction which
supports health and safety at work and in doing so also promotes a positive social
climate and smooth operation and may enhance productivity of the undertakings.
THE SCOPE OF OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY.
Hazard identification and risk assessment: This involves identifying potential hazards in the
workplace, such as physical, chemical, biological, ergonomic, and psychosocial hazards. Risk
assessment is conducted to evaluate the likelihood and severity of harm associated with these
hazards.
Occupational health promotion and prevention: OHS includes measures to promote and
maintain workers’ physical and mental health. This can involve health promotion programs,
ergonomic assessments, workplace wellness initiatives, and initiatives to prevent chronic
diseases, stress, and workplacerelated mental health issues.
Workplace safety: Ensuring workplace safety is a core component of OHS. It involves
implementing safety measures, providing appropriate safety equipment and personal protective
equipment (PPE), establishing safety policies and procedures, and conducting safety training for
workers
Occupational medicine: Occupational health professionals, including occupational physicians,
play a crucial role in assessing and managing workers’ health in relation to their work
environment. They provide medical surveillance, assess fitness for work, manage occupational
diseases, and offer guidance on health-related matters in the workplace.
Ergonomics: Ergonomics focuses on designing workspaces, tools, equipment, and tasks to fit
the capabilities and limitations of workers. This helps prevent musculoskeletal disorders and
improves overall efficiency and comfort in the workplace.
Occupational hygiene: Occupational hygiene involves identifying and controlling workplace
exposures to hazardous substances, such as chemicals, dust, fumes, and noise. It includes
monitoring and assessing air quality, noise levels, ventilation systems, and implementing control
measures to minimize workers’ exposure.
Regulatory compliance: Compliance with occupational health and safety regulations is a
fundamental aspect of OHS. Governments enact laws and regulations to establish minimum
standards for workplace safety and health, and organizations are required to comply with these
standards to protect workers.
Emergency preparedness and response: OHS encompasses planning and preparedness for
emergency situations, such as fires, natural disasters, or chemical spills. It involves developing
emergency response procedures, conducting drills, and providing first aid training to ensure a
swift and effective response in critical situations.
Training and education: OHS includes training programs and educational initiatives to enhance
workers’ awareness and understanding of workplace hazards, safety procedures, and their rights
and responsibilities. Training helps empower workers to actively participate in maintaining a
safe and healthy work environment.
Continuous improvement and evaluation: OHS involves regular monitoring, evaluation, and
improvement of occupational health and safety practices. This includes incident reporting and
investigation, analyzing trends, implementing corrective actions, and fostering a culture of
continuous improvement in workplace safety and health.
THE INTERRELATIONSHIP BETWEEN OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND
DEVELOPMENT
Economic development: Occupational health contributes to economic development by ensuring
a healthy and productive workforce. Healthy workers are more likely to be engaged, efficient,
and productive, leading to increased output and economic growth. By preventing work-related
injuries and illnesses, occupational health helps reduce absenteeism, turnover, and medical costs,
thereby supporting economic stability and development.
Human capital development: Occupational health is essential for human capital development,
which refers to the knowledge, skills, and health of individuals that contribute to their
productivity and potential. By investing in the health and well-being of workers, occupational
health supports their physical and mental capabilities, enhances their work performance, and
fosters their personal and professional growth. This, in turn, strengthens human capital, promotes
social development, and contributes to overall societal progress.
Social development: Occupational health has a significant impact on social development. It
helps reduce health inequalities and promotes social justice by ensuring that workers, regardless
of their occupation or socioeconomic status, have access to safe and healthy working conditions.
Occupational health interventions aimed at preventing work-related injuries, illnesses, and
hazards contribute to creating equitable and inclusive societies.
Sustainable development goals (SDGs): Occupational health is closely aligned with several
SDGs established by the United Nations. For instance, it contributes to Goal 3: Good Health and
Well-being by promoting the health and well-being of workers. It also supports Goal 8: Decent
Work and Economic Growth by ensuring safe and secure working environments and promoting
productive employment. Moreover, occupational health addresses Goal 9: Industry, Innovation,
and Infrastructure by improving workplace safety and reducing occupational hazards.
Environmental sustainability: Occupational health is connected to environmental
sustainability. It involves identifying and mitigating occupational hazards and risks, including
those related to the environment, such as exposure to hazardous substances or pollutants. By
promoting environmentally friendly practices, occupational health contributes to sustainability
efforts, reduces the ecological footprint of workplaces, and supports the conservation of natural
resources.
Capacity building and knowledge sharing: Occupational health contributes to development by
promoting capacity building and knowledge sharing. It involves training programs, research, and
dissemination of best practices, which enhance the skills and competencies of occupational
health professionals and stakeholders. This knowledge transfer fosters innovation, promotes
evidence-based decision-making, and supports the development of effective occupational health
policies and practices.
COMPONENTS OF OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH & SAFETY
An occupational health and safety (OHS) program is a specific action plan to
prevent occupational illness and workplace accidents. Although it is impossible to guarantee
that a workplace injury or illness will never occur, a sound OHS program will reduce their
frequency and provide you with the tools to take preventative and corrective action. A
successful OHS program will define responsibilities, identify and controls hazards and risks,
determine training needs, and provide a mechanism to track and document your safety
record.
Policy Statement
A policy statement will describe the organization’s commitment to a safe and healthy
workplace, and will include principles that seek continual improvement in program
performance. The policy statement will describe the key responsibilities of the organization’s
executive, supervisors, and employees. The policy will be communicated throughout the
organization and regularly reinforced by all levels of management. The policy statement is a
document that clearly defines your company’s commitment to health and safety and provides
an overview of your objectives, general responsibilities, and expectations of employees.
Inspections
To prevent accidents and support workplace safety, workplaces will be inspected regularly to
identify and correct unsafe conditions or practices. Creating a system where both supervisors
and workers can easily report unsafe working conditions is essential to your OHS plan.
Safety inspections by members of your safety committee or by your safety coordinator
should take place regularly. By pre-planning for workplace inspections and by using safety
checklists, your workers will be ready for both routine assessments and unexpected events.
Assessment of Risks and Hazards
Organizations will identify hazards, assess risks, and implement control measures on a
proactive basis (rather than a reactive basis). The measures will vary from simple to complex,
depending on the nature of the workplace, work environment, and work processes.
Incident Reporting and Investigation
Unsafe working conditions must be identified before they result in an accident or injury.
Employees need to be aware that they are responsible for reporting unsafe conditions and
hazards. The primary goal is to prevent accidents from occurring. However, if an accident or
incident does occur, the manager must ensure it is investigated to determine the underlying
causes and to take corrective action.
Written Safe Work Procedures
Written safe work procedures will be available to all employees in the BC Public Service.
These procedures will cover the proper operation of machinery and equipment and any other
work processes or operations that could present a hazard if they are not followed.
Education and Training
All managers will ensure that their employees receive an orientation on the organization’s
occupational safety and health program and workplace specific safe work practices. In
addition, education and training will be provided to ensure that employees know the working
procedures for doing their job safely. On-going safety training will be provided as new
programs, procedures, and equipment are introduced to the workplace. Formal safety training
should be part of your program and in many cases is a requirement of government legislation.
It is the responsibility of the employer to ensure that the approved training has taken place
and that milestones are documented. Your OHS program should outline required and
optional training requirements for each position in your organization.
Joint Occupational Safety and Health (JOSH) Committees
Joint occupational safety and health committees will be established consistent with the
provisions of the collective agreements, Workers Compensation Act and the Occupational
Health and Safety Regulation. The committees will actively promote workplace safety and
support the involvement of employees in workplace occupational safety and health programs.
Monitoring and Control of Hazardous Materials and Substances
Organizations will monitor, control, and ensure the safe use, storage and disposal of
hazardous materials and substances, consistent with the requirements of Workplace
Hazardous Materials Information System (WHMIS) regulations.
Exposure Control
Organizations will determine if there is a risk of occupational exposure to hazardous or bio
hazardous substances, including blood borne pathogens, at the workplace. For those
employees at risk of exposure, organizations must develop an exposure control plan and
where required, a health monitoring plan appropriate to the risks.
Emergency Planning and Response
Organization worksites need to plan for emergencies that might occur, including having a
plan of action for response and evacuation of the workplace. In most cases, the plans will
include response to a fire, but may also include, based on a risk assessment, response to
power failures, threats (including bomb threats), earthquake, flooding, or spills of hazardous
chemicals. Your OHS program should include ways to deal with unexpected events like fires,
natural hazards, and explosions. As decisions during these incidents will need to be made
very quickly to mitigate damage and injury, specific procedures must be in place. Training
and regular emergency drills should be part of this protocol.
Occupational First Aid
Organizations will ensure that first aid services are available and consistent with the
requirements of the Occupational Health and Safety Regulation, which requires that
employees be provided with prompt, easily accessible, and appropriate first aid treatment.
Maintenance of Records and Statistics
Records and statistics of occupational safety and health activity will be maintained by
organizations, including records of safe work procedures, safety training, inspections, and
investigation reports. These records and statistics will assist in identifying trends, unusual
conditions, and problem areas, and play an important role in identifying the underlying
causes of workplace injuries and occupational diseases.
OSH Management Practice and Program Review
Regular workplace management meetings will be held to review safety and health activities,
including the results of risk assessments, inspections, and investigations. Management will
also undertake regular meetings and communications with employees and with the joint
occupational safety and health committee on safety issues or concerns that may arise.
Organizations will regularly review their occupational safety and health program. The review
schedule will be based on program needs as well as the complexity of the operating
environment. Reviews should measure program effectiveness, assess performance against
targets, identify opportunities for improvement, and recognize successes and individual
contributions.
Program Contents
The program will provide a list of specific responsibilities for managers, supervisors,
workers, contractors, and [Link] will outline how to report unsafe equipment and
conditions, injury and illness, and dangerous [Link] will provide guidelines for correct work
procedures and rules to protect workers, as well as outline instructions for site inspections
and equipment maintenance.
Safety Coordinator and Safety Committee
Creating a safety committee with representation from managers, supervisors, and workers is
a great way to get safety-related input from all employee groups and instill company-wide
safety buy-in. Some companies will employ a safety coordinator to handle the management
of the OHS program. The coordinator may work with or without a safety committee,
depending on the framework within the organization. The safety coordinator will oversee
workplace inspections and hazard assessments, incident investigations, and ensure that safety
controls and procedures are followed. The coordinator will also work with the safety
committee to make safety recommendations to the employer and communicate new policy or
procedures throughout the workplace.
Employee Orientation
New employees, those returning to work after a prolonged absence, and any worker moved to
a new location should receive site orientation so that they are familiar with any workplace
hazards and emergency procedures. Creating an orientation checklist is an excellent way to
ensure the process is complete.
Program Evaluation and Recordkeeping
To make ongoing improvements to your OHS program, you must understand the incidents
occurring within your organization. You will need to track incident numbers and know
whether they are increasing or decreasing. Recording and analyzing your safety data will
help you determine if incidents are more frequent in a specific area of your operation or
related to a particular environment such as lighting or road conditions. Connect related HR
information to learn if accidents are related to a specific job, lack of training, amount of
experience, or length of shift Once you understand the frequency and nature of workplace
incidents, you will be able to make informed adjustments to both operations and OHS policy.
Communication and Employee Engagement
Workers, supervisors, and management should all welcome discussions about safety.
Regular meetings with all employees to discuss incidents, hazards, and safety procedures will
engage your employees. By informing management of their safety concerns and providing a
forum to share ideas, celebrating individual and team success, you will quickly build
enthusiasm for your safety program.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
An OHSMS is a frame work that allows an organization to consistently identify and control
its health and safety risks, reduce the potential for accidents, help achieve compliance with
health and safety legislation and continually improve its performance or a set of plans,
actions and procedures to systematically manage health and safety in the workplace that is
actively endorsed by a committed employer to achieve the following:
 Provision of a safe and healthy workplace and the prevention/reduction of illness and injury
equally for employees and contractors.
 Identification of workplace hazards, assessment and control of all risks.
 Active involvement in health and safety matters by managers, supervisors and employees
and their representatives.
 Provision of information and training for employees at all levels so they can work safely.
 Audit and review of the OHSMS.
Elements of an occupational health and safety management system:
 Occupational Health and Safety Policy  Planning  Implementation and Operations 
Checking and Corrective Actions  Management Review  Continual Improvement
Why should organizations be interested in OHSMS?
 The purpose of an OHSMS is to systematically eliminate the possibility of accident,
illness,injury or fatality in the workplace by ensuring that the hazards in the workplace are
eliminated or controlled in a systematic manner, rather than waiting for a crisis to occur.
 Employers have legal responsibilities to provide a safe workplace and systems of work, to
consult with employees and to keep them informed about health and safety matters.
 Small businesses can use an OHSMS to meet their need to prevent injuries, illness and
accidents
What are the benefits?
The primary benefit in implementing an OHSMS is the assistance it can provide in meeting
the moral and legal responsibilities of employers.
An effective occupational health and safety management systems should:
 Result in the identification of hazards and assessment of risks in the work environment.
 Provide for the development of methods to eliminate hazards and risks.
 Result in the implementations of measures to evaluate improvement.
What makes an OHSMS work?
 Research on the effectiveness of OHSMS has consistently pointed to the importance of top
management having genuine commitment , to achieve and maintain an effective system that
goes beyond mere legislative compliance.
 An effective OHSMS requires active involvement with an emphasis on activity at all stages
of OHS operations . It includes broad consultation with the workforce and active
involvement of ‘key’ people such as management, supervisors, health and safety
representatives, and Safety Committees.
 The importance of having people to take on role of ‘champion’ such as a senior manager or
union worker representative should not be underestimated.
  It is important to put effort into continuous improvement , which is building in ways of
periodically checking how you are doing and how to improve your system, using feedback
mechanisms, audits and inspections.
 Developing a structured training strategy , with the ability to meet different language and
education needs is a significant factor to attaining success.
 An effective system is more than a paper chase. It is about making sure that relevant
changes occur, to improve OHS. However, documenting what you do is good business
practice.
Five reasons why OHSMS fail
 Management support is irregular and inconsistent.
 Everyone treats the system as “paper warfare” and follow procedures to keep the bosses
happy regardless of their effectiveness.
 The OHSMS is established in response to external demands and never really “owned” or
understood by those subject to it.
 The system is imposed without effective participation by those who have to make it work.
 The effort to build an organization specific system is not made and “off the shelf” solutions
are applied that have little relevance to the culture of the workplace.
Benefits of an effective occupational health and safety management system:
A safer workplace
 An Occupational Health and safety Management system enables the organization to
identify hazards, assess risks and place the necessary risk control measures in place to
prevent accidents.
Moral
 Implementing an Occupational Health and Safety Management system shows a clear
commitment to the safety of the organization staff and can contribute to a more motivated,
efficient and productive workforce
Reduced costs
 Fewer accidents mean less expensive downtime for any organization. Besides the
Occupational Health and Safety Management system improves the insurance liability ruling
Training
 An Occupational Health and Safety Management system highlights whether or not the
employees in any organization are competent for the task they are performing, which impacts
in training and teamwork.
 Monitoring
 The regular assessment process will help in continually monitor and improve the Health &
Safety performance
Integrated
 The safety management system can be easily integrated with other management systems
Stakeholders’ confidence
 An independently assessed Safety management system tells to the organization
stakeholders that the organization itself has met a number of legal and regulatory
requirements, giving stokeholds confidence in the organization.
History of occupational health services in Kenya
The enactment of the Factories Act Cap 514 in 1951 saw the emergence of occupational safety
and health in Kenya. The crafting of this legislation was prompted by the enactment of the
Workers’ Compensation Act Cap 236 in 1948. However, it was not until 1974 that the then
Minister for Labour requested the International Labour Organisation during the 62nd
International Labour Conference for assistance to strengthen factory inspection and in the
establishment of specialized inspections. This culminated in the ILO/FINNIDA Project that
commenced in 1978 that established specialized divisions, namely engineering, medical and
hygiene in support of the general inspection and field services. This led to the recruitment and
training of three medical officers, four nurses, four hygienists and the establishment of laboratory
and work environment monitoring services. This was the first time that coherent occupational
health services (OHS) were offered in Kenya. Although occupational health services were
referred to in several statutes of Kenya such as the Public Health Act Cap 242, the
Environmental Management and Coordination Act 1999, the Petroleum Act Cap 116, the Food,
Drugs and Chemical Substances Act –Cap 354, the Factories Act Cap 514 was the primary
Occupational Safety and Health Act. The Act was been revised several times in order to reflect
not only developments in technology and knowledge but also to address new areas of coverage
other than factories/industries and some of the amendments done included among others:
“Other places of work”
List of occupational diseases
Establishment of health and hygiene standards
Reporting of occupational diseases
Direct penalties for medical practitioners failing to report occupational diseasesthat they
diagnose
Pre-employment, periodic and post-employment medical examinations
Research into causes of work-related diseases among others
With the introduction of “Other Places of Work”, occupational health services were by law
extended to cover, in addition to factories, other workplaces, including agriculture and
workplaces employing more than two persons, such as the informal sector. However, the
provision of services in practice focused mainly on factories/industries and commercial
agricultural farms. Over the years only minimal occupational health serviceshave been offered to
small enterprises and the informal sector due to limited resourcesand facilities that are made
available through government funds. This is despitethat the Factories and Other Places of Work
Act 1990 provided for the establishment ofa Fund to support occupational safety and health
services through contributions fromemployers, but to date the Fund has not yet been established
due to unsolved technicalities. A new Bill “Occupational Safety and Health Bill” was drafted in
2003 to replace the “Factories and Other Places of Work” [Link] Bill was passed and is
currently referred to as the Occupational Health and Safety Act, 2007.
Factors influencing occupational exposure in Kenya
 Poor use of protective gears and suitable clothing e.g. face masks, helmets  Low case
reporting for fear of job loss, and a common quote, “If the toxic effects won’t kill us, hunger
will.”  Lack of amenities e.g. clean drinking water, insufficient water and health services. 
Lack of paying off workers and health providers, exposing people to more hazards
CHALLENGES TO IMPLEMENTATION OF OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH
STANDARDS
The development of occupational health faces several challenges that can hinder its progress and
implementation. Some of these challenges include:
1. Globalization and changing work environments: The evolving nature of work, driven by
globalization and technological advancements, presents new challenges for occupational
health. The rise of remote work, gig economy, and non-traditional work arrangements
can make it difficult to assess and manage occupational health risks. Ensuring the health
and safety of workers
in these diverse and dynamic work environments requires flexible approaches and
updated regulations.
2. Emerging occupational health risks: As new industries and technologies emerge, so do
new occupational health risks. For example, the increasing use of artificial intelligence,
robotics, and nanotechnology may introduce unique hazards that occupational health
professionals need to understand and address. Keeping up with these emerging risks and
developing appropriate preventive measures can be a challenge.
3. Work-related psychosocial risks: Occupational health traditionally focused on physical
hazards, but there is growing recognition of the impact of psychosocial factors on
workers’ health. Issues such as work-related stress, bullying, harassment, and long
working hours can have significant consequences on mental health and well-being.
Identifying and effectively addressing these psychosocial risks require collaboration
between occupational health professionals, employers, and employees.
 4. Limited resources and funding: Occupational health programs often face resource
constraints, both in terms of personnel and financial support. Adequate funding is
necessary for conducting research, implementing preventive measures, and providing
necessary services. Insufficient resources can impede the development and
implementation of effective occupational health strategies.
5. Compliance and enforcement: Ensuring compliance with occupational health and safety
regulations can be challenging, particularly in industries with complex supply chains or a
high number of small and medium-sized enterprises. Enforcing regulations and holding
accountable those who violate occupational health standards requires robust regulatory
frameworks, inspection mechanisms, and penalties for non-compliance.
6. Lack of awareness and education: Many workers and employers may have limited
awareness or understanding of occupational health principles and practices. Enhancing
education and awareness campaigns is crucial for promoting a culture of occupational
health and encouraging proactive measures in workplaces.
Challenges facing Occupational Safety and Health Legislation in Kenya.
a) The Directorate of Occupational Safety and Health Services
There is a lack of strong conviction, commitment and initiation to undertake the
occupational health and safety reforms as introduced by the new Act right from the
Director of Occupational Safety and Health Services, the National Council for
Occupational Safety and Health and even the employers themselves since the enactment
of the Act. The Directorate’s main mandate is to ensure compliance with the provisions
of the Act that seeks to promote safety and health at the workplace. The Directorate also
ensures compliance with the provisions of the Work Injury Benefits Act, 2007 through
prompt compensation of employees against work related injuries. It should be noted that
since the enactment of the Act in 2007 the Directorate has not carried out extensive
research personally or in collaboration with other organizations. Furthermore, the
Directorate has hitherto not established an Occupational Health and Safety Institute. This
is a huge challenge owing to the fact that it is the duty of the directorate to carry out
research on workers health and safety. The Directorate of Occupational Safety and Health
Services has not functioned as a semi autonomous government agency ensuring
compliance with the provisions of the Occupational Safety and Health Act 2007 and the
Work Injury Benefits Act. This has negatively impacted the enforcement of the Act in
ensuring safety and health at the workplace. Moreover, statistics do show that the
Directorate of Occupational Safety and Health Services is understaffed. Other challenges
include lack of the necessary funding and human resources.
b) Cost of compliance: a burden to employers
There have been complaints that the undertakings introduced by the Occupational Safety
and Health Act have been loaded upon employers and as such there need to be
collaboration between the employers and the government to come to a favourable
compromise. The argument is that the compulsory annual safety and health audits, risk
assessments and the requirement for a health and safety statement by all employers will
 drive out the small investors who will not be able to comply for lack of capacity as the
Act requires.
c) Weak/ backward infrastructure
A weak infrastructure has remained as a big challenge and constraint in achieving safety
and health at the workplace. There has been an increase of institutional risks and more so
those related to corruption, the quantity and quality of the infrastructure. Measures geared
towards strengthening and promoting strategies for risks assessment and risk
management remain as an immediate priority area where action is needed in Kenya. This
can be achieved through development of the necessary institutions and capacity building
for undertaking these activities. There has been a lack of the necessary infrastructure for
reporting the current magnitude and trends of occupational health diseases and injuries
for the policy-makers to monitor the performance of occupational health and safety
programmes . Therefore the level of monitoring and surveillance of occupational diseases
and injuries in Kenya is insufficient to allow policy makers to assess the occupational
health programmes and to intervene strategically. Further there has been a lack of a
comprehensive policy on occupational safety and healthand this has contributed to a
weak infrastructure or safety culture amongst workers and employers , and the effectual
non-compliance with the national and international health and safety standards.

d) Composition of the National Council for Occupational Safety and Health

A clear reading of section 28 of the Act reveals that the membership of the council is
mainly drawn from government officials. This is not satisfactory seeing that the council
will among other things be required to advise the Minister on how to formulate and
develop a national occupational safety and health policy framework. It is instructive to
note also that government policy has emphasised on private partnerships at all levels and
therefore having a council with a membership mainly drawn from the government defeats
that purpose. Since the Act has put more emphasis on a tripartite approach involving all
the stakeholders in the sector the membership needs to be widened. Its membership
should be drawn from the government, the employers and the employees alike.

e) Unclear intention and vague language in the Act

There are unclear intentions and vague language regarding how often employers must
conduct hazard inspections, how often employers must provide employees training and
evaluations and what constitutes adequate employee training and sufficient employee
involvement. The requirements of the Act and the duties thereto are too vague to be
effectively and fairly enforced. The Act gives too much discretion to the Director and the
inspectors. For example section 4 of the Act provides that in providing guidance with
respect to any provision of the Act and of health and safety regulations the Director after
consulting with the council shall approve and “issue codes of practice which are in his
opinion suitable for that purpose.” Such an ambiguity in the law was also seen in the
Work Injury Benefits Act 2007, where several sections in that Act were annulled by the
High Court of Kenya. The annulled sections included Section 23(1) that empowered the
Director of Occupational Safety and Health Services to make inquiries as are necessary to
 decide upon any claim or liability and sections 52(1) and (2) which permitted the Director
of Occupational Safety and Health Services to review, vary or uphold his initial decision
on a matter and make provision for the filing of appeals to the industrial courts by only
the objector and not any affected party to the case. This nullification created a big gap in
the protection of Kenyan workers rights to safe and favourable working conditions.

f) Inadequate awareness on occupational safety and health issues among the working
population
There is a general lack of awareness by the working force of occupational safety and
health issues. This has been caused by a lack of adequate funding to propel occupational
safety and health programmes, lack of a proper linkage between promotion of
occupational safety and health and work injury benefits and a lack of adequate research
focusing on occupational safety and health in Kenya. There exists a knowledge gap in the
safety and health working conditions which situation has been worsened by the lack of
the necessary human resource development.

g) Technological challenges
With the growing informal sector and the introduction of new technologies in the vast
agricultural sector, new strategies have not been developed to make occupational safety
and health achieve the desired impact. Curbing occupational risks is made even more
complex by lack of the necessary technological infrastructure to manage and develop new
prevention patterns due to the changing world of work which is shaping up and creating
new risks. In the area of bio-technology for example, innovation is bringing new
technologies at the workplace, which in turn raises the issue of bio-safety. It should be
appreciated that these are new risks to the employers, and all the other stakeholders.

h) Capacity challenges
Human resource development and capacity building pose a big challenge not only to
regulators, supervisory and advisory institutions but also to the government, employers
and the workers. This problem has largely been contributed by lack of proper funding,
failure to recruit staff as per establishment, failure to train professionals and practitioners
in occupational safety and health and provision of adequate tools and equipment which
remain as some of the primary issues that hamper not only the coverage but also the
impact of occupational safety and health.

It has been concluded that a number of factors inhibit the implementation of occupational
health and safety measures in the construction industry, among them; Absence of health
and safety management systems, lack or inadequate training and inductions, the high
costs involved in providing and maintaining risk control measures, lack of concern
towards health and safety issues in building project by the clients and the government’s
limited capacity in providing appropriate legal framework and inspectorate personnel to
enforce compliance with the Occupational Safety and Health Act, 2007. The researcher
recommended that measures be taken to enlighten building contractors about the
importance of health and safety management systems which they should integrate into
their management fibre to help create a health and safety culture in their organizations.
Through awareness forums conducted by professional bodies in partnership with
government departments, building contractors to be encouraged to seek ISO certifications
relevant to health and safety management issues. The government on the other hand
should strengthen the legal, institutional framework and inspectorate activities in order to
enforce compliance with the Occupational Health and Safety Act, 2007. Finally, Kenya
being a member country at the International Labour Organization should ratify all
conventions relevant to issues of health and safety in construction works in a bid to
demonstrate its commitment to worker’s health and safety.

KEY PROVISIONS IN OSHA 2007

The key provisions can be found in the Occupational Safety and Health Act of 2007.
Here are some of the key provisions of the Act:
1. General Duties: The Act establishes general duties for employers, employees,
manufacturers, suppliers, and designers to ensure the health and safety of workers
in all workplaces. Employers are required to provide and maintain a safe working
environment, implement safety measures, and provide information, training, and
supervision to employees.
2. Occupational Safety and Health Committees: The Act mandates the formation of
Occupational Safety and Health Committees in workplaces with 20 or more
employees. These committees are responsible for promoting and
coordinating occupational safety and health activities, conducting inspections, and
addressing safety concerns in the workplace.
3. Workplace Inspections: The Act grants inspectors the authority to conduct
inspections of workplaces to assess compliance with health and safety regulations.
Inspectors have the power to enter and inspect premises, examine records, and
take necessary actions to enforce compliance.
4. Occupational Health Services: The Act provides for the establishment of
occupational health services to support the prevention and control of occupational
diseases and injuries. These services may include medical examinations, health
surveillance, and advice on occupational health matters.
5. Accident Reporting and Investigation: The Act requires employers to report all
accidents and dangerous occurrences that result in injury or pose a threat
to health and safety. The Act also mandates investigations of accidents and
dangerous occurrences to identify their causes and prevent future incidents.
6. Safety and Health Representatives: The Act allows employees to elect Safety and
Health Representatives to represent their interests in matters relating to
occupational safety and health. These representatives have the authority to inspect
workplaces, report hazards, and participate in consultations with employers.
7. Penalties and Enforcement: The Act specifies penalties for non-compliance with
its provisions, including fines and imprisonment. It also establishes procedures for
enforcement, prosecution, and appeals in cases of noncompliance.
LAWS AND REGULATIONS COVERING ASPECTS RELATED TO OHS
The Public Health Act – Cap 242
Under this Act any factory or trade premises is said to be a nuisance if:
Not kept in a clean state and free from offensive smell arising from any drain, privy or
urinal.
Not ventilated so as to destroy or render harmless and in offensive any gases, vapors, dust
or other impurities generated.
Overcrowded or so badly lit or ventilated as to be injurious or dangerous to the health of
those employed therein.
It is causing or giving rise to smells or effluvia, which are offensive or injurious or
dangerous to health.
The chimney sending smoke in such quantity or manner as to be offensive or injurious or
dangerous to health

The Environmental Management and Coordination Act, 1999.

In consultation with the relevant lead agencies, the Standards and Enforcement Review
Committee established under the Act performs the following functions: Advise the
authority on how to establish criteria and procedures for the measurement of air quality.

Recommend for:
Ambient air quality standards.
Occupational air quality standards.
Emission standards for various sources.
Guidelines to minimize emissions of greenhouse gases.
The best practicable technology available in controlling pollutants during the emission
process
Measures necessary to reduce existing sources of air pollution by requiring the redesign
of plants or installation of new technology or both to meet the requirements of standards
already established
Under the same law, the Minister may, on the advice of the Authority make
regulations prescribing the procedures and criteria for:
Classification of toxic and hazardous chemicals and materials and the hazard they present
to the human health and to the environment.
Registration of chemicals and materials. Labeling of chemicals and material. Control of
imports and exports of toxic and hazardous chemicals and material permitted to be so or
exported. Distribution, storage, transportation and handling of chemicals and materials.
Monitoring of the effect of chemicals and their residue on human health and the
environment. Disposal of expired and surplus chemicals and materials. Restriction and
burning of toxic and hazardous substances and energy.

The Act gives the Standards and Enforcement Review Committee in conjunction
with the relevant agencies mandate to:
Recommend standards for emissions of noise and vibration pollution into the
environment as are necessary to preserve and maintain public health and the
environment. Establish criteria and procedures of sub-sonic vibrations, which are likely
to have a significant impact on the environment. Recommend guidelines for the
minimization of sub-sonic vibrations from existing and future emissions. Establish noise
level and noise emission standards applicable to construction sites, plants, machinery,
motor vehicles, aircraft including sonic bonus, industrial and commercial activities and
measure levels of noise from those sources.

Petroleum Act – Chapter 116

Some rules have been established under the Act stating that: When transporting
petroleum by road no person is allowed to smoke, strike or match or carry any naked
light while in or near vehicle carrying petroleum. Storage of petroleum in bulk should be
kept in an installation or in an underground kerbside tank. In all storage sheds and
installations no persons should do any act, which is likely to cause fire. No goods of
inflammable nature other than the petroleum should be kept within an installation except
such as are necessary for the purposes of the installations. The distances between tanks
and other buildings and between tanks and boundaries of the installation should be
specified accordingly. Tanks should be made of mild steel, or other approved material
and designed and constructed according to British Standards or other standards approved
by the Minister. The conditions under which tank constructed entirely below, partially
above, or completely above, the surface of the ground should follow. All pumping mains
and pipes should be furnished with a means of stopping a flow of petroleum from the
tanks in event of any injury to the pipelines. All ventilating openings on tanks should be
protected by a diaphragm of strong non-corrosive wire gauze or fitted with safety valve
of a type approved by the Minister. No soldering of filled tins should be carried out in the
filling shed. Every storage shed should be constructed entirely of non-inflammable
material

The Food, Drugs and Chemicals Substance Act – Cap 254.

The law prohibits a person from carrying out the following activities: Use or disposal of
any chemical substance in a manner likely to cause contamination of food or water for
human consumption or in a manner liable to be injurious or dangerous to the health of
any person. Sell any chemical substance which when used according to the instructions of
the manufacturers or under such conditions as are customary or usual, might cause injury
to the health of any person. Sell, prepare, preserve, package, store or convey for sale any
chemical substance under unsanitary conditions

The Physical Planning Act - Cap 286

Under this Act if a local authority is of the opinion that proposal for industrial location,
dumping sites, sewerage treatment, queries or any other development activity will cause
injurious impact on the environment the applicant is required to submit together with the
application an environmental impact assessment report.
The Local Government Act
Under this Act every municipal council and every town council and urban council have
power: To control or prohibit all business, factories and workshops which by reason of
smoke, fumes chemicals, gas, dust, smell, noise, urbanization or other cause, may be or
become a source of danger discomfort or annoyance to the neighborhood, and to
prescribe the conditions subject to which such businesses, factories and workshops
should be carried out. To prohibit or control the carrying out on of the work or trade of a
knacker or of blood, boiling or cleaning, tallow melting, fat melting, or fat extraction,
fell-mongering, skin storing, skin curing, blood drying, gut scraping, fish mongering, fish
drying, leather dressing, tanning, glue making, size making, charcoal burning, brick
burning, lime burning, stone crushing, manure making, manure storing, bone storing, or
any other work or trade of offensive nature which such local authority may, with the
sanction of the Minister, declare to be an offensive trade

MAJOR OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY INSTRUMENTS

The means of action used by the ILO to promote occupational health and safety include
international labour standards, codes of practice, the provisions of technical advice and
the dissemination of information. Such action aims to increase the capacity of member
states to prevent occupational accidents and work-related diseases by improving working
conditions. One of the main functions of the ILO, from its foundation in 1919, has been
the development of international labour standards. These cover labour and social matters,
and take the form of conventions and recommendations. Conventions are comparable to
multilateral international treaties which are open for ratification by the member states,
and once ratified create create specific binding obligations.
A government that has ratified a convention is expected to apply its provisions through
legislation or other appropriate means. The government is also required to report
regularly on the application of ratified conventions. Recommendations are meant to offer
non-binding guidelines which may orient national policy and practice. Although no
substantive obligations are entailed, member states have certain important procedural
obligations in respect of recommendations namely: to submit the texts on their legislative
bodies, to report on the resulting action, and to report occasionally at the request of the
ILO governing body on measures taken or envisaged to give effects to the provisions.
Convention and recommendations adopted by the international labor conference, takenas
a whole, are considered as an international Labour Code which defines minimum
standards in the social and labour field. ILO standards have exerted considerable
influence on the laws and regulations of member states in that many texts have been
modeled on the relevant provisions of ILO instruments. Drafts of new legislation or
amendments are often prepared with ILO standards in mind so as to ensure compliance
with ratified Conventions.

Scope and purpose of OHS standards

 Conventions and Recommendations on occupational safety and health may serve several
purposes, acting as:
• Fundamental principles to guide policies for promotion, action and management of
occupational hazards;
• General protection measures, for example, guarding of machinery, medical
examination of young workers or limiting the weight of loads to be transported by a
single worker;
• Protection in specific branches of economic activity, such as mining, the building
industry, commerce and dock work;
• Protection of specific professions (for example, nurses and seafarers) and categories of
workers having particular occupational health needs (such as women or young workers);
• Protection against specific risks (ionizing radiation, benzene, asbestos); prevention of
occupational cancer; control of air pollution, noise and vibration in the working
environment; measures to ensure safety in the use of chemicals, including the prevention
of major industrial accidents;
• Organizational measures and procedures relating, for example, to labour inspection or
compensation for occupational injuries and diseases. The employers and workers, to take
active steps towards achieving
DEFINE OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH
Occupational health refers to the branch of public health that is concerned with promoting and
maintaining the physical, mental, and social well-being of workers in relation to their working
environment.
It focuses on preventing work-related injuries, illnesses, and hazards, as well as enhancing the
overall health and productivity of employees.
The field of occupational health encompasses various areas, including workplace safety,
occupational medicine, industrial hygiene, ergonomics, and occupational psychology. Its primary
goal is to create a safe and healthy work environment that minimizes risks to workers’ health and
maximizes their well-being.
Occupational health professionals work in collaboration with employers, employees, and
regulatory bodies to identify and address workplace hazards, develop and implement health and
safety policies, conduct risk assessments, provide medical surveillance, deliver health promotion
programs, and ensure compliance with occupational health and safety regulations.
Overall, occupational health aims to protect the health of workers, prevent workrelated injuries
and illnesses, and improve the quality of working life for employees in all industries and sectors.
KEY PRINCIPLES IN OHS
Occupational safety and health is an extensive multidisciplinary field, invariably touching on
issues related to scientific areas such as medicine – including physiology and toxicology –
ergonomics, physics and chemistry, as well as technology, economics, law and other areas
specific to various industries and activities. Despite this variety of concerns and interests, certain
basic principles can be identified, including the following:
1. All workers have rights. Workers, as well as employers and governments, must ensure that
these rights are protected and must strive to establish and maintain decent working conditions
and a decent working environment. More specifically:  Work should take place in a safe and
healthy working environment;  Conditions of work should be consistent with workers’ well-
being and human dignity;  Work should offer real possibilities for personal achievement, self
fulfillment and service to society (ILO, 1984)
2. Occupational health and safety policies must be established. Such policies must be
implemented at both the national (governmental) and enterprise [Link] must be effectively
communicated to all parties concerned.
3. There is need for consultation with the social partners and stakeholders
4. Prevention and protection must be the aim of occupational health and safety programmes and
policies
5. Information is vital for the development and implementation of effective programmes and
policies
6. Health promotion is a central element in occupational health practice
7. Occupational health services covering all workers should be established
8. Compensation, rehabilitation and curative services must be made available to workers who
suffer occupational injuries, accidents and work related diseases
9. Education and training are vital component of safe, healthy working environments
10. Workers, employers and competent authorities have certain responsibilities, duties and
obligations
11. Policies must be enforced
12. A national system for occupational safety and health must be established. Such a system must
include all the mechanisms and elements necessary to build and maintain a preventive safety and
health culture. The national system must be maintained, progressively developed and
periodically reviewed.
13. A national programme on occupational safety and health must be formulated. Once
formulated, it must be implemented, monitored, evaluated and periodically reviewed.
14. Social partners (that is, employers and workers) and other stakeholders must be consulted.
This should be done during formulation, implementation and review of all policies, systems and
programmes.
15. Occupational safety and health programmes and policies must aim at both prevention and
protection. Efforts must be focused above all on primary prevention at the workplace level.
Workplaces and working environments should be planned and designed to be safe and healthy.
16. Continuous improvement of occupational safety and health must be promoted. This is
necessary to ensure that national laws, regulations and technical standards to prevent
occupational injuries, diseases and deaths are adapted periodically to social, technical and
scientific progress and other changes in the world of work. It is best done by the development
and implementation of a national policy, national system and national programme.
17. Information is vital for the development and implementation of effective programmes and
policies. The collection and dissemination of accurate information on hazards and hazardous
materials, surveillance of workplaces, monitoring of compliance with policies and good practice,
and other related activities are central to the establishment and enforcement of effective policies.
18. Health promotion is a central element of occupational health practice. Efforts must be made
to enhance workers’ physical, mental and social well-being.
19. Occupational health services covering all workers should be established. Ideally, all workers
in all categories of economic activity should have access to such services, which aim to protect
and promote workers’ health and improve working conditions.
20. Compensation, rehabilitation and curative services must be made available to workers who
suffer occupational injuries, accidents and work related diseases. Action must be taken to
minimize the consequences of occupational hazards.
21. Education and training are vital components of safe, healthy working environments. Workers
and employers must be made aware of the importance of establishing safe working procedures
and of how to do so. Trainers must be trained in areas of special relevance to particular
industries, so that they can address the specific occupational safety and health concerns.
22. Workers, employers and competent authorities have certain responsibilities, duties and
obligations. For example, workers must follow established safety procedures; employers must
provide safe workplaces and ensure access to first aid; and the competent authorities must
devise, communicate and periodically review and update occupational safety and health policies.
23. Policies must be enforced. A system of inspection must be in place to secure compliance with
occupational safety and health measures and other labour legislation.
Identification of health and safety problems includes the following:
Observe workplace Investigate complaints from workers
Examine accident and near-miss records
Examine sickness figures
Use simple surveys to ask your co-workers about their health and safety concerns;
Use check-lists to help you inspect your workplace;
Learn the results of inspections that are done by the employer, the union or anyone else;
Read reports or other information about your workplace
DEFINITION OF TERMS
₤ Hazard – A potentially damaging physical environment, phenomenon or human activity that
may cause the loss of life or injury, property damage, social and economic disruption or
environmental degradation.
Hazard A condition, set of circumstances, or inherent property that can has potential to cause
harm, injury, illness, or death.
A hazard means anything that may result in injury or harm to the health of a person; any source
of potential damage, harm or adverse health effects on something or someone under certain
conditions at work. In providing an environment where employees are not exposed to hazards,
employers must consider health as well as safety. Injuries could result from the traditional range
of physical safety issues such as falls, strains, being hit by objects and electric shock to the non-
traditional emerging risks.
Safety – Practical certainty that injury will not result from exposure to the hazard under defined
conditions or high probability that injury will not result. Safety-refers to protection from
illnesses. Safety-Protection from illness or harm
Occupational safety is the working in conditions that are free from known dangers like clean,
safe environment, safety gear
Occupational safety-working in conditions that are free from known dangers like clean, safe
environment and safety gear.
Exposure Contact with or proximity to a hazard, with duration and intensity of exposure
considered.
Occupation – a job, profession, livelihood, career or employment. Occupation refers to a
person’s usual or principal work especially as a means to earn a living. Occupation -Persons
usual or principal work especially as a means to earn a living. A job, profession, livelihood,
career or employment.
Occupational health should aim at the promotion and maintenance of the highest degree of
physical, mental and social wellbeing in all occupations; the prevention amongst workers of
departures from health caused by their working conditions; the protection of workers in their
employment from risks resulting from factors adverse to health; the placing and maintenance of
the worker in an occupational environment adapted to its physiological and psychological
equipment and, to summarize: the adaptation of work to man and of each man to his job”.
Occupational health is the application of public health principles and medical nursing and
engineering practice for the purpose of conserving, promoting and restoring the health and
effectiveness of workers through their place of employment.
Occupational health-the promotion and maintenance of the highest degree of physical, mental
and social wellbeing of workers in all occupations (by preventing departures from health,
controlling risks and the adaptation of work to people, and the people to their jobs).
Health – a state of complete physical, social and mental well-being and not merely the absence
of diseases or infirmity. Health refers to protection from illnesses. Health-The state of complete
physical, mental and social wellbeing and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.
Health
The World Health Organization has defined health as “a state of complete physical, mental, and
social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity”. As this definition shows
health is a very broad and wide concept which includes work related injuries and diseases, such
as industrial deafness, dermatitis, occupational overuse injuries, asbestosis and occupational
cancers. It could also include more general health problems like heart disease, high blood
pressure and stress where the work environment and procedures could be shown to be
contributing factors.
Occupational health and safety – safety issues related to the workplace OR the discipline
concerned with preserving and protecting human facility resources in the workplace. According
to Professor Lee Reynolds occupational health and safety, “is the discipline concerned with
preserving and protecting human and capital resources in the workplace”.
Occupational safety and health (OSH) Occupational safety and health (OSH) is generally
defined as the science of the anticipation, recognition, evaluation and control of hazards arising
in or from the workplace that could impair the health and well-being of workers, taking into
account the possible impact on the surrounding communities and the general environment.-It is
an area concerned with protecting the safety, health and welfare of people engaged in work or
employment
Probability The likelihood of a hazard causing an incident or exposure that could result in harm
or damage—for a selected unit of time, events, population, items or activity being considered.
Severity The extent of harm or damage that could result from a hazard-related incident or
exposures.
Risk – probability or frequency of the occurrence of a particular hazard or event and some
measure of severity of the consequence OR the potential harm that may arise from some present
processes or from some future events. It is often mapped to the probability of some event which
is seen to be undesirable.
An estimate of the combination of the likelihood of an occurrence of a hazardous event or
exposure(s) and the severity of injury or illness that may be caused by the event or exposures.
Is the chance or probability that a person will be harmed or experience an adverse health effect if
exposed to a hazard. It may also apply to situations with property or equipment loss.
Risk assessment: Process where you, identify hazards and risks factors, analyze and evaluate
risk associated with that hazard and determine appropriate ways to eliminate or control the
hazard. It involves hazard identification, risk analysis and risk evaluation and risk control.
Adverse health effect Any change in body function or the structures of the cells that can lead to
disease or health problems. Example; bodily injury, disease, decrease in life span, change in
mental condition resulting from stress.
Accident – an unplanned event that interrupts the completion of an activity and may not include
injury or property damage OR anything that happens by chance without an apparent cause OR an
unforeseen, unexpected and unintended event.
Accident Any unplanned, sudden event which causes injury to people or damage to buildings,
plant, material or the environment.
Minor accident: An occurrence arising out of or in the course of work which results in lost time
injury of less than three days.
Fatal accident An accident that causes death. Serious accident One which at least one person is
injured and results to more than 3 days absentia from workplace.
Incident – an occurrence or event OR a single distinct event OR an occurrence either human
caused or by natural phenomenon.
The occurrence of an event that interrupts the completion of an activity. It may be a minor event
or result in a crisis such as an accident.
Occupational hygiene- Is the discipline of anticipating, recognizing, evaluating and controlling
health hazards in the working environment with the objective of protecting worker health and
well-being and safeguarding the community at large. In many cases it concerns chemical safety,
workplace health hazards, identification of workplace hazards prevention and control, methods
of controlling workplace hazards.
Risk Management A logical and systematic method of establishing the context, identifying,
analyzing, treating, monitoring and communicating risks associated with any activity, function or
process in a way that will enable organizations to minimize losses and maximize opportunities.
Occupational Disease Any disease or disorder that occurs as a result of work or working
conditions
Near misses Unplanned event that does not result in injury, illness, or damage – but has the
potential to do so. Only a fortunate break in the chain of events prevents an injury, fatality or
damage.
Ergonomics A scientific discipline concerned with the understanding of interaction between
humans and other elements of a system and the professional that applies theory, principles, data,
methods to designs in order to optimize human well-being and overall system performance.
Public health is the science and the art of preventing disease, prolonging life and promoting
physical and mental health and efficiency through organized community efforts for the sanitation
of the environment , the control of community infections, the education of the individual in
principles of personal hygiene, the organization of medical and nursing service for the early
diagnosis and treatment of disease and the development of the social machinery which will
ensure to every individual in the community a standard of living adequate for the maintenance of
health
Health and safety policy- A health and safety policy is a method of action that influences and
guides actions that promote effective safe working procedures, occupational hygiene and safety
training. It addresses the types of hazards associated with the workplace; it discusses the active
and on-going participation of employees.
Aims of a health and safety policy A written health and safety policy:
 Helps promote an effective Occupational, Health and Safety program.  It strengthens the
senior management’s commitment to the health and safety of the workplace and the integration
of health and safety into all workplace activities.  Reduces incidences of injuries and illnesses in
the workplace,  Helps the employers to allocate resources towards health and safety,  Helps in
identifying who is responsible for health and safety in the workplace.
However, it is unfortunate that since the passing of the Act many industries have not come up
with a health and safety policy. This has partly been contributed by a lack of adequate awareness
on safety and health or due to the costs of enforcing the requirements of the Act which places a
heavy burden on the employers.
The Importance of Health and Safety in the Workplace
Occupational health and safety (OHS) play a crucial role in protecting the wellbeing of workers
and ensuring a safe and healthy work environment. The importance of occupational health and
safety can be summarized as follows:
1. Worker protection: The primary purpose of OHS is to protect the health, safety, and lives
of workers. By identifying and controlling workplace hazards, implementing safety
measures, and promoting safe work practices, OHS reduces the risk of work-related
injuries, illnesses, and fatalities. It ensures that workers can perform their jobs without
unnecessary harm or exposure to hazardous conditions.
2. Preventing work-related illnesses: Occupational health and safety measures aim to
prevent and minimize work-related illnesses and occupational diseases. Through proper
hazard identification, risk assessment, and control measures, OHS addresses the specific
health risks associated with different industries and work environments. This includes
protecting workers from exposure to harmful substances, minimizing ergonomic risks,
and addressing psychosocial factors that can impact mental health.
3. Increasing productivity and efficiency: A safe and healthy work environment is
conducive to increased productivity and efficiency. When workers feel safe
 and supported, they are more likely to be engaged, focused, and motivated in their work.
Conversely, work-related injuries, illnesses, and accidents can lead to absenteeism,
reduced productivity, and increased costs for employers. By investing in OHS,
organizations can improve their bottom line through enhanced worker performance and
reduced downtime.
4. Legal and regulatory compliance: Compliance with occupational health and safety
regulations is a legal requirement for employers. Governments enact laws and regulations
to establish minimum standards for workplace safety and health. Adhering to these
regulations not only helps organizations avoid legal liabilities, penalties, and reputational
damage but also demonstrates a commitment to ethical practices and responsible business
operations.
5. Employee morale and satisfaction: Prioritizing occupational health and safety creates a
positive work environment that fosters employee morale, satisfaction, and loyalty. When
workers feel that their well-being is valued and protected, it enhances their job
satisfaction, reduces stress, and promotes a sense of loyalty towards the organization. A
positive safety culture that encourages employee participation in safety initiatives and
values their input can further strengthen employee morale and commitment.
6. Reputation and brand image: Organizations that prioritize occupational health and safety
build a positive reputation and brand image. Customers, clients, and stakeholders are
increasingly concerned about ethical practices and the well-being of workers.
Demonstrating a commitment to OHS can enhance the reputation of the organization,
attract and retain talent, and differentiate it from competitors.
7. Cost savings: Implementing effective occupational health and safety measures can lead
to cost savings in the long run. By preventing workplace accidents, injuries, and illnesses,
organizations can reduce medical expenses, workers’ compensation claims, and insurance
premiums. Additionally, a proactive approach to OHS can minimize business disruptions,
litigation costs, and potential fines or penalties associated with non-compliance.
The achievement of the highest standards of health and safety in the workplace is important
because the elimination, or at least minimization, of health and safety hazards and risks is the
moral as well as the legal responsibility of employers – this is the over-riding reason. Close and
continuous attention to health and safety is important because ill-health and injuries inflicted by
the system of work or working conditions cause suffering and loss to individuals and their
dependants. In addition, accidents and absences through ill-health or injuries result in losses and
damage for the organization. This ‘business’ reason is very much less significant than the
‘human’ reason given above.
Managing health and safety at work is a matter of:
i. Developing health and safety policies;
ii. Conducting risk assessments which identify hazards and assess the risks attached to
them;
iii. Carrying out health and safety audits and inspections;
iv. Implementing occupational health programs;
v. Managing stress;
vi. Preventing accidents
vii. Measuring health and safety performance;
viii. Communicating the need for good health and safety practices.
ix. Training in good health and safety practices
Benefits of workplace health and safety programs
Research has established that the tangible benefits from better health and safety management
include:higher productivity, meeting client demands, lower employee absence, avoiding the
cost of accidents and litigation, improved staff morale and employee relations.
The safety programs can help in the control of occupational health and hygiene problems in
the following ways:
i. Eliminating the hazard at source through designing and of safe machines,
equipments, tools and safe processes;
ii. Isolating hazardous processes and substances so that workers do not come into
contact with them;
iii. Changing the processes or substances used(e.g. chemicals), to promote better
protection or eliminate the risk;
iv. Providing protective equipment, but only if changes to the design, process or
specification cannot completely remove the hazard;
v. Training workers to avoid risk;
vi. Maintaining plant and equipment to eliminate the possibility of harmful emissions,
controlling the use of toxic substances and eliminating radiation hazards;
vii. Good housekeeping to keep premises and machinery clean and free from toxic
substances;
viii. Regular inspections to ensure that potential health risks are identified in good time;
ix. Pre-employment medical examinations and regular checks on those exposed to risk;
x. Maintaining preventive medicine programs which develop health standards for each
job and carry out regular audits of potential health hazards and regular examinations
for anyone at risk.
OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ISSUES
[Link] work environment Poorly maintained workplaces, inadequate safety equipment and
hazardous materials
[Link] training Causes inadequate awareness of potential hazards in the workplace
and how to avoid them
[Link] ergonomics Poor ergonomic design can lead to musculoskeletal disorders, fatigue and
other health issues.
4. Lack of safety protocols Ensures safety of employees.
[Link] to dangerous chemicals Exposure to hazardous materials can lead to serious
health complications
[Link] machinery. Faulty machine can cause serious injury and death.
[Link] health issues Stress, anxiety and depression can be caused by unsafe environment.
THREE COMMON INTERACTIONS IN THE WORK PLACE.
Interactions between colleagues/peers:
Colleague or peer interactions occur between individuals at similar levels within the
organization or working in the same team or department. These interactions involve
collaboration, communication, and cooperation among colleagues to achieve shared goals
and objectives. Examples of peer interactions include teamwork, joint problem-solving,
knowledge sharing, providing feedback, and supporting each other in daily work activities.
Positive and effective peer interactions foster a supportive work environment, enhance
productivity, and promote a sense of camaraderie among colleagues.
Interactions between supervisors/managers and subordinates: Interactions between
supervisors/managers and subordinates involve hierarchical relationships within the
workplace. These interactions are crucial for effective leadership, guidance, and
performance management. Managers provide direction, assign tasks, provide feedback,
evaluate performance, and support the professional development of their subordinates.
Subordinates, in turn, seek guidance, share progress, discuss challenges, and receive
instructions from their supervisors. Positive supervisor-subordinate interactions facilitate a
clear understanding of expectations, promote employee growth, and contribute to a healthy
work relationship.
Interactions with external stakeholders:
Workplace interactions also extend beyond internal relationships to include interactions with
external stakeholders. These stakeholders can include clients, customers, vendors, suppliers,
regulatory bodies, and the community. Interacting with external stakeholders involves
communication, negotiation and collaboration to meet customer needs, maintain business
relationships, address concerns, comply with regulations, and engage in community
outreach. Building positive and constructive interactions with external stakeholders is
essential for maintaining the reputation and success of the organization.
Effective interactions in the workplace are characterized by open communication, active
listening, mutual respect, empathy, and a collaborative mindset. They promote teamwork,
innovation, and a positive work culture. Conversely, poor or negative interactions can lead
to conflicts, misunderstandings, decreased productivity, and a toxic work environment.
Organizations should encourage and facilitate healthy interactions among employees,
promote effective communication channels, provide training on interpersonal skills, and
foster a culture of respect and collaboration to enhance workplace interactions
THE INTERRELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN WORK AND HEALTH.
Occupational hazards and health risks: Different occupations and work environments
carry specific hazards and risks that can impact the health of workers. Exposure to physical
hazards (e.g., noise, vibrations), chemical hazards (e.g., toxic substances), biological hazards
(e.g., pathogens), ergonomic hazards (e.g., repetitive tasks, poor ergonomics), and
psychosocial hazards (e.g., work-related stress, bullying) can lead to work-related injuries,
illnesses, and health problems. Occupational health focuses on identifying, evaluating, and
mitigating these hazards to protect the health and well-being of workers.
Work-related stress and mental health: The nature of work, including high workload, job
demands, lack of control or autonomy, long hours, and poor work-life balance, can
contribute to work-related stress. Prolonged or excessive stress can have detrimental effects
on mental health, leading to conditions such as anxiety, depression, and burnout.
Conversely, a supportive work environment, meaningful work, and positive relationships at
work can promote mental well-being and resilience.
Physical health and sedentary work: Certain occupations require prolonged periods of
sedentary work, which can have adverse effects on physical health. Sedentary work is
associated with increased risks of cardiovascular diseases, obesity, musculoskeletal
disorders, and metabolic disorders. Encouraging regular physical activity, promoting
ergonomic workstations, and implementing breaks for movement can help mitigate these
risks and support physical health in the workplace
Work-life balance and well-being: Achieving a healthy work-life balance is crucial for
overall well-being. Excessive work demands, long working hours, and the blurring of
boundaries between work and personal life can negatively impact physical and mental
health. Striking a balance between work and personal life reduces stress, improves
satisfaction, and promotes overall wellbeing.
Job satisfaction and motivation: Job satisfaction and motivation are closely linked to an
individual’s health and well-being. Engaging in meaningful work, having a sense of
autonomy, receiving recognition, and experiencing job satisfaction contribute to higher
levels of well-being and job performance. Conversely, job dissatisfaction, lack of
motivation, and feelings of being undervalued can lead to decreased well-being and potential
health issues.
Work and social support: The social aspects of work, including supportive relationships with
colleagues and supervisors, can positively influence health and well-being. A supportive
work environment fosters a sense of belonging, provides emotional support, and encourages
teamwork and collaboration. Social support at work has been linked to reduced stress levels,
improved mental health, and increased job satisfaction.
Career development and self-esteem: Opportunities for career development, skill
enhancement, and growth contribute to a sense of purpose and selfesteem. Feeling valued,
having opportunities for advancement, and acquiring new skills can positively impact mental
health and overall well-being.
GROUPS AT PARTICULAR RISK
Some groups seem to be particularly at risk or to find that their specific problems are
overlooked. For example:
1. The special position of women workers needs attention. The gender division of labour has
an impact on women’s safety and health in the workplace, which goes well beyond
reproductive hazards. As one union points out:Health and safety is male dominated.
86%ofHealth and Safety Inspectors are male. Resources are traditionally invested far more
on “male” industries, rather than areas of industry where women work. Safety standards are
based on the model of a male worker. Tasks and equipment are designed for male body size
and shape. This can lead to discrimination in a number of areas. (GMB, 1998)
2. There are many home-based workers, in both developed and developing countries. Some
countries regard them as ordinary employees, subject to normal safety and health legislation.
In other countries, they are not included in legislation. But countries that ratify the Home
Work Convention, 1996 (No. 177), must ensure protection in the field of occupational safety
and health equal to that enjoyed by other workers.
3. Part-time workers are another group who may suffer from not being covered by safety and
health provisions. This is why the Part-Time WorkConvention, 1994 (No. 175), stipulates
that “measures shall be taken to ensure that part-time workers receive the same protection as
that accorded to comparable fulltime workers.
4. In 2000, economically active migrants were estimated to number some 81 million. For
many of them, working conditions are abusive and exploitative: forced labour, low wages,
poor working environment, a virtual absence of social protection, the denial of freedom of
association and union rights, discrimination, xenophobia and social exclusion all rob
workers of the potential benefits of working in another country (ILO, 2004). The safety and
health risks associated with such conditions are compounded by the kinds of work that most
migrants do, namely hazardous and risky jobs, particularly in agriculture and construction.
In Europe, occupational accident rates are about twice as high for migrant workers as for
native workers, and there is no reason to believe that the situation is any different in other
parts of the world. Language barriers, exposure to new technology, family disruption, poor
access to health care, stress and violence are some of the specific problems faced by migrant
workers that make them particularly vulnerable to safety and health risks at the workplace.
5. Workers in the informal economy are much more likely than formal workers to be
exposed to poor working environments, low safety and health standards, and environmental
hazards, and to suffer poor health or injury as a result. Most informal workers have little or
no knowledge of the risks they face and how to avoid them. The very nature of the informal
economy makes it almost impossible for governments to collect the vital statistics needed to
take appropriate remedial action, and, since much informal work takes place in homes,
inspectorates cannot investigate working conditions or get information and advice to the
people who need it.
 6. Many children are still involved in hazardous work, although the numbers are falling: the
worldwide total was estimated at 126 million in 2004, a considerable drop from an estimated
171 million in 2000. The decrease was particularly strong among children aged 5 to 14.
7. The ageing of the world workforce raises many concerns, including some relating to
occupational safety and health.
8. The accident rate of contract workers is on average twice that of permanent workers.
Many employers seem to believe that by subcontracting certain tasks, they subcontract their
safety responsibilities. This is not the case. 9. Drivers are particularly at risk. International
estimates suggest that between 15 and 20 per cent of fatalities caused by road accidents are
suffered by people in the course of their work, but these deaths are treated as road traffic
accidents rather than work-related fatalities.
10. Disabled
Women, who make up a large proportion of the work force in many developing countries and
often face significant physical and psychosocial hazards in their work. Besides this they also face
similar problem at home as mothers and cooks
Children, who account for a significant part of the work force in many developing countries,
often undertake some of the most hazardous work. In many of these countries, primary education
is not required and there are no legal Protections against child labor.
Migrants - both within countries and between countries who, for a variety of reasons, face
significant health and safety hazards at work.
OSH ISSUES AND/OR CONCERNS IN REGARD TO OHS
1. Hazardous Substances: Exposure to chemicals, gases, dust, or other hazardous substances
can lead to acute or chronic health effects. Proper handling, storage, and use of such substances,
as well as providing necessary personal protective equipment (PPE), are important in minimizing
risks.
2. Physical Hazards: These include factors like noise, vibration, extreme temperatures,
radiation, and ergonomic hazards that can cause physical discomfort, injuries, or long-term
health problems. Adequate controls, ergonomic design, and training are crucial to mitigate these
hazards.
3. Manual Handling and Lifting: Improper lifting, carrying, or moving of heavy objects can
lead to musculoskeletal injuries. Implementing proper lifting techniques, providing mechanical
aids, and offering training on safe manual handling practices are essential to prevent injuries.
4. Workplace Violence and Bullying: Acts of violence, threats, bullying, or harassment in
the workplace can have a significant impact on employees’ well-being and safety. Developing
policies, establishing reporting mechanisms, and promoting a culture of respect and inclusivity
are vital in addressing these concerns.
5. Slips, Trips, and Falls: Poor housekeeping, slippery surfaces, inadequate lighting, or
obstructed walkways can contribute to slips, trips, and falls. Regular inspections, proper signage,
maintenance, and employee awareness campaigns are effective in reducing these incidents.
6. Work-Related Stress: Excessive workload, lack of control, long working hours, and poor
work-life balance can lead to work-related stress, affecting both mental and physical health.
Encouraging work-life balance, providing support systems, and promoting stress management
techniques can help mitigate this issue.
7. Machinery and Equipment Safety: Unsafe machinery, lack of guarding, inadequate
maintenance, or inadequate training can result in serious injuries. Ensuring proper machine
guarding, regular equipment inspections, maintenance programs, and training are crucial to
prevent accidents.
8. Electrical Safety: Electrical hazards, such as faulty wiring, improper use of electrical
equipment, or lack of grounding, can lead to electric shocks, burns, or fires. Compliance with
electrical safety standards, regular inspections, and training on safe electrical practices are
necessary to minimize risks.
9. Emergency Preparedness: Adequate emergency plans, including fire safety measures,
evacuation procedures, and first aid training, are essential to respond effectively to emergencies
and protect employees’ safety during critical situations.
10. Psychological Health and Well-being: Promoting a positive work environment that
supports mental health, addresses work-related stress, and provides resources for counseling and
support can contribute to employees’ overall well-being and productivity.
ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF VARIOUS PARTIES IN ORGANIZING
HEALTH AND SAFETY AT THE WORKPLACE
Management develops and implements health and safety policies and ensures that procedures
for carrying out risk assessments, safety audits and inspections are implemented and evaluated.
Managers are in immediate control and it is up to them to keep a constant watch for unsafe
conditions or practices and to take immediate action. They are also directly responsible for
ensuring that employees are conscious of health and safety hazards and do not take risks.
Employees should be aware of what constitutes safe working practices as they affect them and
their fellow workers.
Health and safety advisers advise on policies and procedures and on healthy and safe methods
of working. They conduct risk assessments and safety audits and investigations into accidents.
Medical advisers have two functions: preventive and clinical. The preventive function is most
important, especially on occupational health matters. The· clinical function is to deal with
industrial accidents and diseases and to advise on the steps necessary to recover from injury or
illness arising from work.
Safety committees consisting of health and safety representatives advise on health and safety
policies and procedures, help in conducting risk assessments and safety audits, and make
suggestions on improving health and safety performance.
Employer’s responsibility
Are you doing everything you can to protect the health and safety of the workers you employ?
The Act says that you, as an employer, must do everything you reasonably can to protect the
health and safety of your workers.
 This means that you must do a hazard assessment of your work site and take effective measures
to control the hazards identified.
 Ensure that all workers who may be affected by the hazards are familiar with the necessary
health and safety measures or procedures before the work begins.
 Equipment at your work site must be maintained in safe working order, and dangerous
chemicals must be properly labeled and stored.
 You must set up safe-work practices at your site and make sure these practices are followed. It
is up to you to make sure workers have the skills and training needed to do their jobs safely.
 To monitor employees' health and safety at work, and the conditions of the workplaces under
the employer's control
 To maintain appropriate information and records relating to its employees' health and safety
 To provide appropriate medical and first aid services for employees.
 You must train your workers how to use controlled products (e.g. chemicals) safely. You must
give all workers the information they need to do their jobs safely.
 If you employ workers who may be exposed to certain controlled products (for example,
chemicals), you must make sure appropriate protective measures are implemented. In some
cases, specific health examinations of the workers may be required. Examinations should take
place during normal working hours and at your expense.
 In cases where workers are exposed to excessive noise, you must periodically test their hearing.
 Making arrangements for ensuring safe entrances and safe exits.
 Providing adequate facilities for the welfare of employees.
1. Register their work place unless such workplace is exempted from registration under this Act.
2. Send a copy of each assessment report to the area occupational safety and health officer.
3. Take immediate steps to stop any operation or activity where there is an imminent and serious
danger to safety and health and to evacuate all persons employed as appropriate.
4. Make arrangements for ensuring safety and the absence of risks to health in connection with
the use, handling, storage and transport of articles and substances.
5. Provide and maintain the plant and systems and procedures of work that are safe and without
risks to health
6. Provide for information, instruction, training and supervision as is necessary to ensure the
safety and health at work of every person employed.
7. Maintain the workplace in a condition that is safe and without risks to health and provide and
maintain necessary means of access to and egress (outlet) from it that are safe and without risks
to health.
8. Provide and maintain a working environment for every person employed that is safe, without
risks to health, and adequate as regards facilities and arrangements for the employees’ welfare at
work.
9. Inform all employees of any risks from new technologies and imminent danger.
10. Ensure that every person employed participates in the application and review of safety and
health measures.
11. Carry out appropriate risk assessments in relation to the safety and health of employees and,
on the basis of these results, adopt preventive and protective measures to ensure that under all
conditions of their intended use, all chemicals, machinery, equipment, tools and process under
the control of the employer are safe and without risk to health and comply with the requirements
of safety and health provisions in this Act.
₤ Provide a safe and healthy working environment i.e. Ventilation, exits, sanitary facilities etc.
₤ Provide training and awareness to employees on hazards and control measures as well as
operating procedures/working instructions
₤ Provide PPE for use in areas where hazard cannot be completely eliminated
₤ Investigate the cause of all accidents and /or incidents encountered
₤ Report to authority{insurance} any fatalities and or accidents in the workplace to enable
workers to be compensated
₤ Dispose of waste such that there is no harm to the employees ₤ Comply with the set OHS
standards and regulations.
₤ Ensuring that information, instructions, training and supervision is provided to support the
safety of employees
OBLIGATIONS OF EMPLOYER
It is an employer's duty to protect the health, safety and welfare of their employees and other
people who might be affected by their business. Employers must give employees information
about the risks in your workplace and how you are protected, also instruct and train you on how
to deal with the risks.
Employers have responsibilities for the health and safety of their employees and any visitors to
their premises such as customers, suppliers and the general public. As well as these duties, there
are regulations to deal with particular hazards and for industries where hazards are particularly
high.
Health and safety regulations
Every employer must have a health and wealth safety policy. All employees must be taken
through it. Additionally, specific regulations cover particular areas, including lead, asbestos,
chemicals, construction work, and gas safety.
Risk assessments
Your employer has a 'duty of care' to make sure, as far as possible, your health, safety and
welfare while you're at work. They should start with a risk assessment to spot possible health and
safety hazards. They have to appoint a 'competent person' with health and safety responsibilities
usually one of the owners in smaller firms, or a member of staff trained in health and safety.
For businesses employing five or more people, there must also be:
 an official record of what the assessment finds (your employer has to put plans in place to deal
with the risks)
 a formal health and safety policy which includes arrangements to protect your health and
safety (you should be told what these are)
Your employer's duty of care in practice
All employers, whatever the size of the business, must:
 make the workplace safe  prevent risks to health  make sure that plant and machinery is safe
to use  make sure safe working practices are set up and followed  make sure that all materials
are handled, stored and used safely  provide adequate first aid facilities  tell you about any
potential hazards from the work you do - chemicals and other substances used by the firm - and
give you information, instructions, training and supervision as needed  set up emergency plans 
make sure that ventilation, temperature, lighting, toilet, washing and rest facilities all meet
health, safety and welfare requirements  check that the right work equipment is provided and is
properly used and regularly maintained  prevent or control exposure to substances that may
damage your health  take precautions against the risks caused by flammable or explosive
hazards, electrical equipment, noise and radiation  avoid potentially dangerous work involving
manual handling (and if it can't be avoided, take precautions to reduce the risk of injury) 
provide health supervision as needed  provide protective clothing or equipment free of charge
(if risks can't be removed or adequately controlled by any other means)  make sure that the right
warning signs are provided and looked after  report certain accidents, injuries, diseases and
dangerous occurrences to either the Health and Safety Executive for Northern Ireland or the local
authority, depending on the type of business
Making the workplace safe and healthy
So that the work premises provide a safe and healthy place to work, your employer should:
 make sure that are properly ventilated, with clean and fresh air  keep temperatures at a
comfortable level (a minimum of 13 degrees Centigrade where the work involves physical
activity; 16 degrees Centigrade for 'stinter' like offices - there's no maximum limit  light
premises so that employees can work and move about safely  keep the workplace and
equipment clean  make sure that areas are big enough to allow easy movement (at least 11 cubic
metres per person)  provide workstations to suit the employees and the work  keep the
equipment in good working order  make floors, walkways, stairs, roadways safe to use  protect
people from falling from height or into dangerous substances  store things so they're unlikely to
fall and cause injuries  fit openable windows, doors and gates with safety devices if needed 
provide suitable washing facilities and clean drinking water  if necessary, provide somewhere
for employees to get changed and to store their own clothes  set aside areas for rest breaks and
to eat meals, including suitable facilities for pregnant women and nursing mothers  let
employees take appropriate rest breaks and the right holiday entitlement  make sure that
employees who work alone, or off-site, can do so safely and healthily
Reporting injuries, diseases and dangerous occurrences
There is a legal obligation to report certain types of incident in the workplace to the relevant
authorities. Employers, self-employed people, and people in control of premises have a legal
duty to report the following:
 work-related deaths  major injuries or over-three-day injuries  work related diseases 
dangerous occurrences (near miss accidents)
Reporting an accident
Employers have a duty to report injuries, near misses, fires or explosions which have occurred as
a result of work on or near to electrical systems by others, or incidents arising from leisure and
other non-work activities close to electrical plant, or from equipment failure
Employer Duties under the 2005 Act
Employers have extensive duties under the Act. The different requirements are split up into the
following headings:
1. General duties of the employer (Part 2, section 8) include:
 To ensure the safety, health and welfare at work of his or her employees  To manage and
conduct work activities in such a way as to ensure the safety, health and welfare at work of all
employees  To manage and conduct work activities in such a way as to prevent any improper
conduct or behaviour likely to endanger employees  As regards the place of work concerned,
the employer must ensure the design, provision and maintenance of: - a safe, risk-free place of
work, - - safe means access to and egress from it plant and machinery that are safe and without
risk to health  To ensure safety and the prevention of risk arising from the use of articles or
substances or the exposure to noise, vibration, radiation or any other ionizing agent  To provide
systems of work that are planned, organised, performed, maintained and revised as appropriate
so as to be safe and risk free  To provide and maintain facilities and arrangements for the
welfare of employees at work  To provide information, instruction, training and supervision,
where necessary  To implement the safety, health and welfare measures necessary for protection
of employees, as identified through risk assessments and ensuring that these measures take
account of changing circumstances and the general principles of prevention specified in Schedule
3.  To provide protective clothing and equipment where risks cannot be eliminated or
adequately controlled  To prepare and revise emergency plans and procedures  To report
accidents and dangerous occurrences to the relevant authority (prescribed under section 33)  To
obtain where necessary the services of a competent person for the purpose of ensuring safety and
health at work  To ensure that all safety measures take into account both fixed term and
temporary workers and that that any measures taken do not involve financial cost to his or her
employees
2. Information to employees (Part 2, Section 9) include:
 When giving information to employees, employers must: - Ensure that it is given in such
appropriate form, manner and language that it is likely to be understood by the employees
concerned - Ensure that the information includes the workplace hazards and risks identified, the
protective and preventive measures taken and the names of the safety representative and all other
persons named in evacuation procedures etc.  Where persons from other employment are
engaged in work activities in an employer‘s undertaking, the employer must ensure that the
person‘s employer receives the above information  The employer must ensure that the safety
representative (section 25) and designated competent persons (section 18) have access to: - The
Risk Assessment - - Information relating to reportable incidents and accidents Information
arising from protective or preventative measures  The employer must provide information
relating to the following before a fixed term or temporary employee commences work: - Any
potential risks - - - Health surveillance Any special occupational qualifications or skills required
Any increased specific risks which the work may involve
3. Instruction, training and supervision of employees (part 2, section10)
The employer must ensure that:  All instruction, training and supervision is provided in a
manner, form and language that is reasonably likely to be understood  Employees receive,
during time off from their work but without loss of pay, adequate health, safety and welfare
training including, in particular, information and instruction relating to the specific task to be
performed and measures to be taken in an emergency  The employee‘s capabilities in relation to
safety, health and welfare are taken into account  In the case of a class or classes of sensitive
employees or groups of employees exposed to risks expressly provided for in the relevant
statutory provisions, the employees are protected against the dangers that specifically affect them
 Training must be adapted to take account of new or changed risks in the workplace  Training
must be provided: - on recruitment - - - when an employee is transferred or tasks change on the
introduction of new or changed work equipment or work systems on the introduction of new
technology  All contractors etc, carrying out work in the employer‘s premises must receive
relevant safety instructions
Section 99 of the Occupational Safety and Health Act, specifies that a worker shall not be
employed at any machine or in any process liable to cause ill health or bodily injury. Unless
he/she has been fully trained as to the dangers likely to arise in connection therewith. All
employees have to be trained on general and specific Safety and Health Measures This training
has to be carried out on recruitment, transfer or change of job. Also the introduction or change of
new work equipment or materials as well as introduction of new technology. The training shall
be adapted to take into account new changed risks and be repeated periodically. The cost of
training shall be incurred by the employer.
4. Emergencies and serious and imminent dangers (Part 2, Section 11)
The employer must provide adequate plans and procedures to be followed and measures to be
taken in the case of emergency or serious and imminent danger. These plans should:  Provide
measures for first aid, fire-fighting and premises evacuation taking into account of the nature of
the work being carried out and the size of the place of work.  Arrange necessary contacts with
appropriate emergency services (first aid, emergency medical care, rescue work and fire-
fighting)  Designate employees who are required to implement these plans, procedures etc. 
Ensure that all designated employees have adequate training and equipment available to them
In the event of an emergency or serious and imminent danger the employer must:
 Inform all employees of the risk and steps taken to protect them  Refrain from requiring
employees to carry out or resume work where there is still a threat to their safety  Ensure that, in
the absence of appropriate guidance or instruction, based on the employee‘s knowledge and
technical means at his or her disposal, the employee must take appropriate steps to avoid the
consequences of the danger  Take action and give instruction for employees to stop work and
remove themselves to a safe place  Ensure that an employee who leaves the place of work in the
case of emergency is not penalised because of such action  Ensure that access to specifically
hazardous areas is restricted only to employees who have received appropriate training.
5. Protective and Preventive Measures (Part 3, Section 18)
The employer must:  Appoint an adequate number of competent persons to perform the
functions relating to the protection of employees and give them adequate time and means to
perform those functions  Make arrangements for co-operation between the competent person
and the safety representative  Give preference to competent persons within their employment
when appointing a competent person
In accordance with the Occupational Safety and Health Act 2007, it is the responsibility of
employer to provide free protective equipment including clothing and appliances, and where
necessary, suitable gloves, footwear, goggles and head coverings to the workers involved in
hazardous work. The type of PPE needed varies depending on the nature of work being
performed. The right use of PPE reduces risk of accident and illness and helps in creation of
safer working environment. Safety consultant, registered by the Director, assesses the suitability
and effectiveness of protective clothes and appliances.
6. Hazard identification and Risk Assessment (Part 3, Section 19)
The employer must:
 Identify all hazards in the work place
 Keep a written assessment of the risks associated with each hazard (known as a Risk
Assessment)
 Review the Risk Assessment if: - There is a significant change to the matters it relates to or -
There is any other reason to believe that it is no longer valid  Implement any control measures
or improvements which are identified by the Risk Assessment
7. Safety Statement (Part 3, Section 20)
Employers must have a written Safety Statement, based on the hazard identification and Risk
Assessment carried out, which specifies how they are going to manage and secure the safety,
health and welfare of all employees at work.
The Safety Statement should specify:
 The hazards identified and risks assessed  The protective and preventive measures taken and
the resources provided  The emergency plans and procedures  The duties of the employees 
The names, job titles and positions of anyone assigned with safety responsibilities
The Safety Statement should be brought to the attention of:
 Employees at least annually or when there is any changes  Newly recruited employees upon
the commencement of employment  Other persons at the place of work who may be exposed to
any specific risk
The employer must review the Safety Statement if:
 There is a significant change to the matters it relates to  There is any other reason to believe
that it is no longer valid  An inspector directs the Statement to be amended
Every employer must ensure that:
 All contractors providing services to the employer have an up to date Safety Statement  A
copy of the Safety Statement is kept available for inspection at or near the place of work
If an employer who employs 3 or fewer employees is engaged in an activity for which there is a
Code of Practice for that type of activity, they can fulfil their duty in relation to Safety
Statements by complying with such Code of Practice.
8. Duty of employers to co-operate (Part 3, Section 21)
Where employers share a place of work, they must:  Co-operate in complying with and
implementing the relevant statutory provisions  Co-ordinate their actions in relation to
prevention and protection of employees  Inform each other, respective employees, safety
representatives etc. of all risks, including the exchange of Safety Statement and relevant extracts
relating to hazards and risks.
9. Health Surveillance and Medical Fitness to Work (Part 3, Sections 22 & 23)
Employers are required to ensure that health surveillance appropriate to the risks that may be
incurred in the place of work is available to all employees. The Act requires an assessment of the
medical fitness to work of employees involved in certain work activities or occupations. These
activities and occupations will be detailed in Regulations. Employees are required to inform their
employer or their employer ‘s Registered Medical Practitioner if they are unfit to carry out a
prescribed work activity. If an employer is notified of the unfitness of the employee they must
immediately take appropriate action to comply with the general duties of employers to ensure the
safety, health and welfare of all employees at work.
10. Safety Representative (Part 4, Section 25)
The employer must:  Agree with the safety representative the frequency of inspections to take
place  Consider any representations made to him or her by the safety representative and so far as
reasonably practicable take any action that he or she considers necessary or appropriate with
regard to those representations  Allow the safety representative such time off from their work,
without loss of pay, as is reasonable to enable the safety representative to acquire the knowledge
and training and time to discharge their functions.  Inform the safety representative when an
inspection is taking place  Give the safety representative a copy of the written confirmation,
required under the Act and sent to the inspector, that an Improvement or Prohibition Notice has
been complied with.
11. Consultation and participation with employees (Part 4, Section 26)
Employers are required to:
 Consult with employees for the purpose of making and maintaining safety arrangements
 Consult with their employees and safety representatives in good time regarding:
-protective measures proposed
the designation of employees with safety responsibilities
activities arising from or relating to the protection from and the prevention of risks
the hazard identification and risk assessment
the safety statement
the information to be provided to employees (as outlined above)
the information required to be kept or notified to the Authority in respect of accidents or
dangerous occurrences
- the appointment of competent persons
- the planning and organisation of training
- the planning and organisation of new technologies particularly in relation to the choice of
equipment, working conditions and the work environment
12. Penalisation (Part 4, Section 27):
Employers are prohibited from penalising (defined as dismissal, demotion, transfer, imposition
of duties, coercion or intimidation) or threatening to penalise employees, who are performing
any duty, exercising rights or who make any complaints relating to safety and health or who give
evidence in enforcement proceedings. The dismissal or penalisation in such manner can be
deemed to be an unfair dismissal within the meaning of the Unfair Dismissals Acts of 1997 and
2001 and employees may also complain to the Rights Commissioner that their employer has
penalised them for exercising their rights under the safety and health legislation.
Ensure that the plant, systems and procedures of work are safe and without risks to health. Make
arrangements for ensuring safety and the absence of risks to health. This is in connection with
the use, handling, storage and transport of articles and substances. Provide information,
instruction, training and supervision as is necessary to ensure the safety and health at work of
every person employed. Maintain the workplace in a condition that is safe and without risks to
health. in addition, provide and maintain necessary means of access to and outlet from it that are
safe and without risks to health. Provide and maintain a working environment for every person
employed that is safe, without risks to health. Inform all employees of any risks from new
technologies and imminent danger. Ensure that every person employed participates in the
application and review of safety and health measures. Carry out appropriate risk assessments in
relation to the safety and health of employees. On the basis of these results, adopt preventive and
protective measures. Ensure that under all conditions of their intended use, all chemicals,
machinery, equipment, tools and process under the control of the employer are safe and without
risk to health. Comply with the requirements of safety and health provisions in this Act. Send a
copy of each risk assessment report to the Area Occupational Safety and Health Officer. Take
immediate steps to stop any operation or activity where there is an imminent and serious danger
to safety and health. Then evacuate all persons employed as appropriate. Register your
workplace unless such workplace is exempted from registration under the Act.
Labour Inspection System
The Occupational Safety, Health and Injury Benefits Authority (OSHIBA) is responsible for the
implementation of occupational health and safety, for improving and ensuring health, safety,
security and good working conditions at the enterprises, inspecting enterprises and ensuring the
law enforcement. The national legislation provides inspectors the power to enter, inspect and
examine the work premises at any time during day or night with or without prior notice; take
measurements, photographs, samples and make recordings for the purpose of examination and
investigation; ask for registers, documents, certificates and notices to inspect, examine and copy
them; interview any one; if the inspector is a medical practitioner he/she may carry out medical
examinations; and may take police officer along with him/her if necessary. If an occupier or his
representatives do not facilitate the inspector and obstruct the execution of his duties, he/she
commits an offence and is liable to a fine up to 100,000 shillings or to imprisonment up to six
months or to both.
Employees’ responsibilities
 Participate in training programs provided by the OHS committee
 Properly use the materials and equipment supplied by the employer
 Use good judgment in carrying out work assignments and follow established procedures
 Promptly report unsafe conditions, health hazards, as well as injuries and illness to the
supervisor or OSH committee
 Give due considerations to personal safety and the safety of others while performing assigned
tasks
 Strictly adhere to the policy requirements and guidelines
 All persons must not:
o Interfere with or misuse things provided for the health, safety or welfare of persons at work
o Obstruct attempts to give aid or attempts to prevent serious risks to the health and safety of a
person at work
o Refuse a reasonable request to assist in giving aid or preventing risks to health and safety
o Disrupt a work place by creating health or safety fears
Duties of an employee under the 2005 Act? (Part 2, Section 13)
An employee, while at work must:
 comply with all relevant statutory provisions
 take reasonable care to protect the safety of themselves and others who might be affected by
their acts and omissions
 ensure they are not under the influence of an intoxicant or in such a state that they might be a
danger to themselves or others.
 submit to reasonable, appropriate testing, if reasonably required by the employer .The Act
gives scope for Regulations to be made that provide for employees to be required to undergo
tests for intoxicants to be carried out by or under the supervision of a registered medical
practitioner. Such Regulations are yet to be developed and until they are made, an employer may
not require such testing although local agreements may apply. The employer may, however,
prevent an employee from working if it is apparent that he or she would be a danger to
themselves or others.
 co-operate with his or her employer so far as is necessary to enable compliance with the
relevant statutory provisions
 not engage in any improper conduct or dangerous behaviour
 attend training and undergo such assessment as may be necessary
 make correct use of any article or substance provided for use or for the protection of the
employee, including protective clothing and equipment
 report to his or her employer as soon as practicable: - any work being carried out which might
endanger themselves or others - any defects in the place of work, the system of work, any article
or substance which might endanger themselves or others - any contravention of the relevant
statutory provisions of which he/she is aware
 Notify the employer or the employer‘s nominated registered practitioner if they become aware
that they are suffering from any disease or physical or mental impairment which affects their
performance of work activities that could give rise to risks to the safety, health and welfare of
persons at work. The duty is on the employee to protect themselves and others.
 Ensure their own safety and health and that of other persons who may be affected by their
omissions at the workplace.  Co-operate with their employer or any other person in the
discharge of any duty or imposed on the employer or that other person by this Act or any
regulation made hereunder.  acts or requirement At all times wear or use any protective
equipment or clothing provided by the employer for purpose of preventing risks to their safety
and health.  Comply with the safety and health procedures, requirements and instructions given
by a the person having authority over them for their own or any other person’s safety.  Report to
the supervisor any situation which they have reason to believe would present a and which they
cannot correct.  Report to their supervisor any accident or injury that arises in the course of or in
his/her work.  hazard connection with With regard to any duty or requirement imposed on their
employer, to co-operate with the employer or other relevant person to enable that duty or
requirement to be performed.
Some accepted worker responsibilities are to:
1. Comply with OSHA regulations and standards
2. Not remove, displace or interfere with the use of any safeguards
3. Comply with employers safety and health rules and policies 4. Report any hazardous condition
to the supervisor or employes
5. Report any job related injuries and illnesses to the supervisor or employer
6. Cooperate with OSHA inspector during inspections when required to do so
7. Report to work on time wearing suitable work clothes
8. Observe personal hygiene
9. Never sleep,gamble,horseplay,fight,steal,bring fireworks or arms on job or face ground for
immediate dismissal
10. Never use or be under the influence of alcohol, narcotics and other drugs or intoxicants
while on the job
11. Wear personal protective equipments as prescribed for each task.
12. Maintain order since housekeeping is everyone’s responsibility
13. Observe danger, warning caution and no smoking signs and notices
14. Use and handle equipment material and safety devices with care
15. Never leave discharged fire extinguishers in the work areas.
16. Never expose yourself to dangerous conditions or actions
17. Never operate any equipment for which training has not been provided
18. Participate in all safety and health trainings provided
19. Attend all safety and tool box meetings(mandatory)
20. Read the OSHA poster at the job site and be familiar with its contents
ROLES/RESPONSIBILITIES OF EMPLOYEES
1. To furnish each employee a place of employment that is free from recognized hazards that is
causing or likely to cause death or serious physical harm
2. Must comply with standards of injury avoidance; keep records of work related injuries,
illnesses and deaths; keep records of exposure of employees to toxic materials and harmful
physical agents.
3. Notify employees of the provisions of the law, their protections and obligations 4. Keep
employees informed on matters of safety and health and on accidents and alleged safety
violations in the place of employment.
5. Refrain from discriminating against employees who file complaints regarding hazardous
working conditions.
6. Provide medical exams when required by OSHA standards
7. Provide training required by OSHA office within 48 hrs and fatal accident or one that results
in the hospitalization of more employees
8. Post OSHA poster at prominent locate on within the workplace informing the employees of
their rights and responsibilities
9. Give employees access to medical and exposure records
10. Abate cited violations within the prescribed period.
₤ Reporting absence or defective equipment or protective devices
₤ Reporting to employer existence of hazards which the employee is unaware of
₤ Cooperate with employer in creating and maintaining a safe working environment
₤ Going for medical examinations
Taking reasonable care of health and safety of themselves and others
₤ Working in compliance with such requirements for the protection of health and safety of
workers
₤ Proper use/wearing of PPE provided by the employer
₤ Not allowed to take away PPE from workplace for purposes which are not in line with OHS
₤ Ensure that operations are not endangering fellow workers
₤ Not remove or make defective any device required for the health and safety of the workplace.
₤ reporting of all accidents/incidents. etc.
Ensure their own safety and health and that of other persons who may be affected by their acts or
omissions at the workplace. Co-operate with their employer or any other person in the discharge
of any duty or requirement imposed on the employer or that other person by this Act or any
regulation made here under. At all times wear or use any protective equipment or clothing
provided by the employer for the purpose of preventing risks to their safety and health. Comply
with the safety and health procedures, requirements and instructions given by a person having
authority over them for their own or any other person’s safety. Report to the supervisor any
situation which they have reason to believe would present a hazard and which they cannot
correct. Report to their supervisor any accident or injury that arises in the course of or in
connection with his/her work. With regard to any duty or requirement imposed on their
employer, to co operate with the employer or another relevant person to enable that duty or
requirement to be performed.
Roles and responsibilities of the occupational safety and health committee
 Establish a schedule of inspection of the workplace for each calendar year;
 Conduct safety and health inspections at least once in every three months;
 Inspect, investigate and make recommendations to the occupier immediately any accident
ordangerous occurrence takes place;
 Identify occupational hazards and cases of ill health among workers at the workplace andmake
appropriate recommendations to the occupier
 Compile statistics on accidents, dangerous occurrences and cases of ill-health as primarydata
for providing remedial measures, planning and allocation of resources
 Investigate complaints on health, safety and welfare at the workplace
 Advise on the safety and health measures for hazardous work or activities;
 Establish effective communication between the management and the workers
 Organize contests or activities on occupational health and safety
 Conduct seminars on safety, health and welfare at the workplace
ROLES/FUNCTIONS OF SAFETY AND HEALTH PROFESSIONAL
1. Establishing programs for detecting,correcting or controlling hazardous conditions,toxic
environments and health hazard
2. Ensuring that proper safeguards and personal protective equipments are available ,properly
maintained and used.
3. Establishing safety procedures for employees,plant design and layout,vendors,outside
contractors and visitor.
4. Establishing safety procedures for purchasing and installing new equipment and for
purchasing and safe storing of hazardous materials.
5. Maintaining an accident recording system to measure the organization safety performance
6. Staying abreast of and advising management on the current federal,state and local laws,codes
and standards related to safety and health in the workplace
7. Carrying out the company’s safety obligation as required by the law
8. Conducting investigation of accidents near-misses and property damage and preparing reports
with recommended corrective action
9. Anticipate,identify and evaluate hazardous condition and practices
10. Maintaining liason with national state and local safety organization
Roles and responsibilities of other stakeholders
 To report OSH concerns to the management or the OSH committee
 Familiarize themselves with their role in the event of any disaster eg fire
 Observe the OSH requirements while at its workplace
GOALS
 To enable employers, employees and other duty holders to reduce risks to safety, health and
welfare
 To motivate and gain commitment to having safe and healthy workplaces which support
success in all enterprises
 To support the Minister for Enterprise, Trade & Innovation in the initiation and development of
appropriate legislation and policies
 To hold accountable those who disregard their duties and responsibilities for occupational
safety, health and welfare
 To promote the safe and sustainable management of chemicals
 To ensure the Authority is effective in delivering on its goals and achieves value for money
Communicating the need for better health and safety practice
The following steps can be taken to increase the effectiveness of safety messages:
i. Avoid negatives - successful safety propaganda should contain positive messages, not
warnings of the unpleasant consequences of actions.
ii. Expose correctly - address the message to the right people at the point of danger.
iii. Use attention-getting techniques carefully - shocking images may only be
remembered for what they are, not for the message they are trying to convey.
iv. Maximize comprehension - messages should be simple and specific.
v. Messages must be believable - they should address real issues and be perceived as
being delivered by people (managers) who believe in what they say and are doing
something about it.
vi. Messages must point the way to action - the most effective messages call for positive
actions that can be achieved by the receivers and will offer them a tangible benefit.
CLASSIFICATION OF OSH HAZARDS AND MITIGATION IN THE HEALTH
SECTOR
A hazard is any source of potential damage, harm or adverse health effects on something or
someone. Harm – physical injury or damage to health. Hazard – a potential source of harm to a
worker.
A hazard refers to any agent, situation or condition that can cause an occupational illness or
injury. It may produce serious and immediate (acute) effects or longterm (chronic) problems that
affect all or only part of the body. Someone with an occupational illness may not recognise the
symptoms immediately, for instance detection of noise- induced hearing loss is often difficult for
the victim, until it is advanced. Additionally some occupational diseases may take long to
manifest e.g. musculoskeletal disorders.
There are 6 types of health hazards:
Biological
They are hazards due to microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, insects, plants, birds, animals,
and humans, etc.
Biological hazards, also known as biohazards, refer to biological substances that pose a threat to
the health of a worker in health care facilities and community. This can include medical waste or
samples of a microorganism, virus or toxin (from a biological source) that can affect human
health posing a significant risk to health care and community care workers if not properly
controlled.
Biological hazards–are associated with the living things and can have effects when exposed to
workers. E.g. bacteria viruses, insects, fungi, helminthes, plants, birds, animals, and humans etc.
examples of hazards associated with biological hazards include anthrax, animal/insect bites,
during research and handling of [Link] for farmers in plantations, bilharzia for
irrigation scheme workers, brucellosis for slaughterhouse workers, anthrax among tanners and
hide handlers, fungal infections for cigar makers, dishwashers and millers, byssinosis for sisal
workers and exposure to cotton dust
These are hazards due to microorganisms such as germs,bacteria,fungus,pollen
grains,anthrax,tetanus,insects,animals etc they are also known as bio-hazards. Classical examples
are: Blood borne pathogens e.g. Ebola,Rift valley fever,HIV/AIDs,Marburg,Hepatitis B etc.
Airborne pathogens (air droplets) [Link],influenza,swine flu,etc Body fluid pathogens e.g.
Hepatitis A,all types of bacteria including anthrax etc.
Knowing the biohazards and their classification based on severity of exposure problem is very
important. It has to be understood that:
1. Any involvement with biohazards material may end up with infection.
2. When dealing with biological agents of which its etiology is not known it must be assured that
it is it is a bio-hazard.
Exposure to biological hazards in workplace results in a significant amount of occupationally
associated diseases. Biological hazards can be transmitted to a person through: a. Inhalation b.
Injection c. Ingestion d. Contact with the skin
The contract of biohazard depends on: The combination of the number of organisms in the
environment. The virulence of these organisms The resistance of the individual Concomitant
physical/chemical stresses in the environment.
Any accident involving biohazard material can result in infection. When working with biological
agents or materials for which Epidemiology and etiology is not known or not completely
understood, it must be assumed that the materials present a biological hazard. Most obvious work
place in which employees are subjected to hazards as a result that the work requires handling and
manipulation of biological agents include: surgery, autopsy, contaminated discharges, and blood,
pipettes, laboratory specimens etc.
Many potential biological agents exist in hospital environment. These are bacterial infection and
viral agents. Those working in laundry, housekeeping, laboratory, central supply, nursing station
and dietary are highly exposed to biohazard from the patient they handle, from the specimen they
collect and from the cloth, needle and pans they handle and from their general day to day
activities.
The possibility of exposure to infection of health care professionals that have direct contact with
patients is always present. The health care worker can spread infection from: Patient to patient,
Patient to other staff, Patient to his/her own family, Patient to visitors especially if consulting
with family members of the patient
To avoid such contamination health care workers should:
Dispose of contaminated equipment properly so that no health hazard is exposed to infect others.
Hands should be thoroughly washed with soap and water after visiting each patient to minimize
the chance of spreading harmful infection or organisms from patient to patient
Isolation gowns, masks and caps must be worn whenever necessary and removed before entering
clean areas such as rest areas and lunchrooms.
Staffs involved in food preparation are exposed to infection from infectious agents such as
salmonella, botulism, ameba and staphylococcus, which can result from contact with raw fish,
meat, and some vegetables contaminated by sewage or human waste or dirty water.
Staphylococcus infection or food poisoning is produced by an enterotoxin that develops as the
organism grows in the food product.
Primary prevention against infection or contamination of the food include:
Proper handling of food products (raw or cooked)
Use clean hands and garments in the food processing areas
No skin lesion of the food handlers
Refrigeration of the food products at a safe temperature level in order to prevent growth of
bacteria.
Adequate cooking of foods.
The problem of biological hazard in health care delivery system is increasing because of:
Inadequate sanitation, disinfect ion and sterilization methods. Increase in drug as well as
chemical resistant strains of microbes. Increase of high-risk patients (HIV/AIDS and TB)
Safety Hazards: Safety hazards are any risks associated with the workplace including those
associated with equipment and tools on the worksite, in addition to potential hazards that could
result in slips, trips, and falls.
Physical
Physical hazards comprise of extremes of temperatures, extremes of pressures, noise, vibration
and radiation. All can be found in health care settings. Other physical agents such as ionizing and
non-ionizing radiation, or other forms of radiation used on patients can be harmful to workers if
not properly controlled.
Physical hazards are those that have the potential to harm someone physically causing injury,
illness, or death. These range from temperature and noise to indoor air quality and radiation.
Hazards are presented by different kinds of energies. Excessive exposure to these energies give
rise to adverse health effects e.g.
Non-ionizing Radiation causes arc-eye (UV) and eye cataracts (IR) Extreme hot temperatures
cause heat stroke Extreme cold temperatures cause frost bite, cold & hypothermia (low body
temperature) High pressures cause decompression sickness Electric current causes electrocution,
electric shock & burns
Physical-are associated with some form of force or energy e.g. radiation,magnetic fields,
pressure extremes (high pressure or vacuum), noise etc. their effects include:
o hearing loss-noisy machines,
o Electrocution-electric shocks when in contact with high electrical energy/appliances
o heat stress/heat exhaustion-when working in extremely hot temperatures and poorly ventilated
areas
o eye strain-long hours on the screen o eye cataracts-exposure to radiation
Noise is defined as unwanted sound. Sound is any pressure variation or a stimulus that produces
a sensory response in the brain. The compression and expansion of air created when an object
vibrates. Excessive noise causes noise induced hearing loss. Excessive vibration causes vibration
induced diseases.
Noise and vibration: More than 90 decibels can induce hearing loss Associated with the use of
hand held power tools such as hammers and drills leading to dead hands or white fingers which
is characterized with numbness, loss of muscular control and reduction of sensitivity to heat cold
and pain.
The increasing mechanization in industries, farms, transport and others are likely to be more
intense and sustained than any noise levels experienced outside the work place. Noise is a health
hazard in many in many occupational settings. Effects of noise on humans can be classified in
various ways. For example, the effect can be treated in the context of health or medical problems
owing to their underlying biological basis. Noise induced hearing los involves damage to the
structure of the hearing organ.
Noise levels: Sound is a form of energy and requires a medium for propagation. In a workplace
any vibrations are capable of producing sound. On account of compression, gas molecules move
back and forth progressively. These oscillating molecules with definite frequency are responsible
for creation of sound pressure. Noise is not a new hazard. It has been a constant threat since the
industrial revolution. Too much noise exposure may cause a temporary change in hearing. The
ears feels stuffed up or a temporally ringing in the ears. The short term problem usually go away
within a few minutes or hours after leaving the noise. However, if one is exposed to loud noise
repeatedly, it can lead to permanent incurable hearing loss.
There are three general classes into which occupational noise exposure may be grouped.
1. Continuous noise: Normally defined as broadband noise of approximately constant level and
spectrum to which an employee is exposed for a period of eight hours per day 0r 40 hours a
week.
[Link] Noise: This may be defined as exposure to a given broadband sound pressure level
several times during a normal working day
3. Impact type Noise: is a sharp burst of sound. A sophisticated instrumentation is necessary to
determine the peak levels for this type of noise.
Sources of noise at the workplace
As a rule the sound that is pleasing to the ears, which is sweet to hear and which gives comfort
like musical note is defined as sound. While one which is penetrating and uncomfortable, which
creates psychological stress is classified as noise. The intensity of sound is measured in decibels
(dB). A whisper (30Db) is considered pleasant. An average conversation produces 60d. Anything
between 50 and 90 Db is considered as noise. If the noise goes beyond 90 to 120 Db is
considered a health hazard. Examples of such a noise level include noise produced by an aircraft,
heavy truck traffic or pop music. Jet engine and take – off would produce 130Db.
Sources of noise at the workplace would include noise from machines, air compressors, concrete
mixers, generators, powersaw, rockdrill, and music from music venues among others .
Hazardous noise should be removed from the workplace whenever possible and using protectors
in those situations where dangerous noise exposures have not yet been controlled or eliminated.
Noise and health
Noise causes severe health hazards. Such effects could be physical or mental, which would have
long term consequences on communications, working efficiency, personal comfort and can lead
to industrial accidents. The physical health problems may be acute and chronic.120 to 150 Db
noise can cause permanent deafness. Noise can cause the following:loss of sleep, Lack of
concentration and mental disorientation, Proneness to committing error in judgment, It contracts
blood vessels thereby supplying less blood to heart or brain,It causes digestive disorder due to
hyperacidity and Loss of hearing.
An impulse noise is a sudden noise generated with high pitch or intensity but with a life-time of
less than one second. It is more dangerous than a continuous noise. At the workplace this can be
cause by an explosion and metal beating.
Effects of noise:
Auditory effects consist of permanent or temporary hearing loss. The ear is especially adapted
and most responsive to the pressure changes caused by airborne sound or noise. The outer and
middle ear structures are rarely damaged by exposure to intense sound energy except explosive
sounds or blasts that can rupture the ear drum and possibly dislodge the ossicular chain. More
commonly, excessive exposure produces hearing loss that involves injury to the hair cells in the
organ of corti within the cochlea of the inner ear.
Non-auditory effects: This consists of fatigue, interference with communication by speech,
decreased efficiency and annoyance
Radiation: Radiation is a form of energy.
Ionizing radiation includes; Any electromagnetic or particulate radiation capable of producing
ions is referred to as ionizing radiation. Radioactive materials emit energy that can damage living
tissues. Different kinds of radioactivity presenting different kinds of radiation safety problems.
Such as x-rays, alpha particles, beta particles and gamma rays. Radiation is also used in food
treatment
Non-ionizing radiation: This is a form of It is electromagnetic radiation with varying effects on
the exposed body depending largely on the particular wavelength of the radiation involved and
may include Radio transmitters,TV Power line, Powerful radio aerials, Microwaves, Lasers,
ultra-violet, infra-red, microwave and radiowave.
A common example is X-rays in the health facilities and industries.X-rays and other ionizing
radiation can cause skin burn or cancer
Light: Too much or too little light can lead to fatigue, poor vision or psychological problems.
Fatigue makes workers prone to accidents. Poor lighting can cause eye strain or damage the eye.
excessive light can the eye due to ultra-violet rays e.g. from welding works. such an exposure
cause ‘arc eye’ a painful condition of the eye
Pressure Certain occupations such as diving and salvaging work under the sea,building tunnels
under rivers and other under water works can cause some type of disease known as
“decompression sickness” or ‘compressed air sickness’
Operators should not stand on metal floors, or in water while working with live electronic
equipment.
Electrical Hazards
Electrical hazards are present at the workplace especially around power sources. The most
common cause of death associated with power is electrocution. Electrical equipments must be
designed, constructed, installed and maintained in accordance with the required standard e.g. the
Occupational Health and Safety Administration(OSHA). Electrical circuits greater than 42.5
volts are considered hazardous. To reduce electrical hazards, high voltage sources and terminals
must be enclosed unless the work area is restricted to qualified persons only. Whenever feasible,
power must be turned off and all high voltage points grounded before working on power lines.
Capacitors must be
Electricity: Electricity can give electric shock which can cause death or maiming
Air contaminants
Air contaminants can fall under the following categories: a. Particulate b. Gas c. Vapour
a. Particulate contaminants include dust, fumes mists and fibers. Dusts are generated when
materials like rock, ore, metal, coal wood or grains are crashed, heated or grinded. This is
common in workplaces like mines, factories, workshops and mills. The dust become hazardous
when inhaled or ingested. Fumes as particulate contaminants are formed when a volatile solid
condenses in cool air forming an oxide. Mist is a liquid suspended in the atmosphere. Fibers are
solid particles whose length is several times longer than width.
b. Gases are formless fluids which are atomic, diatomic or molecular in
c. Liquids change into vapour through evaporation. This vapour then mixes with the surrounding
atmosphere.
Extremes of Temperature
The work environment is either comfortable or extremely cold or hot and uncomfortable. The
common physical hazard in most industries is heat. Extreme hot temperature prevails on those
who are working in foundries, or in those industries where they use open fire for energy.
Examples of these includes soap factories in large industries and in the informal sectors who use
extreme heat to mold iron or process other materials.
Abnormal temperatures: A lot of heat may make a person tired and prone to accidents as a result
of heat exhaustion while low temperatures will lead to problems such as frostbite, reduced
performance and numbness of the extremities equipped with automatic shorting devices.
Heat stress affects workers who are exposed to extreme heat. Some of the workers who work
under such hot environments include firefighters, boiler room workers, bakery workers and
factory workers especially in the iron smelting plants. Prolonged exposure to such hot
environments can result in occupational illnesses and injuries. Categories of workers who are at
higher risk of heat stress include the aged, overweight, those with high blood pressure and other
heart diseases , and those under medication.
One can also be burned after coming into contact with hot surfaces at the workplace. Heat stress
can cause the following: a) Heat stroke b) Heat exhaustion c) Heat cramps d) Heat rash
Heat stroke: It occurs when the body is unable to control its temperature after a rapid rise. The
body is unable to cool down after the failure of the sweating mechanism. It can cause permanent
disability and even death. The symptoms include profuse sweating, high body temperatures,
confusion and hallucinations among others. The victim should be transferred to a cool area, and
cooled by fanning his/her body or soaking his or her clothes in water.
Heat exhaustion: This occurs as a result of body response to loss of water and salts due to
excessive sweating. The person sweats heavily, becomes weak confused and fast breathing. Such
a person should take a cool shower or sponge bath, drink cold water or rest in a shade.
Heat cramps Heat cramps usually affect workers after prolonged sweating during strenuous
activities. The body’s salt and moisture levels drop. One feels pain in the stomach, arms or legs.
Heat rash Heat rush is a skin irritation caused by excessive sweating during hot humid weather.
To prevent heat stress the following should be done: a) Hot jobs should be carried out during the
cooler part of the day b) Workers should not be exposed to heat for a long period c) Worker
should be provided with cold water d) Workers should have breaks and a cool place to rest e)
Workers who are at risk of heat stress should be monitored. f) Provide heat stress training
Controlling Heat:  Completion of heat assessment and proper controls  Stay hydrated: Drink
more water than usual, and don’t wait until you are thirsty  Supervisors prevent heat-related
illnesses by: Monitoring the workday weather and heat index---- Scheduling tasks to minimize
physical exertion Advising employees to pace themselves Encouraging frequent breaks on hot
days Providing radio, pager, or cell phone to keep contact with base and each other Rotating job
tasks
Cold stress affects workers who are exposed to extreme cold. When the weather is extremely
cold those worker who have no shelter or outdoor workers may be affected. Cold stress can
cause the following:
a) Hypothemia ( when the body begins to lose heat faster than it can produce after being exposed
cold temperatures)
b) Frostbite (An injury to the body that is caused by freezing. Mostly affect nose, ears, cheeks,
fingers and toes)
c) Trench Foot ( An injury of the feet resulting from prolonged exposure to wet and cold
conditions)
The following should be done by the employer to protect workers against the cold stress.
i. Cold jobs should be scheduled during the wormer parts of the day
ii. Provide warm liquids to workers
iii. Warm areas for use during breaks should be provided
iv. A worker should not be exposed a cold workplace for a long period of time
v. Provide cold stress training to the workers
vi. Continuously monitor employees who are at a higher risk of cold stress
vii.  Heaters  Shields  Work & rest schedule  Cold weather procedure such as shut down
requirement  Proper clothing
Ergonomic/physiological
Ergonomic hazards are related to injuries resulting from the actions involved in a person’s role.
This includes everything from lifting heavy equipment to typing on a computer, repetitive
movements, improper set up of workstation, etc.
Healthcare personnel are also exposed to many ergonomics risk factors due to the nature of their
work. Common examples of ergonomic risk factors are found in jobs requiring repetitive,
forceful, or prolonged exertions of the hands; frequent or heavy lifting, pushing, pulling, or
carrying of heavy objects; and prolonged awkward postures. Vibration and cold may add risk to
these work conditions. Jobs or working conditions presenting multiple risk factors will have a
higher probability of causing a musculoskeletal problem. Environmental work conditions that
affect risk include intensity, frequency and duration of activities.
Ergonomic Hazards It is a physical factor within the environment that harms the musculoskeletal
[Link] hazards include uncomfortable workstations,height,poor body
positioning,lifting etc.
Ergonomic- are associated with poor degree of fit between the worker and the working
environment e.g. awkward working positions, awkward postures, wrong lifting techniques
resulting to discomfort, low productivity, inefficiency of the worker. Also involves repetitive
movements, improper set-up of workstation etc The health effects include: pain and exhaustion,
back injuries, muscular skeletal disorders, eye strain and headaches.
Ergonomics is the study of work and the body of a human being and how the two can be linked
to enhance productivity. Ergonomic hazards include:
i. doing strenuous work (lifting, carrying, pulling and pushing heavy loads manually)
and
ii. poor work positions [stooping posture, squatting posture, twisted posture, upward
stretching in standing position].
Ergonomic hazards give rise to musculoskeletal injuries e.g. strains,sprains and spinal cord
injury.
The term ergonomics began to be used by a group of physical, biological, and psychological
scientists and engineers to describe interdisciplinary activities that were designed to solve
problems created by wartime technology. Ergon is related to work and strength, the NOMOS,
indicating law or rule. It also means Human engineering or ”Fitting the job to the worker.”
Ergonomics is the application of human biological science in conjunction with the
engineering science in order to achieve optimum mutual adjustment of man and his work. It
includes considerations of the total physiological demands of the job upon the worker even
beyond productivity, health and safety
Ergonomics deals with the interaction between humans and such additional environmental
elements such as heat, light, sound, atmospheric contaminants and all tools and equipment
pertaining to the work place.
The goal of "ERGONOMICS" or human factors ranges from making work safe to humans,
and increasing human efficiency and well being. To ensure a continuous high level
performance work system must be tailored to human capacities and limitations measured by
anthropometry and biomechanics.
Biomechanics deals with the functioning of the structural element of the body and the effect
of external and internal forces on various parts of the body. It is important to match human
capabilities with the related requirements of a given job. If the job demands are equal to the
worker's capabilities or if they exceed them, the person will be under much strain and may
 not be able to perform the task. concentration, coordination, judgment, motor control and
alertness.

Mechanical
A mechanical hazard is any hazard involving a machine or process. Equipment used in
healthcare facilities if not properly installed and maintained may pose mechanical hazards. They
also include situations resulting in slips, trips and falls such as wet floors, slippery finish to
floors, poor handling of needles and other sharps resulting in needle stick and sharps injuries.
These are hazards posed by:
i. Unguarded machinery : Causes cuts by dangerous rotating parts of machines, traps by
in-running nips of machinery, entanglement and ejections.
ii. Poorly maintained plants: Cause explosions of pressure vessels and failure of lifting
machines.
iii. Improperly designed structures Weak working stands and platforms, insecure ladders,
unprotected workstations at a height which cause fall of persons and strikes by falling
objects
These may originate from the following systems and processes: boilers,air receivers,lifts and
lifting equipments,presurised vessels(gases under pressure could explode), machines in motion
[Link] may cause temporary, permanent body injury or death.
Unguarded machines, protruding and moving parts, poor electrical and machinery installation of
the plant, and lack of safety measures are the causes of accidents. Working for long hours in an
awkward postures or positions is the causes of fatigue, backache, diseases of joints and muscles
and impairment of the workers health and efficiency.
About 10% of accidents in industry are said to be due to mechanical causes. Examples of
vibrating and rotating tools are those used in drilling holes to burry dynamite in road
construction and grinding metals. These activities can cause vibration disorders such as " dead
hand" which is usually temporary and seldom leads to permanent damage. In industries repetitive
movements of the hands and forearms are common, the tendon sheaths and musculo-cutaneous
junctions become inflamed.
Psychosocial Hazards
-These hazards may affect health both physical and mental. Examples include:  Various systems
or arrangement of work e.g:shift work, night work and automated work.  Interpersonal
relationships  Job demands  Verbal abuse and sexual harassment at work.
Examples of psychosocial factors include:- The type and rhythm of work. Work stability. Service
conditions. Job satisfaction. Leadership style. Security. Workers` participation and
communication. Motivation and incentives.
The occupational environment of the worker cannot be considered apart from his domestic
environment. Both are complementary to each other. The worker takes his worries to his/her
home and bring to his work disturbances that has arisen in his/her home. Stress at work may
disturb his sleep, just as stress at home may affect his work.
Psychosocial/psychological-these include inadequate training and instructions, poor supervisory
skills, use of abusive language, alcoholism and drug abuse, violence at work, sexual harassment,
poor terms and conditions. Health effects include: stress at work, strained relationships at work
between employer and employee, between employee and employee, job dissatisfaction, strained
family relationships
Violence: An actual physical assault or threat of an assault. Aggression: Behavior by an
individual or individuals within or outside an organization that is intended to physically or
psychologically harm a worker and that occurs in a work-related context Bullying: Aggressive,
nonphysical behaviours perpetrated by organizational members over a prolonged period of time
Harassment: Engaging in annoying or embarrassing conduct against a worker in a workplace;
conduct that is known or ought reasonably to be known to be unwelcome Sexual Harassment:
Intentional, persistent, and unwelcomed sexual conduct or remarks that occur despite resistance
from the victim Gender Harassment: Comments or actions seen as creating a hostile
environment based on gender Sexual Coercion: The attempt to extort sexual cooperation; can
take the form of subtle or explicit job related threats
Violence, shift work, working with severely ill patients, qualitative and quantitative overload/
underload etc. in the workplace can be a hazard to staff in health care and community care
environment. Violence or aggression from patients, visitors, residents, staff and clients could
take the form of physical, emotional and/or mental abuse. Most health care settings require some
sort of shift work. Shift work can be very stressful to workers and their families. Additionally
working alone, drug and alcohol abuse as well as economic factors are other forms of
psychological hazards.
Working with people who are seriously or even terminally ill day in and day out can be
emotionally wearing. In our current economic climate, with layoffs and cutbacks, workers
everywhere are carrying extra workloads, which can result in “burnout.” Since a number of
people working in health care are women, conflicts with competing and changing roles in the
family, as well as from work issues, can cause tremendous stress.
These hazards may affect health both physical and [Link] include:  Various systems
or arrangement of work [Link] work,night work,automated work.  Interpersonal relationships 
Job demands  Verbal abuse/humiliation including sexual harassment at workplace. These
hazards may affect the mental,morale or physical health of workers.
The term " stress" means the strain imposed on the worker by psychosocial influences associated
with urbanization and works, which cause stress, which may affect health, well being, and
productivity. Within the work environment itself, emotional stress may arise from a variety of
psychosocial factors, which the worker finds unsatisfactory, frustrating, or demoralizing. These
and other stresses will have adverse psychosocial problems on workers.
Reduction of occupational stresses depends not only on helping individuals to cope with their
problems but also on: Improved vocational guidance, Arrangement of working hours, Job design,
and work methods; Good management.
Common organizational outcomes of stress:
Increased absenteeism-- Decreased performance Disturbances of interpersonal relationships at
work Increased likelihood of looking for alternative employment
Identifying psychosocial hazards: Learn to identify stressors-- Survey the employees Look for
telltale signs of stress Be attuned to individual employees
Preventive Stress Management: An approach to managing stress in the workplace-- Emphasizes
that the health of an organization and its employees are interdependent Encourages the reduction
of stressors in the workplace as well as the recognition and management of occupational stress
and strain
Chemical
These hazards come from chemicals which could be potentially dangerous to humans and result
in illness, injury, or death: Benzene, heavy metals, asbestosis
Chemicals in work places have potential of to cause both acute and chronic health [Link]
are categorized mainly as organic and inorganic [Link] are heavy metals,agro
chemicals,solvents,mineral [Link] effects of such chemicals may be:  Acute(sudden)-results
from high dose exposure  Chronic(gradual)- results from low dose exposure Exposure to
chemical liquids or gases e.g ammonia,chlorine etc can cause immediate effects such as
coughing or chemical burns. Other chemicals effects are slow and take long to develop. Some
solvent vapours cause damage to the liver and nerve system over a period of time e.g.
formaldehyde. Some solvents [Link] cause lung cancer
Health care environment can house a vast array of chemicals. Examples of hazardous chemicals
may include formaldehyde, used for preservation of specimens for pathology; ethylene oxide,
glutaraldehyde, and paracetic acid used for sterilization; anaesthetics gases, laboratory reagents
and other numerous chemicals used in healthcare. Even some drugs administered to patients can
be harmful to staff if not properly handled e.g. cytotoxic drugs.
Chemical hazards are associated with chemical and toxic properties of the chemicals and
substances and products being handled at workplaces. They can be in the form of gases, irritants
and [Link] chlorine, ammonia, sulphur dioxide (are absorbed in the mucus membranes of the
eye and upper respiratory passages. May cause burningbad odour or irritation to the throat. non-
irritants are odourless, tasteless compounds which are quite dangerous e.g. carbon monoxide
Liquid: Can have direct local action on the skin and mucus membrane. Some are water soluble
while others are fat soluble compounds. The liquids include solvents, pesticides,
organophosphorous compounds. Solids: Dust, asbestos, lead, nickel, aluminium and its
compounds. Inhaling asbestos dust leads to cancer of the lungs The routes of exposure include:
inhalation, skin contact and ingestion. Their effects include acute (sneezing, running nose, eye
irritation) and chronic effects (cancers)
Chemicals are by far the commonest cause of occupational diseases. Chemicals are found in the
following states: Dusts, Solids, Liquids, Gases, Vapors, Mists and Fumes.
Examples of chemicals found in workplaces include pesticides, solvents, fertilizers, metal fumes
(evolved during welding), acids, alkalis etc
Chemical hazards may endanger life, affect health adversely, or cause severe discomfort due to
their acute effect. Moreover, they may produce long-term disease such as cancer and
pneumoconiosis by their chronic effects. Naturally occurring materials such as lead and mercury
have been recognized as source of occupational disease for hundreds of years. With rapid
industrial development other minerals like asbestos, radioactive ores, and oil, which are also
sources of occupational disease, have been taken from the earth. Growing range of man made
materials such as plastics, synthetic fibers, solvents, fertilizers, and pharmaceutical products all
of which may be hazardous to those who make or use them.
Among all chemical agents in work place the most notorious and most in contact with the skin or
respiratory system that deserve attention is
Solvent
In most occupational settings or industries a potential threat to the health, productivity and
efficiency of workers is their exposure to organic solvents. Exposure to solvents occurs through
out life. Example, organic solvent vapor inhaled by a mother could reach the fetus. The term
solvent means materials used to dissolve another material and it includes aqueous or non-
aqueous system.
Aqueous system includes those based in water. Example: Aqueous solution of acids,Aqueous
solution of alkalis and Aqueous solution of detergents.
Examples of non-aqueous systems Aliphatic hydrocarbons. Aromatic hydrocarbons. Halogenated
hydrocarbons. Cyclic hydrocarbons.
Corrosive
Hazard: living tissue as well as equipment are destroyed on contact with this chemicals.
Caution: Do not breathe vapors and avoid contact with skin eyes, and clothing
Oxidizing
Hazard: ignite combustible material or worsen existing fire and thus make fire fighting more
difficult.
Caution: Keep away from combustible material. No open cigarette fire allowed in that area.
Harmful.
Hazard: Inhalation and insertion of or skin penetration by these substances is harmful to heath.
Caution: Avoid contact with the human body, including inhalation of vapors and in cases of
malaise consult doctor.
Very toxic and toxic
Hazard: The substances are very hazardous to health whether breathed, swallowed or in contact
with the skin and may even lead to death.
Caution: Avoid contact with human body, and immediately consult a doctor in case of malaise.
Irritant
Hazard: May have an irritant effect on skin, eyes and respiratory organs
Caution: Do not breathe vapors and avoid contact with skin and eye
Highly Flammable
Hazard: Substances with flash point less than 600c or 1400F.
Caution: keep away source of ignition.
Explosive
Hazard: Substances which may explode under certain condition
Caution: Avoid shock, friction, sparks and heat.
Mode of exposure to chemical agents
In order for a chemical to become hazardous to a person’s health, it must first contact or enter the
body and the chemical must have some biological effect on the body. There are three major
routes:
 Inhalation  Skin contact  Digestive system (ingestion or eating)
Effects of chemicals
Chemicals can harm the body in two ways:
Local effects
i. Local refers to the site of action of a chemical and means the action takes place at the
point of contact.
ii. The site may be the skin, mucous membrane, respiratory tract, eyes, gastrointestinal
system etc.
iii. Examples of chemicals that cause local effects are strong acids and alkalis
Systemic effects
 i. Occur when a substance enters the body and is absorbed into the blood which spreads
it throughout the entire body and harms various organs.
ii. Chemicals enter the body through the skin, the lungs and the alimentary canal E.g.
alcohol enters through the stomach and damages the liver
iii. The stomach is the point of entry, while the liver is the target organ.
Chemical effects include:
a) Chemical burns e.g. acids and alkalis
b) Dermatitis is a general term for skin disorders resulting from exposures to chemicals.
Chemicals that cause dermatitis include solvents, oils, tars, glues etc
c) Pneumoconiosis (dusty lungs) This is a disease of the lungs resulting from the inhalation of
various types of dusts.
i. Asbestosis (inhalation of asbestos fiber)
ii. Silicosis (inhalation of free silica dust from mining, sandblasting, quarrying)
iii. Byssinosis (cotton dust)
iv. Bagassosis (sugar cane fiber or bagasse)
d) Asphyxiation (lack of oxygen) Some chemicals such as carbon monoxide, hydrogen cyanide
and hydrogen sulphide interfere with the red blood cells ability to accept oxygen.
e) Cancers
i. Some chemical substances (carcinogens) cause cancer e.g.
ii. Benzene causes leukemia (cancer of the blood)
iii. Asbestos causes Mesothelioma (cause cancer of the lungs)
iv. Some petroleum products and tar cause skin cancer
v. Genetic effects on future generations: Some chemicals (mutagens) cause changes in the
genetic structure in a current generation of humans such that it can cause mutation in a later
generation. Mutagens cause inheritable changes in the chromosomes of reproductive cells
vii. Damage to the unborn fetus  Some chemical substances (teratogens) cause malformations
or serious deviations from the normal in a human fetus.
 Teratogens do not cause any effect on the mother but interfere with the normal embryonic
development.
 Therefore they produce non-heritable defects
 Because the damage to the fetus by teratogens is done in the very early stages of pregnancy
(before a woman realises she is pregnant) all women and not just the obviously pregnant ones
should be stringently protected.
viii. Damage to the nerve cells
• E.g. Organophosphates and carbamates are powerful neurotoxins (damage the nerve cells)
• These pesticides bind to the nervous system enzyme [cholinesterase] and inhibit the
breakdown of the neurotransmitter substance [acetylcholine].
• OPS bind irreversibly to cholinesterase and recovery requires the synthesis of new enzymes.
• Carbamates inhibit cholinesterase reversibly and the enzyme is released within a few hours
after a person who is often exposed to these compounds should have regular blood tests to check
the level of cholinesterase.
Hazard identification
In order to control workplace hazards, we must be able to recognize them first. Hazards can
easily be recognized using the five senses i.e.
1. Smell: alerts one to the presence of a wide range of chemicals and gases
2. Hearing: alerts one to the presence of noise or defects of a machinery
3. Sight: helps in identification of hazards through observation
4. Taste: enables one to recognize what is being taken orally
5. Feel: helps one detect hold or cold objects, slippery or wet surfaces
Here are some key aspects of health and safety in the context of OHS:
Hazard identification and risk assessment: Health and safety in the workplace begin with
identifying potential hazards and assessing the associated risks. This involves examining work
processes, equipment, materials, and the work environment to determine potential sources of
harm to workers’ health and safety.
Prevention and control measures: Once hazards and risks are identified; preventive measures
are implemented to eliminate or minimize them. This can include engineering controls (e.g.,
implementing safety mechanisms on machinery), administrative controls (e.g., establishing safe
work procedures), and personal protective equipment (PPE) to provide a physical barrier
between workers and hazards.
Training and education: Health and safety training is essential for workers to understand the
risks they may encounter in their jobs and how to protect themselves. Training programs cover
topics such as hazard recognition, proper use of equipment and PPE, emergency response
procedures, and promoting a safety-conscious work culture.
Health surveillance: Regular health monitoring and surveillance help identify any work-related
health issues or early signs of occupational diseases. It involves periodic medical examinations,
biological monitoring, and assessment of workers’ physical and mental well-being to ensure
early detection and intervention.
Emergency preparedness: Health and safety plans include provisions for emergency situations
such as fires, chemical spills, or natural disasters. Emergency response procedures, evacuation
plans, and first aid training are vital components to minimize injuries and ensure a swift and
effective response to emergencies.
Compliance with regulations: Governments establish and enforce regulations and standards to
ensure workplaces adhere to health and safety requirements. Employers have a legal
responsibility to comply with these regulations and maintain a safe work environment.
Regulatory compliance helps protect workers and provides a structure for employers to address
health and safety risks.
Continuous improvement: Health and safety practices should be subject to ongoing evaluation
and improvement. Regular inspections, incident investigations, and feedback from workers help
identify areas for enhancement. Learning from past incidents and implementing corrective
actions contribute to the continuous improvement of health and safety in the workplace.
THE ELEMENTS OF A WORK ENVIRONMENT.
The work environment encompasses various elements that collectively contribute to the
conditions and characteristics of a workplace. These elements can vary depending on the
industry, type of work, and specific workplace, but here are some common elements found in a
work environment:
Physical surroundings: This refers to the physical attributes of the workplace, including the
building structure, layout, and design. It includes factors such as lighting, temperature,
ventilation, noise levels, cleanliness, and ergonomic features of workstations.
Occupational hazards: Occupational hazards are potential sources of harm or danger to
workers’ health and safety. These hazards can include physical hazards (e.g., machinery,
chemicals), biological hazards (e.g., pathogens, allergens), chemical hazards (e.g., toxic
substances), ergonomic hazards (e.g., repetitive tasks, poor workstation setup), and psychosocial
hazards (e.g., work-related stress, bullying).
Work organization: Work organization refers to how work tasks are structured, coordinated,
and managed within the workplace. It includes factors such as workload distribution, work
scheduling, job design, task allocation, and the overall organizational culture and values.
Effective work organization can promote productivity, job satisfaction, and work-life balance.
Communication and collaboration: Communication and collaboration are vital elements of a
work environment. Effective communication channels, open dialogue, and teamwork facilitate
coordination, problem-solving, and the exchange of information and ideas among workers and
across different levels of the organization.
Safety policies and procedures: The presence of safety policies, procedures, and protocols is
crucial for maintaining a safe work environment. These include guidelines for hazard reporting,
emergency response, accident investigation, use of personal protective equipment (PPE), and
adherence to safety regulations. Clear safety protocols help prevent accidents and ensure a swift
and effective response in case of emergencies.
Organizational culture: Organizational culture represents the shared values, beliefs, attitudes, and
norms that shape the behavior and interactions within a workplace. A positive safety culture that
prioritizes health, safety, and well-being fosters a work environment where employees feel
empowered, supported, and motivated to actively participate in maintaining a safe and healthy
workplace.
Opportunities for growth and development: A work environment that provides opportunities for
professional growth and development can contribute to job satisfaction and employee
engagement. This includes access to training programs, skill enhancement initiatives, career
advancement prospects, and recognition for achievements.
Work-life balance: A healthy work environment recognizes the importance of work-life balance
and supports employees in achieving it. This can include flexible work arrangements, leave
policies, family-friendly initiatives, and access to support services or resources to manage
personal and work-related responsibilities.
Inclusive and diverse environment: Promoting inclusivity and diversity is an essential aspect of a
positive work environment. It involves creating a workplace that values and respects individual
differences, fosters equal opportunities, and promotes a sense of belonging for all employees,
regardless of their backgrounds, identities, or abilities.
METHODS OF ACCIDENT IDENTIFICATION, PREVENTION AND HARZARD
CONTROL.
Methods of Accidents Identification
a) Safety inspection
Safety inspections are designed to examine a specific area of the organization in order to locate
and define any faults in the system, equipment, plant or machines. If there is any error that may
cause accidents, it will be identified. It is carried out by manager and supervisors with the advice
of health and safety advisors. Safety inspections should be carried out on a regular and
systematic basis.
The steps to be taken in carrying out safety inspections are as follows:
i. Allocate the responsibility for conducting the inspection.
ii. Define the points to be covered in the form of a checklist.
iii. Divide the department or plant into areas and list the points to which attention needs
to be given in each area.
iv. Define the frequency with which inspections should be carried out daily in critical
areas.
v. Use the check lists as the basis for the inspection
vi. Carry out sample or spot checks on a random basis.
b) Health and safety audits
This is where all aspects of health and safety policies, procedures, practices and programmes are
reviewed. An audit therefore examines the whole organization. Through audits accidents prone
area will be identified.
c) Suggestion method
This is where workers are encouraged to propose or suggest potential hazards that are contained
in a job, task or activity. This will be based on employees past experience in the organization.
d) Pre- use analysis
This method is used when an organization is acquiring new equipments, machines, instruments,
tools and personal protective equipments. The new equipments will be tested before they are
used to ensure they are in order . The most serious accidents usually occur by metal and
woodworking machines and saws, or around transmission machinery like gears, pulleys, and
flywheels. The method is used before exposure to hazards.
e) Multi- Step planning process.
Before an employee starts doing a task he / she should get answer s to the following questions
a. How could I get hurt doing this job, task or activity?
b. What will I do to prevent accidents, injuries or illnesses?
Certain jobs are inherently more dangerous. For example, the job of crane operator results in
about three times more accident-related hospital visits than does the job of supervisor. Such
workers who are exposed to such danger need to ask themselves such questions to identify the
accidents. This method is applied before exposure to a hazard and it helps to identify the hazards.
f) Work permitting is another method to identify accidents , for example when working with
toxic gases such as carbon monoxide and flammable gases a person must be permitted to do the
job , task or activity . Question from a checklist are asked to assure that hazards are not
overlooked. Hand tools (like chisels and screwdrivers) and electrical equipment (extension cords,
electric drop lights, and so on) are other major causes of accidents and should only be permitted
to those who know how to use them. To be able to identify accidents it is important to know
what causes accidents at the workplace.
The causes of accidents
Accidents don't just happen. They are generally the result of a combination of circumstances and
events. The circumstances and events causing accidents are usually unsafe personal acts, or an
unsafe physical environment, or both.
Personal Acts
Most experts believe that unsafe personal acts cause the bulk of workplace accidents. Such acts
have been estimated to cause 80 percent of all such accidents. Acts of this kind include taking
unnecessary chances, engaging in horseplay, failing to wear protective equipment, using
improper tools and equipment, and taking unsafe shortcuts.
It is difficult to determine why employees commit unsafe personal acts. There probably is no
single reason. A desire to impress others or project a certain image, fatigue, haste, boredom,
stress, poor eyesight, daydreaming, and physical limitations are all potential reasons. However,
these reasons do not explain why employees intentionally neglect to wear prescribed safety
equipment or don't follow procedures.
Most employees think of accidents as always happening to someone else. This attitude can
easily lead to carelessness or a lack of respect for what can happen. It is also true that some
people injured out of taking chances and showing off. Research studies have shown that
employees with low morale tend to have more accidents than employees with high morale. This
is not surprising when one consider that low morale is likely to be related to employee
carelessness.
Physical Environment
Accidents can and do happen in all types of environments. They can happen in offices and retail
stores, and they can as well happen in factories. However, they occur most frequently in certain
kinds of situations. Listed in order of decreasing frequency, these locations are:
a) Wherever heavy, awkward material is handled, using hand trucks, forklifts, cranes, and hoists.
About one third of work place accidents are caused by handling and lifting material. Improper
lifting is also a frequent cause of accidents.
b) Around any type of machinery that is used in production and need to be operated. Among the
more hazardous are metalworking and woodworking machines, power saws, and machines with
exposed gears, belts, chains, and the like. Even a paper cutter or an electric pencil sharpener has
a high accident potential.
c) Wherever people walk or climb, including ladders, scaffolds, and narrow walkways. Falls are
a major source of accident.
d) Wherever people use hand tools, including chisels, screwdrivers, pliers, hammers, and axes.
Hand tools also account for many household and workplace accidents.
e) Wherever electricity is used other than for the usual lighting purposes. Among the places
where electrical accidents occur are: near extension cords, loose wiring, and portable hand, tools.
Outdoor power lines have a high accident potential.
Unsafe Physical Conditions
Just as there are certain situations in which accidents occur more frequently, certain physical
conditions also seem to result in more accidents. Some of these unsafe physical conditions are:
a. Serious understaffing or not having enough people to do the job safely.
b. Unguarded or improperly guarded machines (such as all unguarded belt).
c. Poor housekeeping (such as congested aisles, dirty or wet floors, and improper stacking of
materials).
d. Defective equipment and tools.
e. Poor lighting
f. Poor or improper ventilation- insufficient air change, impure air source
g. Improper dress (such as clothing with loose and floppy sleeves worn when working on a lathe
Hazardous procedures in, on, or around machine or equipment
h. Unsafe storage – congestion ,overloading
Work schedules and fatigue also affects accident rates. Accident rates usually don't increase too
noticeably during the first five or six hours of the workday. But after that, the accident rate
increases faster than the increase in the number of hours worked. This is due partly to fatigue and
partly to the fact that accidents occur more often during night shift.
Unfortunately, some of the most important working condition related causes of accidents are not
as obvious, because they involve workplace “climate “or psychology. a strong pressure within
the organization to complete the work as quickly as possible, employees who are under a great
deal of stress, and a poor safety climate were a few of the psychological conditions leading to
accidents, Similarly, accidents occur more frequently in plants with a high seasonal lay off rate
and where there is hostility among employees, many garnished wages, and blighted living
conditions.
There is growing evidence that people with specific traits may indeed by accident prone. For
example, people who are Impulsive, sensation seeking extremely extroverted and less
conscientious (in terms of being less fastidious and dependable) are more likely to have
accidents. Furthermore, the person who is accidents prone on one job may not be so on a
different job. A study in Thailand similarly found that drivers who are naturally competitive and
prone to anger are particularly risky drivers.
Accident prevention
In practice, accidents prevention can be carried out by reducing unsafe conditions and reducing
unsafe acts. In large facilities, the chief safety officer (often called the “environmental health and
safety officer”) is responsible for this. In smaller firms, various other managers including those
from human resource, plant management and first line managers share these responsibilities. The
following methods can be used to prevent accidents.
a) Reducing Unsafe Conditions and acts
Reducing unsafe conditions is always an employer’s first line of defense in accident prevention.
Safety engineers should design jobs so as to remove or reduce physical hazards. In addition,
supervisors and managers play a role in reducing unsafe condition. Employers increasingly use
computerized tools to design safer equipment. Sometimes the solution of eliminating an unsafe
condition is obvious, and sometimes it's more subtle. For example, slips and falls arc often the
result of debris or a slippery floor. Relatively obvious remedies for problems like these include
slip-reducing floor coatings. Floor mats, better lighting and a system to quickly block off spills.
But perhaps less obviously, personal safety gear can also reduce the problems associated with
otherwise unsafe conditions. For example, slip- resistant foot wear with grooved soles can reduce
slips and falls. Cut-resistant gloves reduce the hazards of working with sharp objects.
b) Personal Protective Equipment
Getting employees to wear personal protective equipment can be a famously difficult task. In
addition to providing reliable protection and durability, protective gear should:
i. fit properly: ii. be easy to care for and maintain and repair [Link] flexible and lightweight iv.
provide comfort and reduce heat stress v. be relatively easy to put on and take off vi. be easy to
clean or dispose of and recycle.
Including the employees in planning the safety program, reinforcing appropriate behaviors, and
addressing comfort issues contribute to employees' willingness to use the protective gear. Again,
however, reducing unsafe conditions (such as by enclosing noisy equipment) and having
managers watch for hazards is always the employer's first line of defense. There are also
administrative controls, such as job rotation to reduce long-term exposure to the hazards.
c) Reducing Unsafe Acts by Emphasizing Safety
It is the supervisor’s responsibilities to set the tone for the subordinate to work safely. This
involves more than talking up safety, ensuring that workers wipe up spills, or enforcing safety
rules, although such things are important, it’s also necessary to show by both word and deed that
safely is crucial. For example, supervisors should:
i. Praise employees when they choose safe behaviors; ii. Listen when employees offer safely
suggestions, concerns, or complain be a good example, for instance, by following every safety
rule and procedure: iii. Visit plant area regularly: iv. Maintain open safety communication for
instance, by telling employees as much as possible about safety activities such as testing alarms;
v. Link manager’s bonuses to safety improvement
d) Reducing Unsafe Acts through Selection and Placement
Proper employee screening and placement can reduce unsafe acts. Here, the employer's aim is to
identify the trait (such as visual skill) that might predict accidents on the job in Question, and the
screen candidate for this trait. For example, a test like the Employee Reliability Inventory (ERI)
can help employers reduce unsafe act at work. purportedly measures reliability dimensions such
as emotional maturity, conscientiousness, safe job performance, and courteous job performance
Similarly, using job simulation test (which attempt to measure the applicant by simulating
physically demanding work activities) and physical capabilities tests (which measure muscle
strength and motion) also seem to predict who will have more accidents. Also, ask several
safety-related questions during the selection interview-for instance, "What would you do if you
saw another employee working in an unsafe way?
e) Reducing Unsafe Acts through Training
Safety training is another way to reduce unsafe acts, especially for new employees, you should
instruct them in safe practices and procedures, warn them of potential hazards, and work on
developing a safety –conscious attitude.
f) Reducing Unsafe Acts through Motivation
Posters and Incentives Employers also use various tools motivate workers to work safely. Safety
posters are examples of such tools. Safety posters can apparently increase safe behavior, but they
are no substitute for a comprehensive safety program. Employers should combine them with
other techniques (like, screening and training) to reduce unsafe conditions and acts, and also
change the posters often. Incentive programs are also successful at reducing workplace injuries
g) Positive Reinforcement
Many employers successfully use positive reinforcement programs to improve safety; such
programs provide workers with continuing positive feedback, usually in the form of graphical
performance reports and supervisory support, to shape the workers safety – related behavior.
h) Use Behavior- Based Safety
Behavior-based safety means identifying the work behaviour that contribute to accidents and
then training workers to avoid these behaviors. For example, does the employee watch his or her
hands while performing a task? The consultant will make observation, collect data regarding the
behaviors and then successfully institute on-site training programs to get employees to perform
the expected task properly.
i)Use Employee Participation
There are two good reasons to get employees involved in designing the safety program. First,
employees are often management’s best source of ideas about what the potential problems are
and how to solve them. Second, employee involvement tends to encourage employees to accept
the safety program.
j) Conduct Safety and Health Audits and Inspections
Managers should routinely inspect for possible problems using checklists as aids. Investigating
all accidents enable employees to notify managers about hazards. Use employee safety
committees to inspect. Committees should evaluate safety adequacy, monitor safety audit
findings, and suggest strategies for improving health and safety performance
How the Supervisors Can Prevent Accidents
Because supervisors are the link between management and the operative employees, they are in
the best position to promote safety.
a) Make the work interesting. Uninteresting work can lead to boredom, fatigue, and stress,
all of which can cause accidents.
 b) Be familiar with organizational policies that relate to safety. Make sure that the
appropriate policies are conveyed to employees.
c) Be familiar with the proper procedures for safely. See that each employee knows the
proper method for doing the job (this is applicable to long-term as well as to new
employees).
d) Know what safety devices and personal protective equipment should be used for
each job. Ensure that the respective jobholders use the proper safety devices and wear
the proper protective equipment.
e) Know what safety-related reports and records are required (such as accident
reports and investigation report). Be sure that these reports are completed and
processed on a timely basis.
f) Get to know the employees. Learn to identify both the permanently and the
temporarily accident-prone employees. Once these employees have been identified, be
sure that they receive proper safety training.
g) Know when and where to make safety inspections. It is generally wise to develop a
schedule for making safety inspections. This ensures that they won't be neglected.
h) Learn to take the advice of the safety director and the safety committee. Look at both
of these groups as resources. Learn to work closely with these resources.
i) Know what to do in case of an accident. Be familiar with basic first aid. Know how to
contact the doctor, emergency services, and the hospital.
j) Know the proper procedures for investigating an accident. Know the proper
procedures to follow during an investigation.
k) Always set a good, example with regard to safety. Remember, employees are always
witching the supervisor.
Measures Prevent Workplace Injuries
1. Incorporate a safety and wellness plan. The foundation for a safe work environment is an
effective accident prevention and wellness program. The program needs to cover all levels of
employee safety and health with the encouragement to report hazardous practices or behavior.
2. Conduct pre-placement physicals. Some accidents are caused by inexperience and the inability
to physically perform the position. Screening applicants is a safeguard for placement with the
appropriate positions matching their physical capabilities.
3. Educate employees and management staff. Continually cultivate a safety standard among
employees and management staff. Train employees about the importance of following safety
measures as often as possible. Supplemental training in body mechanics can reduce strain
injuries, and keep employees safe during lifting and moving.
4. Research safety vulnerabilities. Every business is unique and doesn’t necessarily have the
same safety concerns. Pay extra attention to common accidents and develop strategies to keep
these setbacks from happening.
5. Provide protection equipment. Personal protection equipment is essential and should be
enforced at hiring, meetings, and with spontaneous monitoring. Take time to teach employees
how to properly use goggles, face protection, gloves, hard hats, safety shoes, and earplugs or ear
muffs.
6. Have adequate staffing levels. More often than not, overtime hours are implemented because
of low staffing levels. Overworked employees may suffer from exhaustion and cut corners to
meet or exceed output. Hiring part-time or seasonal staff could help prevent accidents due to
exhaustion.
7. Don’t take shortcuts. Accidents happen when employees skip steps to complete a job ahead of
schedule. Make sure all instructions are clear and organized to prevent undue mishaps in the
workplace.
8. Inspect and maintain all company vehicles. According to The Occupational Safety and Health
Act findings, workplace-driving accidents cost employers an average of $60 billion dollars a
year. Maintenance should include monthly inspections and repairing vehicles as soon as possible.
9. Monitor safety measures. After initial training, reinforce safety measures at every opportunity,
i.e. staff meetings, supervision, and education. Reward employees who abide by setting
standards or staying injury free for a specified amount of time.
[Link] an orderly workplace. Poor housekeeping can cause serious health and safety hazards.
The layout of the workplace should have adequate foot path markings, be free of debris, and
stations for cleaning up spills.
Incident Investigation
Investigation of Incidents – Component in a hazard recognition, assessment, and control (RAC)
program– Part of a health and safety program
Benefits of Incident Investigation:– Determines direct causes Identifies contributing causes–
Prevents similar incidents – Creates a permanent record– Determines cost– Promotes safety
awareness among employees
Incident investigations are influenced by:
– Timing: • Time affects several types of information
– Severity: • Given that investigations are time-consuming, companies tend to examine only
those incidents that have the most serious consequences
– Legal requirements: • Events (e.g., injury requires medical aid or results in lost time) must be
reported to a Workers’ Compensation Board, normally within three days
Human Factors:
• Questions to ask when investigating human factors:
– What was the worker doing at the time of the incident? – Was the work being performed
according to procedures? – Was a supervisor present?– What was the employment status of the
worker? – How much experience did the employee have? – What was the posture and location of
the employee?– Did some unsafe act contribute to the event?
Situational Factors: • Questions to ask:– Was the machine operating in a satisfactory manner?–
What tools, equipment, or objects were involved in the incident?– What personal protective
equipment was being worn
Environmental Factors: • Environmental factors (e.g., light, noise) may increase likelihood that
an incident will occur • Examples:– Setting sun may blind delivery truck driver– Machine noise
may mask approaching vehicle– Equipment vibration may dislodge another tool
Who Investigates? • Supervisor • Technical advisers and specialists • Safety and health officer •
Safety and health committee or representative • Safety team
Investigative Methods: • Observations or Walkthroughs Inspection of incident scene to get a
picture of the total environment
Interviews: Basic Rules
1. Interview witnesses on the spot as soon as possible after the event 2. Interview witnesses
separately and in a neutral location 3. Put the witness at ease 4. Let the individual recall the event
in his or her own way 5. Ask necessary questions at appropriate times, without interrupting the
speaker’s train of thought 6. Give the witness feedback 7. Make sure that critical information is
recorded in a timely fashion 8. End the interview on a positive note by thanking the witness for
his or her valuable time and assistance
Re-enactments • Simulation designed to recreate circumstances leading up to incident
Incident Reports: • Once information has been gathered, incident/accident reports must be
completed • Reports should consider:– Factor most closely associated with the cause of an
incident, referred to as the agency– Incident type, which attempts to categorize the nature of the
incident– Personal factors (e.g., lack of knowledge, fatigue, restricted vision) should also be
included on the incident investigation form to assist in entry, recordkeeping, and analysis
Incident Analysis: • Once data are collected, analyze information to identify cause • Analytic
models and techniques available for use in assessing cause of incident
Safety Behaviour: • Safety programs can be classified as:– Engineering Interventions  Change
physical environment to reduce hazard exposure– Administrative Interventions  Modify
procedures and exposure in work environment– Behavioural Interventions  Change employee
attitudes, knowledge, or behavior
Safety behaviour: – Behaviours leading to safe performance of a particular job Examples
include:– Proper use of hazard control systems– Safe work habits– Increased awareness and
recognition of workplace hazards– Acceptance and use of personal protective equipment
Safety behaviour can be distinguished as:– Safety compliance: The extent to which employees
follow safety rules and procedures– Safety participation: The extent to which employees go
beyond compliance and engage proactively and voluntarily to actively improve safety Safety can
be enhanced by increasing employees’ abilities, motivation, and opportunities to work safely
EVALUATION AND/OR WORK ENVIRONMENT MEASUREMENTS IN REGARD TO
OHS
Workplace Inspections: Regular inspections help identify hazards, assess compliance with
safety regulations, and ensure that safety measures are in place. Inspections can be conducted by
trained safety personnel or a joint health and safety committee.
Risk Assessments: Risk assessments involve identifying potential hazards, evaluating their
likelihood and severity, and implementing controls to mitigate risks. This systematic approach
helps prioritize actions to reduce workplace hazards.
Incident Reporting and Investigation: Establishing a robust incident reporting system
encourages employees to report accidents, near misses, and hazardous conditions. Investigating
incidents helps identify root causes and develop preventive measures.
Safety Audits: Safety audits evaluate the overall safety management system within an
organization. They assess compliance with regulations, review policies and procedures, and
identify areas for improvement.
Workplace Surveys and Questionnaires: Surveys and questionnaires can be used to gather
feedback from employees regarding their perceptions of safety, work environment, and potential
hazards. This information can help identify concerns and areas that need attention.
Ergonomic Assessments: Ergonomic assessments evaluate the design of workstations,
equipment, and processes to ensure they promote proper posture, reduce physical strain, and
minimize the risk of musculoskeletal disorders.
Environmental Monitoring: Monitoring environmental factors such as air quality, noise levels,
and exposure to hazardous substances is important for identifying potential health hazards and
implementing necessary controls.
Health Surveillance: Health surveillance involves monitoring employees’ health to detect and
prevent work-related illnesses or injuries. It may include medical examinations, biological
monitoring, or tracking exposure to specific hazards.
Safety Performance Indicators: Establishing key performance indicators (KPIs) related to
safety, such as the number of incidents, near misses, or safety training completion rates, helps
track progress and identify areas for improvement.
Employee Feedback and Participation: Encouraging employee involvement through safety
committees, suggestion boxes, or regular safety meetings can provide valuable insights and
engage workers in the process of improving the work environment.
FACILITY DESIGN
Facility
All facility designs and layout should be in compliance with the Building code 1968, PHA cap
242 and OSHA 2007 Part V1 and any other relevant Acts of parliament. On health, general
provisions and the inputs of the user should be put into consideration by ensuring OSH
committee is involved in the facility design for approvals and ensuring safety compliance.
The following general requirements should be observed as a minimum:
 Cleanliness -Every work place should be kept in a clean state with good drainage,
convenient sanitary facilities and without nuisance.
 Overcrowding – Health care workers and patients should not be overcrowded in a room
where there is risk of disease transmission through contact or respiratory route. Effort
should be made to separate people with suspected infectious diseases. Some of the efforts
include cough monitoring, and triaging so that such patients are attended to first.
 Ventilation – Each workstation should have circulation of fresh air with adequate
ventilation such as cross and through ventilation. In specialized units you can have
engineered ventilation systems e.g. Negative pressure and Vacuum air conditioning. The
facility has to comply with OSHA 2007 ventilation guidelines
 Lighting - There should be sufficient and suitable lighting whether natural or artificial in
every part of the workplace.
 Drainage of Floors – Floors should be drained to ensure they are dry to avoid slips and
falls. Floors should be easily washable.
 Sanitary convenience - There should be a sufficient number of clean sanitary facilities
with sufficient lighting for both sexes. Sanitary facilities should have hand washing areas
with running water, soap/ detergent and changing rooms with accommodation for
clothing not worn during working hours.
 Fire Prevention – All work rooms should be provided with appropriate firefighting
appliances and adequate means of escape, in case of fire for employees.
Isolation
Isolation is a creation of barrier mechanical or spatial to prevent transmission of infectious
diseases to or from patients, health workers and visitors. The units are generally provided with
barriers that minimize spread of infectious diseases to the environment and the public. Adequate
ventilation can also be used to reduce the transmission of airborne infections. Cohorting can also
be used in health facilities that do not have isolation wards.
Workflow
Facilities should be designed or redesigned to ensure patients move in a unilateral direction to
avoid crisscrossing. When a facility is being designed, the OSH committee should be involved to
review the patient flow. Special units should be placed appropriately within the facility master
plan, e.g. theatre. Morgue, laundry among others.
Equipment
Appropriate consideration should be made for equipment lay out within the facility. A full list of
current and anticipated equipment and their placement should be provided and considered in the
facility design or redesign. Special equipment requirements should be considered during facility
design and redesign e.g. bio safety cabinets and equipment mapping and human flow should be
reviewed during the design and redesign stage. Mitigation measures should be made for
equipment that emit heat and noise which is hazardous to the health care workers in compliance
with OSHA 2007, hazardous substances rules of 2007, (legal notice 60), noise prevention and
control rules legal notice 25 of [Link] all areas the job must be fitted to the worker to avoid
ergonomic injuries. Equipment with moving parts and potentially easy to fall should be guarded
and chained appropriately.
CONDUCTING RISK ASSESSMENTS
Risk assessments are concerned with the identification of hazards and the analysis of the risks-
attached to them. A hazard is anything that can cause harm. Examples of hazards include
working on roofs, lifting heavy objects, chemicals and electricity. A risk is the chance, large or
small, of harm actually being done by the hazard. Risk assessments are concerned with looking
for hazards and estimating the level of risk associated with them.
Purpose of risk assessment
The purpose of risk assessments is to initiate preventive action. They enable control measures to
be devised on the basis of an understanding of the relative importance of risks. Risk assessments
must be recorded if there are five or more employees involved.
Risk assessment can be classified into two:
Quantitative risk assessment. This assessment is objective as the information used is available.
Quantitative risk assessment is preferable if the specific data are available.
Qualitative risk assessment. This is more subjective and is based on judgment backed by
generalized data. Qualitative risk assessment may be acceptable if there are little or no specific
data.

RISK ASSESSMENT, EVALUATION AND MANAGEMENT.

Risk management
Risk means the probability of occurrence of an adverse effect from a substance on people or the
environment combined with the magnitude of the consequence of that adverse effect (OSHA
2007 section 2). The purpose of risk management is to bring the risk to acceptable levels
(Acceptable risk).
The process of risk management includes hazard identification, risk assessment and risk control.
A. Hazard Identification
There are many methods of hazard identification. This are techniques used to identify hazards
and their associated risks in the workplace. These methods help to ensure the safety of workers
and protect the company from potential liability.
For the purpose of these guidelines the following approach is recommended:
• Inspection of the workplace using a workplace inspection checklist and conducting a walk-
through survey;
• Job hazard analysis;
• Reviewing the accident, incident and ill-health records;
• Asking the workers or their representatives on the hazards they encounter
• Following the manufacturers’ instruction/ materials/ safety data sheets, and decide who might
be harmed and how: Pay particular attention to young persons; persons with disabilities;
inexperienced workers and lone workers.
• Develop hazard / risk register
Hazards identification Methods  Workplace inspection  Use of material safety data sheets 
Complaints and investigations  Accidents at workplace  Hygiene survey  Medical
examination
[Link] inspection Evaluate the area of work to ensure it is safe and complies with laws and
regulations
[Link] of material safety data sheets Documents to provide information about potential health
and safety hazards associated with chemicals/materials.
[Link] and investigations To determine if workers are exposed to unsafe conditions or if
employers is violating regulation. Interviews, inspection, review of safety policies, review of
safety data records.
[Link] at workplaces Recording data of previous accidents can help predict possible
hazards that are present in the workplace environment.
[Link] survey Adequate cleaning supplies, PPES, cleaning of surfaces, proper handwashing
training, waste disposal bins, proper food preparation and use of signs and postures to remind
workers of hygiene standards
[Link] examination Done by OSH professional. Tests on vision, hearing, blood tests, lung
function tests and medical history questionnaires
STEPS IN HAZARD IDENTIFICATION
Components of The Hazard identification program:
 Walk-through survey (Inspection)  Safety Sampling(auditing)
1: Collect Existing Information about Workplace Hazards.
The first step to mitigate workplace hazards, according to OSHA, is to gather information about
those who already exist on-site. This can be done in a multitude of ways including looking at
hazards recorded in previous hazard assessments and inspections, analyzing job hazard analysis,
speaking to front-line workers and team members about risks on-site.
2: Inspect the Workplace for Safety Hazards
Next, inspect your workplace for possible hazards which may appear after a certain amount of
time has passed. For instance, new hazards can arise when procedures change, new tools are
used, or job tasks are altered.
3: Identify Health-Related Hazards
After collecting information and inspecting your workplace, it’s time to identify health hazards.
These can be more difficult to single out as they may be invisible to the naked eye, such as the
ever-present COVID-19 virus. Another element which makes this hard to identify is some
hazards have immediate risks whereas others take time to appear. OSHA recommends taking the
following steps to efficiently identify health-related hazards, with those relating to the
coronavirus explored more closely here.
4: Conduct Incident Investigations
Now, it’s time to conduct incident investigations. This involves analyzing all incidents which
have already occurred on-site and could potentially occur, ranging from near misses to actual
injuries. The goal here is to establish what the source or root causes of the incident was and
keeping an open mind that several factors could be at play.
5: Identify Hazards Associated with Emergency Situations
The final step to efficiently identify and assess workplace hazards is to identify hazards that may
not always occur daily, but instead may only arise during an emergency. For instance, what will
happen if you have a COVID-19 outbreak on site? This is something health and safety
professionals have had to consider when modifying their health and safety programs and
implementing new protocols.
Looking for hazards
The following are typical activities where accidents happen or there are high risks:
i. receipt of raw materials, eg offloading, lifting, carrying;
ii. storage especially where goods are put on top of each and can easily fall;
iii. movement of people and materials as falls and collisions can occur;
iv. processing of raw materials, eg exposure to toxic substances;
v. maintenance of buildings, eg roof work, gutter cleaning;
vi. maintenance of plant and machinery, eg lifting equipment, installation of equipment;
vii. using electricity, eg using hand tools, extension wires;
viii. operating machines, eg operating without sufficient clearance, or not using safety
devices;
ix. failure to wear protective equipment, eg hats, boots, clothing;
x. dealing with emergencies, eg spillages, fires, explosions;
 Most accidents are caused by a few key activities. Risk assessors should concentrate initially
on those that could cause serious harm. Operations such as roof work, maintenance and
transport movement cause far more deaths and injuries each year than many mainstream
activities. When carrying out a risk assessment it is also necessary to consider who might be
harmed for example employees and visitors. This will include cleaners and contractors and
the public when coming to buy products or procure services.
Hazard ranking
Hazards should be ranked according to their how severe they are or the level of the herm the
can cause. A simple three-point scale can be used such as 'low', 'moderate' and 'high'. A more
complex rating scale has been proposed by Holt and Andrews (1993), as follows:
a) Catastrophic - imminent danger exists, hazard capable of causing death and illness on a
wide scale.
b) Critical - hazard can result in serious illness, severe injury, property and equipment
damage.
c) Marginal - hazard can cause illness, injury, or equipment damage, but the results would
not be expected to be serious.
d) Negligible - hazard will not result in serious injury or illness; remote possibility of damage
beyond minor first-aid case.
Hazard Analysis:
 Hazard analysis is used to acquire specific hazard and failure information about a given
system.
B. Risk assessment
Assessing the risk
When the hazards have been identified it is necessary to assess how high the risks are. The risk
assessor should try to answer the following three questions:
a) What is the worst result? b) How likely is it to happen? c) How many people could be hurt if
things go wrong?
A probability rating system can be used such as the one recommended by Holt and Andrews:
a) Probable -likely to occur immediately or shortly. b) Reasonably probable - probably will
occur in time. c)Remote- may occur in time. d) Extremely remote - unlikely to occur.
Risk assessment is a process of making a determination of how safe a situation is and then
making judgement of the acceptability of a risk. The following guidelines are recommended:
 When is risk assessment done?
a. Any time there is new or redeployed / transfer of staff/ equipment/ method
b. Any time there is an accident/ incident or near miss
c. At scheduled annual risk assessments
d. During maintenance activities
e. During disposal of equipment
 How does one carry out risk assessment?
f. Use risk assessment tools
g. Consider whether to carry out the assessment for the whole facility/ department/ machinery or
specific procedure
h. Identify the gaps
i. Analyze the data generated
j. Determine if the risk is high, moderate or low.
k. Develop mitigation plans and budget
 Who conducts the risk assessment?
l. OSH committee at different facility level
m. COSH Focal person
n. Sub County OSH representative
o. DOSHS approved auditors
p. Constitute a risk assessment team which should include the user in specific cases.
Risk Assessment:  Critical aspect of occupational health & safety in every organization. 
Makes employees aware of the hazards and risks they are exposed to and what they should do to
manage the risk.  It is important to consider the concept of risk perceptions and the relationship
between the actual risk of a hazard and an individual’s perception of the risk.  Risk= probability
x Consequence(severity)  Probability - The chance or likelihood that an event will happen and
will also result in harm or loss  Consequences - Correspond to the severity of the injury harm or
loss
Importance of risk assessment.
Risk assessments are very important as they form an integral part of an occupational health and
safety management plan. They help to:
 Create awareness on hazards and risk. Identify who may be at risk (e.g., employees,
cleaners, visitors, contractors, the public, etc.).
 Determine whether a control program is required for a particular hazard e.g. more should
be done.
  Prevent injuries or illnesses, especially when done at the design or planning stage.
 Prioritize hazards and control measures.
 Meet legal requirements where applicable.
RISK ASSESSMENT PROCESS
[Link] the hazards Identify any potential risks, anything that could cause harm e.g: Hazardous
material, equipment’s, process and work environments.
[Link] the risks Risks associates with the hazards identified
[Link] the risks Implement safety measures e.g.: provision of Personal protective
equipment’s, training staffs and introducing policies.
4. Review and update Document your risk assessment and review it annually, any incident and
any near miss. Review to identify if your control measures are working, if you are missing on
any hazard and refine it as required
Risk Perception – An individual’s interpretation of the potential harm based on values, beliefs
and experience with a hazard.
Hazard Control – Refers to a program or process used to establish preventive and corrective
measures as the final stage of Hazard recognition, assessment and control
 Three levels of intervention:
Pre-contact control:  First method of controlling hazards by preventing hazards from reaching
individuals within the workplace.  Examples: Isolation, housekeeping, safe work  protocols,
machine guarding, replacing, hazardous equipment.  Involves various engineering,
administrative and personal protective equipment.
Point-of-contact control:  Contact with a hazard cannot be controlled.  Fall under the
engineering and administrative and personal protective equipment.
Post-contact control:  If workplace, equipment, machines or buildings are damaged as a result
of an incident or if a hazard results in an emergency, then control of the hazard site is necessary
so that no further hard or damage is done
Hazard prevention and control (Industrial Hygiene)
Industrial hygiene: is the science and art of Anticipation, Recognition, Evaluation, & Control of
workplace conditions which may cause illness or injury
Anticipation: anticipate the hazards in a type of workplace. Done through literature review of
same or closely related exposures, same or comparable industries through reports, investigations
etc. one can also talk with colleagues by mail, phone, conferences etc
Recognition: observe and recognize various health hazards One needs to go onsite or similar site,
look for potential hazards, look for environmental pathways, routes of exposure, examine human
behaviuor in relationship to he hazards and pathways, if possible ask for information, compare
what you see to your OHS knowledge base
Evaluation: exposure assessment (measure duration and intensity) Compare exposure to risk-
based standards.
• Exposure assessment
– Goal = quantify concentration, exposure, dose
– Construct exposure profile (time course) by direct measurement, monitoring (area vs.
individual levels)
• Magnitude, frequency, duration
• Routes of exposure (dermal, ingestion, inhalation)
– Estimate, model indirectly
• Exposure scenarios (based on population data, observations)
• Job-exposure matrix (based on historical records)
• Compare exposures to risk-based standards
Control: design and implement means to reduce/eliminate hazards
Hierarchy of controls
The hierarchy of preventive measures in occupational health and safety. When addressing the
hazards in the workplace there is a logical order to prioritize action, based on effectiveness:
1. Eliminating hazards and controlling risks at the source are the most effective preventive
interventions for the protection of workers health;
2. Dangerous substances, processes and machines should be systematically replaced by less
hazardous ones;
3. When this is not feasible, the exposure to occupational hazards should be properly controlled
through engineering measures designed to reduce exposure;
4. Administrative controls such as policies on staff assignments and rotation, and work practice
controls are the next level of control; and
5. Behaviuoral controls: Personal protective equipment shall be used only as a last resort to
protect workers from exposure to hazards that cannot be controlled otherwise.
Hazard Control strategies
An occupational hazard is a situation that is likely to cause an accident,body injury acute or
chronic health effect to the worker or death to the worker or non-worker. Thus the effects of the
hazards result into  Occupational accidents  Occupational diseases and ill health  Death 
Damage to property
Hazards control A hazard is something with the potential of causing:
a) harm (injury or death) to exposed persons or b) Damage to property.
When hazards are present in workplaces, they are called occupational hazards or workplace
hazards.
Effects of hazards
Hazards in a workplace can cause:
a) Occupational diseases
b) Occupational accidents i.e. personal injury, death and damage to property.
Occupational diseases
An occupational disease is any chronic ailment that occurs as a result of work or occupational
activity. An occupational disease is identified when it is shown that it is more prevalent in a
given body of workers than in the general population, or in other worker populations.
Occupational hazards that are of a traumatic nature (such as falls by roofers) are not considered
to be occupational diseases.
An occupational disease is any chronic ailment that occurs as a result of work or occupational
activity. It is an aspect of occupational safety and health. An occupational disease is typically
identified when it is shown that it is more prevalent in a given body of workers than in the
general population, or in other worker populations. The first such disease to be recognised,
squamous-cell carcinoma of the scrotum, was identified in chimney sweep boys by Sir Percival
Pott in 1775. Occupational hazards that are of a traumatic nature (such as falls by roofers) are not
considered to be occupational diseases.
Classification of occupational diseases
An occupational disease is not characterized merely by the disease itself, but by a combination of
a disease and an exposure, as well as an association between these two. Occupational diseases
are not diseases such as the flu, a stomach virus, the common cold or any other disease or
sickness that can be contracted from a coworker or an employer. An occupational disease can
only be a disease that is contracted as a result of the work being performed by an employer or an
employee. Employees that contract a sickness from another coworker cannot file for workers-
compensation or for Social Security Disability because their sickness was not caused by the work
environment.
High-risk occupations include:
 Hairdressing  Catering  Healthcare  Printing  Metal machining  Motor vehicle repair 
Construction
OHS problems
• Occupational lung diseases • Musculoskeletal disorders • Occupational cancer • Acute injuries •
Cardiovascular disease • Disorders of reproduction • Neurotoxic disorders • Psychological
disorders (e.g., stress) • Noise-induced hearing loss • Dermatologic conditions • Infectious
diseases • Symptom-defined disorder (e.g., multiple chemical sensitivity)
Occupational illnesses
Cancers and allergies, such as skin cancers, from lengthy and unprotected exposure to ultraviolet
(UV) rays from the sun.
Eye disorders, such as sunburned eyes and blurred vision, from overexposure to UV rays from
the sun. Injuries, from sharp objects on deck, gears or fish handling. Hearing disorders, from
working in noisy engine rooms.
Musculoskeletal disorders, from falls on slippery wet surfaces, getting caught in winches or other
machinery or from lifting of heavy loads.
Suicides, from lengthy periods of stress and fatigue.
Drug and alcohol addictions.
Weill’s disease/leptospirosis
Cray fish handlers disease
HIV/AIDS among Fishing communities
Frosting
1. Lung diseases
Occupational lung diseases include :  asbestosis among asbestos miners and those who work
with friable asbestos insulation.  black lung (coalworker's pneumoconiosis) among coal miners,
 silicosis among miners and quarrying and tunnel operators.  byssinosis among workers in
parts of the cotton textile industry.  Occupational asthma has a vast number of occupations at
risk. Bad indoor air quality may predispose for diseases in the lungs as well as in other parts of
the body.
2. Skin diseases
Occupational skin diseases and conditions are generally caused by chemicals and having wet
hands for long periods while at work. Occupational dermatitis is characterized by clearly
demarcated areas of rash at sites of exposure. Eczema is by far the most common, urticaria,
sunburn and skin cancer are also of concern.
High-risk occupations include:
 Hairdressing
  Catering
 Healthcare
 Printing
 Metal machining
 Motor vehicle repair
 Construction
Other diseases of concern
 Carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS) caused by compression of the median nerve travelling
through the carpal tunnel. its common among persons who work in the poultry industry
and information technology like typing.
 Computer vision syndrome among persons using information technology for hours
 Lead poisoning affecting workers in many industries that processed or employed lead or
lead compounds
 Occupational hearing loss is a damage to the inner ear from noise or vibrations due to
certain types of jobs or entertainment.
PREVENTIVE AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES OF OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES
AND ILLNESSES
The incidence of accidents and work-related diseases and injuries in most occupational sectors is
still regrettably high; there is therefore an urgent need for preventive and protective measures to
be instituted at workplaces in order to guarantee the safety and health of workers. Occupational
accidents and diseases not only cause great pain, suffering and death to victims, but also threaten
the lives of other workers and their dependants.
Occupational accidents and diseases also result in:
• Loss of skilled and unskilled but experienced labour;
• Material loss, i.e. damage to machinery and equipment well as spoiled products; and
• High operational costs through medical care, payment of compensation, and repairing or
replacing damaged machinery and equipment.
Occupational health problems arise largely from hazardous factors in the working environment.
Since most hazardous conditions at work are in principle preventable, efforts should be
concentrated on primary prevention at the workplace, as this offers the most cost-effective
strategy for their elimination and control. The planning and design of workplaces should be
aimed at establishing working environments that are conducive to physical, psychological and
social well-being. This means taking all reasonable precautions to avoid occupational diseases
and injuries. Workplace safety and health programmes should aim at eliminating the unsafe or
unhealthy working conditions and dangerous acts which account for nearly all occupational
accidents and diseases.
This can be achieved in a number of ways:  Engineering control  Design of safe work systems
to minimize risks.  Substituting safer materials for hazardous substances  Administrative or
organizational methods.  Use of personal protective equipment.
How particular occupational hazards are prevented depends on the nature of the various causal
agents, their mode of action and the severity of the risk
Recognition of hazards
Hazards can be recognized by the use of:
a) The five senses i.e.
i. Sense of hearing. The sense of hearing alerts one to the presence of high noise levels
ii. Sense of sight Eyesight is very important in identifying hazards through observation.
iii. Sense of smell The sense of smell alerts a person to the presence of a wide range of chemicals
iv. Sense of touch Heat and cold can be recognized through feeling
v. Sense of taste Taste can enable one to recognize a problem in what is being taken orally.
b. Knowledge of hazards in processes and operations in a workplace
Recognition of hazards is the first and fundamental step towards the evaluation and control of the
hazards. Hazards not recognized can neither be evaluated nor controlled
Hazard Identification
 5 Categories of hazard source triggers: People:  Humans Create hazards in the workplace by
their actions or inactions.  Human Factor – When a person causes an accident by commission
(doing something), poor judgement, or omission (failing to do something)  Unsafe Act – a
deviation from standard job procedures or practices that increase a worker’s exposure to a hazard
Equipment:  Under certain conditions or situations, the tools, machines or equipment people
use and work near can be hazardous.
Environment:  Too Hot or Too Cold
Materials:  Any workplace Substance, matter, used in the workplace that have the potential to
cause harm or loss especially if handled improperly!
Process/Systems:  When combining people, equipment, environment, and materials, with the
purposes of production of a good or service, a process is involved
 Involve the flow of work and include factors such as design, pace, and organization of the
various types of work via policies, procedures, and work processes
Types of hazards
Hazards are grouped into six types i.e. i. Mechanical hazards ii. Physical hazards iii. Chemical
hazards iv. Biological hazards v. Physiological (ergonomic) hazards vi. Psycho-social hazards
Methods of controlling hazards
[A] Elimination of the hazard
Elimination of a specific hazard or hazardous work process, or preventing it from entering the
work place, is the most effective method of control. Eliminate hazard at the developmental stage
It is important to consider workers health and safety when work processes are still in the
planning stages.
The most efficient way of controlling hazards is by eliminating the dangerous substance or
replacing it with a less dangerous one e.g.
i. Using cultural and biological methods of controlling pests instead of chemical
pesticides.
ii. Using plant derived pesticides [pyrethrum, Mexican marigold extracts, pepper
extracts, colondia (dania) extracts] instead of synthetic pesticides
iii. Using pesticides of low toxicity
iv. Joining steel structures using nuts & bolts instead of riveting which produces a lot of
noise.
v. Using water soluble detergents instead of solvents
vi. sing water-based paints or glues instead of those with an organic solvent base
vii. Fitting silencers to noisy machines with exhaust ventilation.
Machines should confirm to national safety standards – they should be designed with the correct
guard on them to eliminate the danger of a worker getting caught in the machine while using it.
Machines that are not produced with the proper guards on them may cost less to purchase, but
cost more in terms of accidents, loss of production, compensation, etc.
B] Putting a barrier between the hazard and the worker
i. Fencing moving parts of a machine
ii. Separating a spray painting process from the other processes of the workplace by means of a
wall
iii. Screening of electric arc welding to against electric arc flash
iv. Removing workers from rooms with hazards [e.g. nuclear power stations] and using
remote control instead.
C) Ventilation
In the case of airborne hazards, ventilation is the best form of control e.g.
i Through general ventilation air contaminants of low toxicity can be diluted through dispersion
by pushing air to and from the workplace by use of doors, windows, wall vents and fans
ii. Through local exhaust ventilation, air contaminants of high toxicity released into the air from
a process can be trapped and conveyed to a collector thereby preventing them from entering the
breathing zone of the worker.
D)Protection of the worker
An individual can use different kinds of P.P.E to protect himself against occupational hazards.
[E]Observing personal hygiene by washing before eating, before drinking, after visiting the
toilets and before smoking to avoid ingesting harmful substances.
F) Taking administrative actions
Administrative actions include:
i. Supervision of workers ii. Training of workers iii. Worker placement based on competence
and health status. iv. Limiting exposure time through breaks and rotations.
Administrative Controls
Administrative controls limits the amounts of time workers spend at hazardous job locations.
Administrative control can be used together with other methods of control to reduce exposure to
hazardous. Some examples of administrative controls include:
Changing work schedules, for example two people may be able to work 4 hours each at a job
instead of one person working for 8 hours at that job.
Giving workers longer rest periods or shorter work shits to reduce exposure time
Moving a hazardous work process so that few people will be exposed
Changing a work process to a shift when fewer people are working
Periodic inspection Maintenance schedule Operating procedure
[G] Application of ergonomic principles
i. Use levers, carts, trolleys, cranes, conveyors when moving heavy loads to avoid strenuous
work.
ii. Train workers to use their legs (bent knees) rather than their backs (bent backs) when lifting.
iii. Avoid bending postures for standing workers by raising the height of work tables that are
fitted with foot rests.
[Link] work requiring high hand positions for standing workers by providing platforms.
[Link] work tables of suitable height for seated workers so that too high or low hand positions
are avoided.
vi. Provide sitting facilities to standing workers to prevent oedema (inflammation of legs)
vii. Place frequently operated switches within reach of the workers
viii. Provide workers with efficient working tools e.g. sharp machetes and guillotines to prevent
strain
ix. Train workers on correct lifting techniques
1. Engineering control and housekeeping
Engineering control involves controlling the hazard at the source. The competent authority
should ensure that exposure to hazardous substances (such as asbestos, for instance), is prevented
or controlled by prescribing engineering controls and work practices which afford maximum
protection to workers. One type of engineering control involves built-in protection as part of the
work process concerned. These engineering controls should be built in during the design phase;
they may be implemented later, but this tends to be more costly. Engineering controls may be
more expensive to implement than methods which depend on continual vigilance or intervention
by the worker, but they are safer. Examples include erecting guards around machines to prevent
accidents or encasing a noise source with a muffler. Another form of engineering control is the
mechanization process. This involves the use of a machine to do dangerous work rather than
exposing a worker to the hazard. An example is the use of an automatic parts dipper on a vapour
degreaser rather than having dipped parts into the tank by hand.
Where the elimination of hazardous substances is not practicable in existing plants and
processes, employers or managers should apply technical measures to control the hazard or risk
by changing the process, so that the job is done in a completely different and safer way, or by
enclosing the process completely to keep the hazard from reaching the worker. If the problems
still cannot be solved by these methods, then methods such as local exhaust ventilation could be
used to control the hazard. These and other appropriate measures should be taken so that the
exposure level is reduced to a level which, in the light of current knowledge, is not expected to
damage the health of workers, even if they should go on being exposed at the same level for the
duration of their working lives.
Good work practices and working methods can ensure that hazardous materials are contained
before they become a problem. Where complete containment has not been achieved, strict
housekeeping and personal hygiene are absolutely essential to ensure workplace and personal
safety. In the presence of toxic chemicals, for instance, strict personal hygiene must always be
observed so as to prevent local irritations or the absorption of such chemicals through the skin.
Where hazardous substances such as lead dust in a storage battery plant or asbestos dust in brake
shoe manufacture are involved, inadequate housekeeping can result in toxic materials circulating
in the air. There are several ways of maintaining good housekeeping; for example: • vacuuming
is the best way of cleaning up dust, as dry sweeping often makes the problem worse by pushing
dust particles back into the air; and • Regular and thorough maintenance of machines and
equipment will reduce dust and fumes
Engineering controls
Enclosure
If a hazardous substance or work process cannot be eliminated or substituted, then enclosing it so
workers are not exposed to the hazard is the next best method of control. Many hazards can be
controlled by partially or totally enclosing the work process. Highly toxic materials that can be
released into the air should be totally enclosed, usually by using a mechanical handling device or
a closed glove system that can be operated from the outside. Enclosing hazards can minimize
possible exposure, but does not eliminate them. To prevent workers from being exposed, other
protective measures (such as protective clothing, respirators, proper training, medical
surveillance, etc) must be used as well as safety procedures. Machine guarding is another form of
enclosure that prevent workers coming into contact with dangerous parts of machines. Workers
should receive training on how to use guarded machine safely.
Isolation
Isolation can be an effective method of control if a hazardous material can be moved to a part of
work place where fewer people will be exposed, or if a job can be changed to a shift when fewer
people are exposed (such as weekend or midnight shift). The worker can also be isolated from
hazardous job. Whether it is the job or the worker that is isolated access to the dangerous work
areas should be limited to few people as much as possible to reduce exposures. It is also
important to limit the length of time and the amount substance (s) to which workers are exposed
if they must work in hazardous area.
Dust producing work should be isolated from other work areas to prevent other worker from
being exposed. At the same time, workers in the dusty areas must be protected and restricted to
only a short time working in those areas. Remember: isolating the work process or the worker
does not eliminate the hazard which means workers can still be exposed.
Ventilation
Ventilation in work place can be used for two reasons: 1) to prevent the work environment from
being too hot, cold, dry or humid. 2) to prevent contaminates in the air from getting into the area
where workers breathe, Generally there are two categories of ventilation.
Local exhaust Ventilation system captures or contains the contaminants at their source before
they escape into the workroom environment. A typical system contains one or more hoods,
ducts, air cleaners and a fan. Such systems remove but do not dilute like general exhaust,
ventilation although removal may not be 100 percent complete. This method is very useful
especially the chemical or contaminants that cannot be controlled by substitution, changing the
process, isolation or enclosure. One other major advantage in such system requires less airflow
than dilution ventilation system.
General or dilution Ventilation: This adds or removes air from work place to keep the
concentrations of an air contaminant below hazardous level. This system uses natural convection
through open doors or windows, roof ventilators and chimneys, or air movement produced by
fans or blowers. It is recommended if:
1. Small quantities of air contaminants released into the workroom at fairly uniform rate. 2.
Sufficient distance between the worker and the contaminant source to allow sufficient air
movement to dilute the contaminant to a safe level. 3. Only contaminant of low toxicity are being
used 4. No need to collect or filter the contaminants before exhaust air is discharged into the
community environment. 5. No corrosion or other damage to equipment from the diluted
contaminants in the workroom area.

2. Substitution
Where necessary for the protection of workers, the competent authority should require the
replacement of hazardous substances by substitute materials, in so far as this is possible. For
example, in the case of asbestos or products containing asbestos, national laws or regulations
must provide for its replacement, if technically practicable, by other materials and products or
the use of alternative technology, scientifically evaluated by the competent authority as harmless
or less harmful. There could be total or partial prohibition of the use of asbestos or of certain
types of asbestos or products containing asbestos in certain work processes. It is, however,
necessary to ensure that the substitute is really safer.
If a practically dangerous chemical or work processes cannot be completely eliminated, then it
should be applied with a safer substitute. It is not easy to find safer chemical substitute (in fact,
no chemical should be considered completely safe). It is important to review current reports
every year on the chemicals used in the work places so that safe chemicals could be considered
for the future.
3. Work practices and organizational methods
Where the evaluation of the working environment shows that elimination of risk and total
enclosure of machinery are both impracticable, employers should:  Reduce exposure as much as
possible, through administrative or organizational measures, so as to reduce the source of the
hazard, so that risks are confined to some areas where engineering control measures can be
applied effectively.  Adopt adequate work practices and working-time arrangements so that
workers exposure to hazards is effectively controlled. Minimize the magnitude of exposure, the
number of workers exposed and the duration of exposure, e.g. carry out noisy operations at night
or during the weekend, when fewer workers are exposed.
4. Personal protective equipment
When none of the above approaches is feasible, or when the degree of safety achieved by them is
considered inadequate, the only solution is to provide exposed persons with suitable personal
protective equipment and protective clothing. This is the final line of defence and should be used
only as a last resort, since it entails reliance on active cooperation and compliance by the
workers. Moreover, such equipment may be heavy, cumbersome and uncomfortable, and may
restrict movement. Employers should consult workers or their representatives on suitable
personal protective equipment and clothing, having regard to the type of work and the type and
level of risks. Furthermore, when hazards cannot be otherwise prevented or controlled,
employers should provide and maintain such equipment and clothing as are reasonably
necessary, without cost to the workers. The employer should provide the workers with the
appropriate means to enable them to use the individual protective equipment. Indeed, the
employer has a duty to ensure its proper use. Protective equipment and clothing should comply
with the standards set by the competent authority and take ergonomic principles into account.
Workers have the obligation to make proper use of and take good care of the personal protective
equipment and protective clothing provided for their use.
Personal protective equipment (PPE) is the least effective method of controlling occupational
hazards and should be used only when other methods cannot control hazards sufficiently. PPE
can be uncomfortable, may decrease work performance and may create new health and safety
hazards. For example, ear protectors can prevent hearing warning signals, respirators can make it
harder to breathe, earplugs may cause infection and leaky gloves can trap and spread hazardous
chemicals against the skin.
Safety goggles protects the eyes, protective face shield and gloves, safety helmets protects the
head from possible injury. Dust masks 3. Gloves 4. Protective suits 5. Safety shoes
5. Technological change
Technological progress can play an important role in improving working conditions and job
content, but it can also introduce new hazards. Great care should therefore be taken in both the
choice and the international transfer of technology in order to avoid potential hazards and ensure
that the technology is adapted to local conditions. Management should consult with workers’
representatives whenever new technology is introduced. The hazards associated with
technologies (equipment, substances and processes) used at the work site must be identified and
effective measures taken to eliminate or control them. This means that safety factors should be
built in, and that working conditions, organization and methods should be adapted to the
characteristics and capacities of workers.
The introduction of new technology should be accompanied by adequate information and
training. Furthermore, potentially dangerous machinery, equipment or substances should not be
exported without adequate safeguards being put in place, including information on safe use in the
language of the importing country. It is the duty of the governments of importing countries to
review national legislation to make sure that it includes provisions to stop the import of
technology detrimental to occupational safety and health or working conditions.
6. Protection of the general environment
The importance of protecting workers, the general public and the environment from materials
containing hazardous substances cannot be overemphasized. To this end, the competent authority
should ensure that criteria consistent with national or international regulations regarding disposal
of hazardous waste are established. Procedures to be followed in the disposal and treatment of
hazardous waste products should also be established, with a view to ensuring the safety of
workers, and the protection of the general public and the environment. Employers must therefore
dispose of waste containing hazardous materials, such as asbestos, in a manner that does not pose
a health risk to the workers concerned, including those handling the waste material, or to the
general population. Furthermore, it is up to the competent authority and employers to take
measures to prevent pollution of the general environment by dust or other pollutants released
from the work site.
Sanitation
Workers health, physical and psychological development are associated with the working and the
external environment. The general sanitation of the industry and the healthful conditions are
necessary for conserving health or to ensure the protection of occupational health safety and
hygiene and measuring or providing the efficiency of the work place.
Therefore, an industrial plant should satisfy the following conditions and facilities.
The provision of safe potable and adequate water supply. Proper collection and disposal of liquid
waste. The provision of adequate sanitary facilities and other personal services. General
cleanness and maintenance of industrial establishment of protecting good house keeping of the
plant. Maintaining good ventilation and proper lighting systems.
Good Housekeeping and Maintenance
This includes cleanliness of the work place, waste disposal and adequate washing, adequate
toilet, clean eating facilities, and independent cloakroom. Good housekeeping play a key role in
the control of occupational health hazard. Immediate cleanup of any accidental spill of toxic
materials is a very important control measure. A regular clean up schedule preferably using
vacuum cleaners or using wet methods when vacuum is not available is an effective method of
removing dirt that is probably laden with harmful substances form the work area. Good house
keeping is essential where solvents are store, handled and used. It is also very important to
provide a cleaning and maintenance schedule to any work place so that harmful dust may not
accumulate on ceilings, pipes, and other objects within the work area. Highly trained individuals
under strict supervision must carry out disposal of hazardous materials.
Water Supply
The provision of safe and adequate water supply is the most important element in industrial
settings. Water can be used for the following purposes in an industrial plant:
It may be used as raw material in the production process. Used for cooling purposes in the
machines Used for cleaning and washing of equipment Used by employees to keep their personal
hygieneServe as a means for waste disposal in water carrying systems For drinking and cooling
purposes. water supply should be safe, adequate and wholesome and which satisfy public health
standards
Sanitary Facilities
Excreta disposal facilities: observation of many plants or industries indicated that latrines and
toilets used by the workers are of a primitive and unsanitary nature or in some cases there are
none at all.
Washing Facilities: adequate, suitable and conveniently accessible washing facilities should be
provided for employees. There should be a supply of running water; in addition soap and clean
towels should be supplied and common towels should be discouraged as much as possible.
Refuse disposal
Proper solid waste management starting from the source to generation to the final disposal site is
highly required in industries where different kinds of wastes are generated. Industrial solid
wastes may contain hazardous materials that required special precaution and procedures. But
combustible solid wastes except poisonous and flammable or explosive materials can be handled
in the convenient manner.
Liquid waste collection and disposal
Industrial liquid wastes if not properly disposed could pollute rivers, lakes, environment and
drinking water supply. Toxic liquid wastes should be diluted, neutralized and filtered, settled or
other wise chemically treated before being discharged into a stream or river or on open land.
Under no circumstances should be toxic, corrosive, flammable or volatile materials be
discharged into a public drainage system.
Illumination/lighting
The intensity of light source is measured by the standard candle. This is the light given by a
candle, which has been agreed upon so that it is approximately uniform. The intensity of
illumination is measured by the foot-candle. This is the illumination given by a source of one
candle to an area one foot away from the source. For checking illumination, the foot-candle
meter is very useful. Inspectors in determining and measuring illumination at the factory workers
bench can use it. The window glass area of the workroom should be (usually) 15-20 % of the
floor area.
Advantage of good lighting • Safeguards eye sight • Reduce accident and hazards • Saves the
workers time and cuts down the amount of spoiled work and therefore it is economically
profitable.
There are two broad control strategies that can be used at the workplace to control hazards ie
1. Safe work environment
2. Safe worker environment
Safe work environment control strategies
These are measures that target the workplace. The aim is to eliminate or reduce conditions at the
workplace which may lead to accidents or diseases. The Global Plan stipulates that the
workplace should not be detrimental to health and well-being. Furthermore, the workplace can
serve as a setting for delivery of other essential public health interventions, and for health
promotion.
A healthy workplace should not present any avoidable risk to the physical, psychological and
social well-being of the workers and should allow them to strengthen and promote their health.
Improving the health of workers requires a comprehensive approach to the protection and
promotion of health at work including control of occupational hazards, development of an
enabling physical, psychological and social working environment as well as promoting healthy
behaviour.
The healthy workplace approach provides an opportunity to resolve basic health problems by
creating synergies between occupational health, health protection and promotion, human
resources management, sustainable human development, and environmental protection. In this
approach the workplace is regarded as a setting for protecting and promoting health. This
requires planning to deliver and evaluate health interventions within the context of the worksite
organization, its specific culture with formal and informal networks, and in interaction with the
surrounding environment and local communities, including the workers families.
With this approach, the prevention of occupational hazards, as already mentioned, is accorded
highest priority. Another key element of the healthy workplace approach is the improvement of
the psychological and social working environment through the creation of work settings that
foster mental and social well-being and the empowerment of individuals and work communities.
The workplace can also be a setting to implement public health interventions, for example the
prevention and treatment of diseases such as HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, malaria and other major
health threats, and provision of immunizations, particularly in low income settings. It can be
used for the integrated prevention of non-communicable diseases, including cardiovascular
diseases, cancer, diabetes, respiratory diseases and to promote mental health.
Hazard control by safe work environment can be done through:
a. Enforcement of standards and mitigation regulations
b. Adequate workplace design e.g.
 Suitable lighting and ventilation
 Proper storage facilities
 Fire exits
 Lighting arrestors
c. Engineering methods e.g.
 Isolation
 Substantial materials
  Change of process
d. Maintainace of machinery through oiling or greasing
e. Maintainace of buildings
f. Mechanization of carrying e.g.
 Using wheelbarrows and trolleys
 Proper selection of tools and equipment
 Proper housekeeping i.e. clearing passage ways
g. Notices and signs
h. Bush clearing
i. Proper chemical storage
Safe worker strategy
These are measures that focus on the individual workers and they include
a. Ensuring proper use of personal protective equipment e.g. face masks, shoes
b. Trainings and education
c. Use of the right equipment
d. Following rules and regulations
e. Limiting exposure time
f. Proper supervision
Biohazard Control Program
1. Employee health.
Pre placement examination for new employee. Periodic physical examination as part of a
surveillance program. Vaccination.
2. Laboratory safety and health.
Employee training Avoid if possible entering into a biohazard areas. Avoid eating, drinking,
smoking and gum chewing in biohazard areas Wearing personal protective equipment is always
advisable.
3. Biological safety cabinet
To protect workers from exposure to aerosols especially when there is contact with biohazards in
laundry activities.
4. Animal care and handling
Periodic examination, disposal of manure, cleanliness, collection of medical history and
treatment.

The Basic Industrial Hygiene Program

a) Managing exposure hazards like these comes under the category of industrial hygiene, and
involves recognition, evaluation and control. First, the facility's health and safety officers
(possibly working with teams of supervisors and employees) must recognize possible exposure
interviews, records review, and reviews of government and non governmental standards
regarding various occupational exposure hazards.
b) Having identified a possible hazard, the evaluation phase involves determining how severe
the hazard is.
c) Finally, the hazard control phase involves eliminating or reducing the hazard. Note that
personal protective gear such as face masks arc generally the last option for dealing with such
problems. Before relying on these, the employer must install engineering.

Promoting Safety
Many things can be done to promote safety. Some suggestions are provided below.
a) Make the Work Interesting.
Uninteresting work often leads to boredom, fatigue, and stress, all of which can cause accidents.
In many instances, job enrichment can be used to make the work more interesting. Simple
changes can often make the work more meaningful to the employee. Job enrichment attempts are
usually successful if they add responsibility, challenge, and similar qualities that contribute to the
employee’s positive inner feelings about the job.
b) Establish a Safety Committee.
Include operative employees and representatives of management. The safety committee is a way
to get employees directly involved in the operation of the safety program. A rotating membership
of 5 to 12 members is usually desirable. Normal duties of a safety committee include inspecting,
observing work practices, investigating accidents, and making recommendations. The safety
committee should hold a meeting at least once a month, and attendance should be mandatory.
c) Features Employee Safety Contest.
Give prizes to the work group or employee having the best safety record for a given period.
Contests can also be held to test safety knowledge. Prizes might be awarded periodically to
employees who submit good accident-prevention ideas.
d) Publicize Safety Statistics.
Monthly reports of accidents can be posted. Solicit ideas on how such accidents could be avoided
in the future.
e) Periodically Holds Safety Meetings.
Have employees participate in these meetings as role players or instructors. Use such themes as
"Get the shock (electric) out of your life." Audiovisual aids such as movies and slides might be
used.
f) Use Bulletin Boards.
Make use of bulletin boards throughout the organization. Pictures, sketches, and cartoons can be
effective if they are properly used and frequently change.
g) Reward Employee Participation.
Provide some type of reward or recognition for people that are actively and positively involved
in the safety program. One possibility is to recognize one employee each month as the "Safety
employee of the month."
The primary responsibility of the industrial hygienist is as follows:
To protect the health of the employees.
To maintain an objective attitude towards anticipation, recognition, evaluation and control of
health hazards.
To council employees regarding the health hazards and the necessary precaution to avoid adverse
health effects.
To respect confidences, advise honestly, and report findings and recommendations accurately.
To act responsibly in the application of industrial hygiene principles toward the attainment of a
healthful working environment.
PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE), is equipment or clothing designed to protect individuals
from workplace hazards and reduce the risk of injury or illness. PPE is used when engineering
and administrative controls are not sufficient or feasible to eliminate or mitigate hazards.
Personal protective equipment (PPE) -refers to all equipment (e.g. devices, appliances and
associated accessories) that is worn by an individual, in order to provide protection against one
or more health or safety risks, whilst at work. There are two types of PPE these
include simple and complex.
Simple personal protective equipment – this refers to equipment that has a basic design model, it
protects against lower risk hazards. It is reasonable to assume with this type of PPE that the user
– is aware of the hazards, can see the risk gradually increasing and is able to make an assessment
and safely identify the need for PPE to be worn.
Complex personal protective equipment – this refers to equipment that it more of a technical
design and provides protection against fatal or serious risk. With this type of PPE, the user
cannot identity the hazard in sufficient time and is immediately exposed to hazards that have
irreversible effects.
There are two main groups of PPEs i.e.
1. Personal protective equipment
2. Collective protectors
Personal protective equipment : are used to protect individuals or workers directly exposed to
hazardous processes or substances. Examples include: Safety shoes, gloves, helmets, eye
protectors, ear muffs, overalls
Collective protectors: provide protection to several workers present at a place of work e.g.
barriers, fences, shields.
Criteria for selecting personal protective equipment
 Must provide protection against specific hazards of any nature  Durable  Minimum
discomfort  Allow maximum mobility, visibility and balance  Fit properly  Light to wear
Use of PPE
1. Working clothes
Avoid wearing loose, torn, rugged clothes, neckties, chains near moving machines Use short
sleeved shirts Prohibit flammable material in operations involving danger of explosion or fire
Sharp or pointed object, explosives or flammable liquids should not be kept in the pocket If
exposed to flammable or explosives do not wear clothes with turn ups as they might collect the
explosive materials.
2. Eye protectors
Periodic medical exams of workers’ eyes should be done t detect individual cases. Eye protection
should be worn correctly and should be inspected regularly
3. Safety shoes
Are worn for protection against falling objects, protruding nails, bites, acids, cold environments,
electricians should wear non-conducting shoes. Those dealing/working with explosives should
wear non-sparking shoes
4. Gloves
Should protect workers against hazards but still allow fingers to move freely
5. Helmets/ hard harts
Protect the head against falling/flying objects. Areas with such possibility should be marked
Should be strong enough but not heavy.

Head Protection: Hard hats or safety helmets are worn to protect the head from falling objects,
impacts, or electrical hazards. They often include a suspension system to absorb and distribute
impact energy.
Eye and Face Protection: Safety glasses, goggles, or face shields shield the eyes and face from
debris, chemicals, sparks, or radiation. They provide a barrier against flying objects, liquid
splashes, or harmful substances.
Hearing Protection: Earplugs or earmuffs are used to reduce the risk of hearing damage caused
by loud noise or prolonged exposure to high noise levels. They help attenuate sound and protect
the ears.
Respiratory Protection: Respirators, such as dust masks, filtering facepieces, or powered air-
purifying respirators (PAPRs), are worn to protect the respiratory system from harmful airborne
contaminants, gases, vapors, or particles.
Hand Protection: Gloves are used to safeguard the hands from cuts, abrasions, chemicals,
punctures, heat, or cold. Different types of gloves are available, including leather gloves, cut-
resistant gloves, chemical-resistant gloves, and heat-resistant gloves.
Foot Protection: Safety footwear, such as steel-toed boots or shoes, protect the feet from falling
objects, crushing hazards, punctures, electrical hazards, or slips and falls. They provide impact
resistance and sole protection.
Body Protection: Protective clothing, coveralls, or aprons shield the body from hazardous
substances, splashes, sparks, flames, or extreme temperatures. They are made from materials that
provide resistance to specific hazards.
Fall Protection: Fall arrest systems, including harnesses, lanyards, and anchor points, are used
to prevent falls from heights and protect workers working at elevated levels. They help minimize
the risk of serious injuries.
Work restraint systems – These prevent the user from reaching zones where the risk of a fall
exists, this means they will be protected from falling and hurting themselves
Work positioning systems – These are similar to work restraint systems and allows the user to
have both hands for working. If using this system, you must always have a backup system in
place.
Fall protection (e.g. safety harnesses).
High-Visibility Clothing: Hi-vis clothing, typically in bright colors with reflective strips,
improves visibility in low-light conditions or when working near moving vehicles or machinery.
It enhances worker safety and reduces the risk of accidents.
Protective Headsets: In environments with excessive noise or harmful frequencies, protective
headsets with built-in communication systems help reduce noise levels while allowing workers
to communicate effectively.
Skin protection Aprons – these only cover part of the body. overalls, coveralls, body suits,
boiler suits and chemical suits, knee pads, gaiters, hard fibre or metal guards, which help to
protect against some impact hazards.
Protective clothing and appliances for the workers
 Section 101 of the occupational safety and health Act requires that in workplaces where
employees are exposed to wet or to any injurious or offensive substances; the employers must
provide and maintain clothing and appliances that are adequate effective and suitably protective,
including where necessary suitable gloves, footwear and goggle and head coverings. For
enforcement the director is required to register safety consultant to assess the suitability and
effective of such clothes and appliances.
 In the same way section 102 provides that every employer supplies suitable goggles of
effective screens to protect the eyes of persons involved in.
 Welding or cutting of metals by means of an electrical oxyacetylene or similar process 
Turning of non-ferrous metals or of cast iron or of articles of such metals are such iron where the
work is done dry, other than precision turning where the use of goggles or a screen would
seriously interfere with the work or turning by means of hand tools.  Dry grinding of metals or
articles of metals applied by hand to revolving wheel or disc driven by mechanical power
How PPE increase accident rates
 If not properly maintained  Interfere with natural body movement  If fitting tightly or loosely
 If reacting to the skin
How use of PPE can be affected
 Climate/weather  Culture and attitude of workers  Condition of workplace o Few equipment
o Environment of the job
Improper use of equipment can be overcome by:
 Education and training of the workers  Proper supervision  Proper selection of the equipment

C. Risk control
Determine the nature and severity of the risk, who is affected and the frequency of the risk. The
following methods are recommended to mitigate the risks identified:
q. Eliminate the hazard. Elimination of the hazard is not always achievable though it does totally
remove the hazard and thereby eliminates the risk of exposure.
r. Substitute the hazard. Substituting the hazard may not remove all of the hazards associated
with the process or activity and may introduce different hazards but the overall harm or health
effects will be lessened.
s. Isolation. Isolating the hazard is achieved by restricting access to plant and equipment or in the
case of substances locking them away under strict controls.
t. Use engineering controls. Engineering Controls involve redesigning a process to place a barrier
between the person and the hazard or remove the hazard from the person, such as machinery
guarding, proximity guarding, extraction systems or removing the operator to a remote location
away from the hazard.
u. Use administrative controls. Administrative controls include adopting standard operating
procedures or safe work practices or providing appropriate training, instruction or information to
reduce the potential for harm and/or adverse health effects to person(s). Isolation and permit to
work procedures are examples of administrative controls.
v. Use personal protective equipment (PPE). Personal protective equipment (PPE) include
gloves, glasses, earmuffs, aprons, safety footwear, dust masks which are designed to reduce
exposure to the hazard. PPE is usually seen as the last line of defense and is usually used in
conjunction with one or more of the other control measures.

APPROPRIATE RISK CONTROLS IN REGARD TO OHS

[Link]: The most effective control measure is to eliminate the hazard altogether. This can
be achieved by redesigning processes, substituting hazardous substances with safer alternatives,
or removing the hazard from the workplace.
[Link] Controls: These controls involve modifying the physical work environment or
equipment to reduce or eliminate hazards. Examples include installing machine guards,
providing ventilation systems, implementing noise reduction measures, or automating processes
to minimize manual handling.
[Link] Controls: These controls involve implementing procedures, policies, and
practices to reduce the risk of exposure to hazards. Examples include implementing safe work
practices, job rotation, training programs, scheduling breaks, and maintaining proper signage and
warning systems.
[Link] Protective Equipment (PPE): When hazards cannot be adequately controlled through
other means, PPE is used as a last line of defense. PPE includes safety glasses, helmets, gloves,
respirators, and other equipment designed to protect individuals from specific hazards. Proper
selection, training, fitting, and maintenance of PPE are crucial for its effectiveness.
[Link] Work Practices: Implementing and enforcing safe work practices and procedures is vital
for reducing risks. This includes providing clear instructions, standard operating procedures
(SOPs), and training employees on the proper methods of performing tasks safely.
[Link] and Education: Proper training and education programs help ensure that employees
are aware of workplace hazards, understand safe work practices, and have the necessary skills to
perform their tasks safely. Ongoing training is essential to keep employees updated on new risks
and control measures.
[Link] Communication: Effective communication of hazards and associated risks is crucial.
This involves providing clear signage, labeling hazardous substances, utilizing safety data sheets
(SDS), and educating employees on the potential risks and precautions associated with their
work.
[Link] Preparedness: Developing and implementing emergency response plans, including
evacuation procedures, first aid training, and regular drills, are essential to minimize the impact
of emergencies and protect the safety of employees.
[Link] Inspections and Monitoring: Conducting regular inspections of the workplace to
identify hazards, assess the effectiveness of control measures, and implementing a system for
monitoring and reviewing safety performance helps ensure ongoing compliance with OHS
standards.
[Link] Improvement: Regularly reviewing and evaluating the effectiveness of risk
controls, conducting incident investigations, and seeking feedback from employees allows for
continuous improvement of safety measures and the identification of emerging hazards.
Taking action
After carrying out the risk assessment action should be taken. The type of action can be ranked in
order of potential effectiveness in the form of a 'safety precedence sequence' as proposed by Holt
and Andrews:
i. Hazard elimination - use of alternatives, design improvements, change of process
ii. Substitution - for example, replacement of a chemical with one which is less risky.
iii. Use of barriers - removing the hazard from the worker or removing the worker from
the hazard.
iv. Use of procedures - limitation of exposure, dilution of exposure, safe systems of
work.
v. Use of warning systems - signs, instructions, labels (depend on human response).
vi. Use of personal protective clothing - this depends on human response and is used as a
side measure only when all other options have been exhausted.
Workplace health surveillance
Surveillance
Disease surveillance is the systematic collection, analysis, and interpretation of health data in
order to detect, control, and prevent health problems.
Epidemiologic surveillance is the macroscopic surveillance perspective, carried out primarily by
public health agencies on a statewide or nationwide basis. These efforts seek to identify and
quantify illness, injury or excessive exposure, and monitor trends in their occurrence across
different industry types, over time, and between geographic areas.
Medical surveillance focuses its surveillance components on the hazards and potential hazards
of a particular workplace, company or group of workers. The concept of workplace health
surveillance is new to occupational health and refers to the removal of the causative factors.
Health screening refers to the early detection and treatment of diseases associated with particular
occupations.
Occupational health surveillance is “the tracking of occupational injuries, illnesses, hazards, and
exposures. Occupational health surveillance system is “a system which includes a functional
capacity for data collection, analysis and dissemination linked to occupational health
programmes”.
Three indicators of workplace health surveillance programme. 1. Availability of easily
obtainable statewide data 2. Public health importance of the occupational health effect or
exposure to be measured 3. Potential for intervention activities
These indicators are useful in:  assessing the ongoing policies and preventive measures
Some limitations include:  the major limitations are the underreporting of occupational health
disorders (very common in most of the undeveloped and developing countries),  inability to
diagnose the etiology by the occupational health care workers.  availability of the data such as
municipal death records.
The most important tool is biomonitoring, which indicates the total body burden of a hazardous
chemical in a worker by means of the laboratory investigations using biological specimens like
urine or blood. The best practice is to use non-invasive procedures as far as possible for this
purpose. Other tools for workplace health surveillance include physical examinations and
epidemiological cohort and case control studies.
The pulmonary function testing is the mainstay of early detection occupational lung diseases.
This test gives information about severity and staging of asthma and other restrictive lung
diseases. The FEV1 is an important screening test. Pulmonary function testing combined with
plathysmography reflects a very clear picture of status of lung functions of the subject.
Audiometry remains the mainstay of diagnosis of noise-induced hearing loss which is the most
common reported occupational disease in all parts of the world. Hand arm assessment and
dermatological assessments are other important tools for workplace health surveillance.
Workplace audits can be performed to:  Check compliance with company rules and regulations
 Check compliance with OSHA rules  Determine the health and safety condition of the
workplace  Determine the safe condition of equipment and machinery  Evaluate supervisor’s
safety and health performance  Evaluate workers’ safety and health performance  Evaluate
progress in safety and health issues and problems  Determine the effectiveness of new processes
or procedural changes  Identify the existence of hazards
Occupational Epidemiology
 Occupational epidemiology involves the application of epidemiologic methods to populations of
workers. Occupational epidemiologic studies may involve looking at workers exposed to a
variety of chemical, biological or physical (e.g., noise, heat, radiation) agents to determine if the
exposures result in the risk of adverse health outcomes. Alternatively, epidemiologic studies may
involve the evaluation of workers with a common adverse health outcome to determine if an
agent or set of agents may explain their disease.
There are currently no specific OSHA standards for occupational epidemiology. However, a
variety of hazards are addressed in specific standards for OSHA access to employee medical
records, recordkeeping, general industry, shipyard employment, and the construction industry.
Epidemiology has been defined as the study of the distribution and determinants of health related
states or events in specified populations, and the application of this study, to the prevention and
control of health problems (Last, 1988). Thus, epidemiologists are concerned not only with
studying health, disease and death but also with devising means to prevent illness and improve
health.
Monitoring and evaluation
Risk assessment is only completed when the hazard has been monitored and evaluated. The Risk
assessment will be effective if the hazard has been eliminated or at least reduced to an acceptable
level.
OSH REPORTING AND DOCUMENTATION
All OSH committee secretaries in health facilities shall establish and maintain records of OSH
events in the facility.
The OSH documents shall include the following:
a. Accident reporting and follow up reports
b. Dangerous occurrences
c. Incidents and near misses
d. Occupational diseases.
a) Accident reporting
Each health care facility shall record, investigate and analyze incidents at the minimum use the
standardized form in appendix 1. The facility shall determine the underlying OSH deficiencies
and other factors that may contribute to occurrence of incidents. The reporting and investigation
shall be done in a timely manner (within 8 hours after occurrence). The results of incident
investigation shall be documented and maintained. Incident and accident reports shall be
reviewed by the facility OSH committee on a monthly basis.
b) Dangerous occurrences
The worker shall report any dangerous occurrences within the work area. The OSH committee
shall maintain a register for such occurrences in the format given in appendix 7. Such
occurrences shall be investigated and action taken.
c) Incidence/ Near misses
The worker shall report any incident and near misses within the work area. The OSH committee
shall maintain a register of incidences/near misses. Such occurrences shall be investigated and
action taken.
d) Notifiable diseases
All occupational diseases must be reported. Every facility shall adopt reporting guidelines
developed and adopted by the National Occupational Safety and Health (NOSH) committee for
occupational diseases. The OSH committee shall maintain a register for reported occupational
diseases.

OSH TRAINING AND CAPACITY BUILDING

Induction program for new employees
a. Every new staff shall be taken through the OSH Policy statement.
b. All new staff shall be trained on risk assessment and risk registers for each cadre.
c. All staff shall be trained on OSH guidelines
d. All staff shall be taken through a safety orientation of the facility.
e. The orientation form should be signed by the employees and the supervisor.
f. In-cooperate OSH in the induction manual by the Ministry of Health, Kenya
Induction of contracted / short term staff
All contractors and short term staff shall undergo OSH induction training depending on the
contract and the job.
 Contractors
a. All contractors shall undergo contractor safety training as part of their contractual requirement.
b. This plan shall be given to all contractors at facility level.
c. It shall be the responsibility of the contractor to ensure the CSP requirement are adhered to
which include induction procedures.
d. The facility OSH contact person shall ensure facility orientation for the contractor.
 Short term Staff
The staff shall be treated the same as other facility staff in matters of OSH.

Internal facility training (existing staff)

a. Identify all job cadres in every health facility
b. Identify OSH training requirements for each cadre of the health workers by carrying out a job
hazard analysis
c. Prepare a risk register for all identified hazards according to cadres.
d. Develop training program for each cadre based on the hazards identified on the risk register.
e. Carry out OSH training needs assessment for every staff as part of annual performance
appraisal.
f. Develop a yearly OSH training Master Plan.
g. Appoint a responsible person or department for the implementation of OSH training.
h. Monitor and evaluate the yearly OSH training program.
i. Ensure OSH trainings meet the requirement of CPD.
j. Repeat the cycle.
OSH capacity building for health workers
Pre and In Service
To ensure that OSH training is in cooperated as part of the curriculum during pre and in service
of health care workers training. The following should be included in existing curriculum for the
following cadres:
• Clinical staff
• Non-clinical staff
At the end of the training program, all clinical staff should be able to:
a. Perform standardized, general occupational/ risk assessments;
b. Perform any necessary further investigation; develop preventive and long-term general
mitigation plans
c. Improve on ability for identification and management of occupational diseases and injuries at
the work place.
d. Offer advice on prevention, management and design rehabilitation plans that recognize the
employment needs of all health workers concerned.
At the end of the training program, all non-clinical staff should be able to:
a. Identify occupational injuries and illnesses that may affect their health
b. Understand how to report the OSH related injuries and illnesses
c. Understand the actions or procedures to take to reduce exposure to OSH related illnesses and
injuries
d. Understand mitigations in place at the work place to reduce exposure to hazards
e. Undertake a risk assessment and identify OSH hazards at the work place.
f. Be able to read and interpret MSDS at the work place
g. Understand WIBA 2007 provisions and how IT applies to them.
Developing OSH trainers’ capacity within healthcare facilities (TOTs)
a. To ensure that training in OSH is maintained in all health care facilities, there should be
adequately trained trainers in Occupational Health and
Safety.
b. The number of trainers per facility will be determined depending on the size of the healthcare
facility.
c. The TOT curriculum will include the following:
i. The contents of OSHA 2007
ii. National OSH guidelines for the health sector
iii. Ministry of Health OSH Policy statement
iv. Training on cadre risk register (facility based) and the mitigation plan.
v. Occupational diseases – Identification and symptoms
vi. Train on Work Injury Benefits Act WIBA 2007

OSH MONITORING EVALUATION AND RESEARCH

1. Monitoring

 National Level
a. The Unit of OHS at national level shall develop national OSH
Indicators.
b. The Unit of OHS shall submit the indicators to NOSH for review, approval and adoption.
c. NOSH committee will ensure that OSH indicators are included in the DHIS. NOSH through
the technical support from the unit of OSH shall monitor the indicators and report to the
Principal Secretary.
d. The Principal Secretary shall ensure a Management review of the OSH indicators is done
annually.
e. The indicators shall be used to set national objectives and targets.
 County Level
a. The COSHR shall coordinate the development, review and approval of county objectives and
targets with reference to national targets and indicators and facility targets and indicators. The
COSHR shall then develop a county yearly implementation plan for the objectives and targets to
be achieved.
b. The COSHR shall monitor the implementation of the objectives and targets and report to the
NOSH committee through the MoH reporting system.
The COSHR shall coordinate quarterly review of the county objectives and targets at county
levels
 Facility Level
a. The facility OSH committee shall review and adopt OSH targets and indicators
b. The facility OSH committee shall develop annual implementation work plans to be integrated
into facility operational plan.
c. The facility OSH committee shall monitor implementation of OSH targets and indicators and
report to sub county OSH representative who subsequently report to the County OSH
representative.
Evaluation
 National and County Levels
Evaluation tools shall be designed and reviewed by the NOSH at national level to determine the
impact of OSH activities on creating OSH culture at the facility level.
a. Unit of OHS will disseminate the evaluation tool to COSH focal person.
b. The COSH focal person shall coordinate evaluation at facility level and compile county
evaluation report.
c. The COSH focal person shall submit the report to the County Health
Management Committee at the county level.

Operational Research
a. Unit of OHS shall coordinate operational research activities on OSH in the Ministry of Health
with the aim of collecting data on OSH, to help the Ministry make informed decisions on matters
of OSH.
b. The data will also inform the development of objectives and targets.
c. The yearly data collected shall be captured through DHIS and will form the baseline OSH data
for the Ministry of Health.
d. Analysis of Data shall be done at the Unit of OHS and reviewed by NOSH .
Evaluation of occupational Environment
The basic principles to evaluate occupational health safety and hygiene hazards, and the
philosophical basis for establishing safe levels of exposure to chemical, physical and biological
agents is based on evaluation of occupational environment.
Evaluation can be defined as the decision making process that results in an opinion as to the
degree of risk arising from exposure to chemical, physical, biological, or other agents. It also
involves making a judgment of the magnitude of these agents and determines the levels of
contaminants arising from a process or work operation and the effectiveness of any control
measures used.
Evaluation Methods
Area or environmental sampling Vs personal sampling
Environmental sampling includes sampling for gases, vapors, aerosol concentrations, noise,
temperature etc. Which are found on the worker or the general work area or environment. Area
or general room air samplings are taken at fixed locations in the work place.
This type of sampling does not provide a good estimate of worker exposure. For this reason it is
used mainly to pinpoint high exposure areas, indicate flammable or explosive concentrations, or
determine if an area should be isolated or restricted to prevent employees from entering a highly
contaminated area.
Personal sampling
The objective of personal sampling is to see the extent of exposure of the person working on a
particular contaminant while he/she is working at a location or work place. It is the preferred
method of evaluating workers exposure to air contaminants.
Grab Sampling Vs integrated Sampling
Air sampling can be conducted for long or short periods depending upon what type of
information is needed. Instantaneous or grab Sampling is the collection of an air sample over a
short period whereas longer period of sampling is called integrated sampling.
Grab samples represent the environmental concentration at a particular point in time. It is ideal
for following cyclic process and for determining air- borne concentration of brief duration but it
is seldom used to estimate eight-hour average concentration.
In integrated sampling, a known volume of air is passed through a collection media to remove
the contaminant from the sampled air stream. It is the preferred method of determining time
weighted averages exposure.
Air evaluation
Air contamination can be divided into two broad groups depending upon physical characteristics.
Gases and vapors AND Particulate
The type of air sampling to be used depends upon a number of factors.
The type of sampling The equipment available The environmental condition The nature of the
toxic contaminants
Noise Evaluation
The purposes of a detailed noise survey are:
To obtain specific information on the noise levels existing at each employee Workstation To
develop guidelines for establishing engineering and/or administrative Controls. To define areas
where hearing protection will be required. To determine those work areas where audiometric
testing of employees is desirable and/or required.
Surveys will help us to determine:
Whether noise problems exist or not; How noisy is created in each work place or station, What
equipment or process is producing the noise, Which employees are exposed to the noise often,
Duration of exposure to the noise, etc.
Noise measurement is conducted using such strategy such as:
1. Measuring noise levels using area measurement methods 2. Work station measurement
Sound measurement falls into two broad categories:
Source measurement involves the collection of acoustical data for the purpose of determining the
characteristics of noise radiated by a source.
Ambient noise measurement ranges from studying a single sound level to making a detailed
analysis showing hundreds of components of complex variations.

HEALTH AND SAFETY AUDITS

Unlike risk assessments which identify specific hazards and quantify the risks attached to them,
health and safety audits provide for a much more comprehensive review of all aspects of health
and safety policies, and procedures and practices programs. Health and safety audits are
therefore broader covering the whole organization.
Health and safety audits are concerned with Health and Safety: a) Policies b) Procedures c)
practices
A safety audit will examine the whole organization in order to test whether it is meeting its
safety aims and objectives. It will examine hierarchies, safety planning processes, decision-
making, delegation, policy-making and implementation as well as all areas of safety program
planning.
Parties involved in conducting safety audits
Safety audits can be conducted by safety advisers and/or personnel specialists. Managers,
employees and trade union representative are also involved. Audits are often carried out under
the support of a health and safety committee with its members taking an active part in conducting
them. Managers can also conduct audits within their departments and, even better, individual
members of these departments can be trained to carry out audits in particular areas. The conduct
of an audit will be facilitated if check lists are prepared. A simple form can also be prepared to
be used for recording the results of the audit. Some organizations also use outside audit
consultants to conduct independent audits.
Auditing Health and safety Policies
The person carrying out the audit should establish the following:
i. Whether health and safety policies in the organization meet legal requirements
ii. Whether senior managers are committed to health and safety
iii. Whether the other managers, team leaders and supervisors are committed to health
and safety
iv. Whether there is a health and safety committee and if not, establish why it’s not there
How effective is the committee is in getting things done.
Auditing Health and Safety Procedures:
i. The person carrying out the audit should establish the following concerning the
procedures:
ii. Whether they support the implementation of health and safety policies
iii. Whether they communicate the need for good health and safety practices
iv. Whether they provide for regular risk assessments
v. Whether they ensure that accidents are investigated thoroughly.
vi. Whether data on health and safety are well recorded
vii. Whether health and safety considerations are given proper weight when designing
systems of work
viii. Whether the management provides safety training, especially induction training and
training when jobs or working methods are changed
Auditing Health and Safety practices
The person carrying out the audit should establish the following concerning the practices:
i. To what extent health and safety practices in all areas of the organization conform to
the specific requirements of the various regulations and codes of practice
ii. Whether risk assessments have been carried out in the organization and whether there
were any findings and the actions taken
iii. Whether there is a positive or negative trend in the health and safety performance of
the organization as shown by the performance indicators. If it is negative, there
should be an explanation of what is being done about it
iv. Whether accidents are investigated thoroughly and the steps taken to prevent their
recurrence
v. Whether there is evidence that managers and supervisors are really concerned about
health and safety
The audit should have answers to the questions above and then generate action. The audit
report will be compiled and those concerned will draw up action programs for approval by
the management.

State Laws for workers Compensation

In the United States, the first of these corrective laws came into effect in 1911 (Wisconsin).
It held an employer financially liable for all disabling accidents arising out of, and in the
course of, employment. Compensation laws (finally passed in every state) came to be
interpreted as also covering occupationally induced chronic illness and injuries suffered in
the place of work (even during off-hours). Organized labor incessantly lobbied for other
improvements in workers' compensation.
At the start of the twentieth century, safety engineering efforts still reflected a paternalistic
attitude. Mechanical and automatic protective devices were designed to make machinery
"fool- proof." Safety of employees was supposed to depend solely on strict enforcement of
safety regulations. Relatively little effort was made to develop safety-mindedness in
employees. Gradually, many employers began to realize that safety education is good
business.
A group of safety-minded professionals took the lead in developing programs for industrial
and public safety. In 1913 the National Safety Council was founded. Executives, as well as
technicians, recognized that "foolproof technology" Is not enough. Sooner or later, some
"fool" will; manage to have, or to create, an accident. By mid-century an enlightened
approach began to make itself felt. An analysis of 75,000 cases had demonstrated
conclusively that 88 percent of industrial accidents were caused primarily by unsafe acts of
persons. This finding suggested that many accidents could be prevented by helping
employees to develop safe practices for their own benefit, and to cooperate with supervisors
and staff experts to make the immediate workplace safe for their fellow workers. Yet until
the late 1960s most corporate executives continued to feel that responsibility for employee
safety and health could properly be left entirely to staff experts. However, changing public
opinion and stronger government regulations had an impact on executive thinking and acting.
A series of mine disasters in the 1950s aroused a high degree of national concern for the
hazardous work life of miners. The occupational hazard of "black lung" also began to be
widely recognized. Each major disaster produced a public clamor for strengthening the rule-
making and enforcement powers of the federal Bureau of Mines (which had been established
in 1910). The Federal Coal Mine safety Act of 1962 gave the Bureau authority to close a
mine upon a finding that conditions existed which might lead to a major disaster. After the
tragic mine accident near Mannington WestVirginia, an outraged public succeeded in forcing
passage of the Federal Coal mine Health and Safety Act, which became law in 1969. Other
industrial operations such as fishing, long shoring, lumbering, papermaking, and processing
of rubber and plastic also endangered the life arid health of workers. Statistics developed by
the National Safety Council showed that the each passing year brought an increasing number
of fatal accidents, injuries, disabilities, and illnesses attributable to industrial activity , but no
action was taken. From 1961 to 1970, the reported in jury rate rose by nearly 29 percent.
Many individual plants of companies had outstanding safety records. But the failure of large
number of employers voluntarily to provide safe working conditions led to stringent
government action.

WORKERS’ COMPENSATION
Each year, thousands of workers die or are injured permanently, and miss one or more days
of work because of job-related injuries and diseases. As a result of workers' compensation
laws, the economic cost of these injuries no longer falls on the unfortunate worker. At the
beginning of the Industrial Revolution, it was the worker and his or her family who had to
bear the burden of industrial accidents. Workers had the right to sue employers, and
employers had the right to defend themselves against the claim of negligence. Three almost
sure defenses were available to employers: those of:
(1) Contributory negligence (workers contributed to their own loss),
(2) Fellow servant rules (the injury was caused by a fellow worker, not the employer), and
(3) Assumption of the risk (the employee should have known the employment was inherently
dangerous when accepting the work).
Workers' compensation legislation created liability for employers, regardless of fault. At the
same time, it took the right to sue away from the employee. The transfer of the cost of
injuries probably went from the worker to the consumer, because the economically rational
employer passes along all costs, including the costs for workers' compensation insurance, to
the consumer.
The purposes of worker’ compensation laws
a) Broad coverage of employees and work-related injuries and diseases.
b) Substantial protection against loss of income.
c) Sufficient medical care and rehabilitation services.
d) Encouragement of safety.
e) An effective delivery system for workers' compensation.
Under current state administration, each workers’ compensation program has criteria for
determining eligibility and for exclusion from coverage. The types of benefit currently
available under workers compensation programs are:
(a) Cash benefits, (b) Medical expenses, and (c) Rehabilitation services.
Workers' compensation insurance may be provided by state-operated funds or private
insurers. In all cases, the premium is based on the amount of payroll and the relative danger
to employees in the industry. Experience rating gives recognition to the safety efforts of a
particular employer. In the case of a dispute between an injured employee and an insurer,
workers' compensation boards are available to settle disputes. Workers' compensation laws
were designed to minimize litigation, and legal disputes should not be an outcome of these
laws.
Current concerns about the workers' compensation program include:
the rapidly increasing health care component;
the spreading cost of cumulative injuries especially those arising from stress;
Inadequate rates for insurers.
Aims of Workers' Compensation laws
Workers' compensation laws aim to provide sure, prompt income and medical benefits work-
related accident victims or their dependents, regardless of fault. Every county has its own
workers' compensation law and commission, and some run their own insurance programs.
However, most require employers to carry workers' compensation insurance with private,
state- approved insurance companies. In most countries governments do not contribute any
funds for workers' compensation.
How Benefits Are Determined.
Workers' compensation benefits can be monetary or medical. In the event of a worker's death
or disablement, the person's dependents receive a cash benefit based on prior earnings-
usually one- half to two-thirds the worker's average weekly wage, per week of employment.
In most countries there is a formula for determining the benefits that can be paid. If the injury
causes a specific loss (such as an arm), the employee may receive additional benefits based
on a statutory list of losses, even though he or she may return to work. In addition to these
cash benefits, employers must furnish medical, surgical, and hospital services as required for
the employee.
For workers' compensation to cover an injury or work-related illness, one must only prove
that it arose while the worker was on the job. It does not matter that he or she may have been
at fault; if the person was on the job when the injury occurred, he or she is entitled to
workers' compensation. For example, suppose you instruct all employees to wear safety
goggles when at their machines. One worker does not and experiences an injury while on the
job. The company must still provide workers' compensation benefits.
Controlling workers compensation cost
In practice, the following ways can be used to reduce workers' compensation claims:
i. Screen out accident-prone workers.
ii. Reduce accident-causing conditions in your facilities.
iii. Reduce the accidents and health problems that trigger these claims-for instance, by
instituting effective safety and health programs and complying with government
safety standards.
Furthermore, while many workers' compensation claims are legitimate, some are not.
Supervisors should therefore watch for typical fraudulent claim red flags, including:
i. vague accident details;
ii. minor accidents resulting in major injuries;
iii. lack of witnesses;
iv. injuries occurring late Friday or very early Monday; and
v. late reporting.
It’s also important to get injured employees back on the job as fast as possible; since
workers' compensation costs accumulate as long as the person is out of work. Many firms
have rehabilitation programs. These include:
i. physical therapy;
ii. career counseling to guide injured employees into new, less strenuous jobs; and
iii. nursing assistance to help reintegrate recipients back into your workforce.
The Work Injury Benefits Act (WIBA)
Accidents and diseases unfortunately occur even in those workplaces where there is a
high standard of compliance with the Occupational Safety and Health Act [OSHA]
which provides for the safety and health of employed persons. How, then, should an
employee who is injured by an accident or contracts a disease in the course of his
employment be compensated?
a) An employee who is injured by an accident or contracts a disease in the course of his
employment should be compensated or paid work injury benefits as provided for in The
Work Injury Benefits Act [WIBA].
b) The WIBA replaced the Workmen Compensation Act, Cap. 236.
 c) The WIBA only awards damages for the loss of EARNING POWER i.e. if an injury
means you can’t earn as much as you did before then you should be awarded damages
for the loss of earnings.
NB: The WIBA does not award damages for:
i. Pain and suffering,
ii. loss of expectation of life,
iii. Loss of money, loss of or damage to goods and
iv. Loss of amenity (curtailment of social activities) e.g. hobbies, pleasures e.t.c.
The WIBA covers all employees, including those employed by the Government.
However, there are some persons who are not covered by the Act. They include the
following:
i. A person employed outside Kenya for a period exceeding twelve months;
ii. A member of the employer’s family dwelling in the employer’s premises but
not for purpose of employment;
iii. A member of the armed forces;
iv. A person whose employment is of a casual nature and who is employed
otherwise than for the purposes of the employer’s trade or business.
When is an employee entitled to compensation?
i. An employee is entitled to compensation (work injury benefits) if he is injured
by an accident arising out of and in the course of his employment and results in
disablement or death.
“In the course of his employment” means that at the time of the accident the
claimant was engaged in his employment or something incidental to (connected
with) his contract of employment.
“Arising out of his employment” means that at the time of the accident his
employment or something incidental to his employment caused the accident.
If you can show that your accident arose in the course of your employment
then it is presumed that it arose out of your employment.
If you are injured by an accident unconnected with your employment you have
no claim.
Temporary disablement: refers to the number of days an accident makes an
employee incapable of work.
Permanent disablement: refers to any permanent injury or disfigurement
caused by an accident to the body of an employee.
ii. An employee is entitled to compensation if he is injured by an accident while being
conveyed to and from his place of employment by means of a vehicle provided by
his employer for the purpose of conveying employees and results in disablement or
death.
 iii. An employee is entitled to compensation if he is injured by an accident while being
engaged in the administration of an emergency service e.g. first aid, rescue work,
fire- fighting and results in disablement or death
iv. An employee is entitled to compensation while at work, if he is injured by an
accident that is caused by another person’s misconduct other than his employer and
results in disablement or death.
When is an injured employee not entitled to compensation?
i. When injury or death results from deliberate self-injury.
ii. When an employee falsely denies suffering from a medical condition which
aggravates an injury or disease,
iii. When injury is aggravated or death is caused by refusal of an employee to
submit to medical aid
Types of work injury benefits provided by the act
a) Compensation for temporary disablement This is compensation paid to an injured
employee in respect of the number of days an accident makes him incapable of
work. An employee who suffers an injury that makes him incapable of work for
three or more days is entitled to receive compensation equivalent to his gross
earnings during the period of incapacitation. Compensation for temporary
disablement should continue to be paid as long as the temporary disablement
continues, but not for a period exceeding twelve months. Note: Compensation for
temporary disablement is not payable if an injured employee is receiving full pay.
b) Compensation for permanent disablement. This is compensation paid to an injured
employee in respect of any permanent injury caused by an accident to his body.
Compensation for permanent disablement is equal to 96 months gross earnings
times the percentage of permanent disablement awarded by a medical practitioner.
Note: In awarding the percentage of permanent disablement a medical practitioner
should make reference to the first schedule of the WIBA. Injury outside the
schedule should be paid at a percentage determined by a medical practitioner.

NOTE An employee should not be paid compensation for permanent disablement,

in respect of one or more accidents, greater than the maximum payable for
permanent total disablement. No payment for temporary disablement should be
deducted from compensation payable for permanent disablement.
Additional Allowances: If an injury causes disablement of such a nature that the
employee is unable to perform the essential functions of life without the constant
assistance of another person an additional allowance should be granted, towards the
cost of such help.
c) Compensation for death
Compensation for death is equal to 96 months gross earnings and is paid to dependants
according to their degree of dependency on the deceased at the time of accident. Where
there is no dependant, compensation for death should be paid to the estate of the
deceased. The employer should, in addition to paying compensation for death, defray
funeral expenses.

Medical Aid
An employer should:
a. Provide and maintain appliances and services for rendering first -aid to an injured
employee.
b. Convey an injured employee to a medical facility and from a medical facility to his
place of residence if necessary.
c. Settle medical expenses incurred by an injured employee.
Note: An employer should not recover from an employee expenses he incurs towards the
cost of medical aid.

Time-limit for lodging a Claim for Compensation

A claim for compensation should be made by or on behalf of the claimant within 12
months after the date of the accident or in the case of death within 12 months after the
date of death.

Time-limit for Payment of Compensation

An employer is required to settle a claim within 90 days after it has been lodged by the
Director of Occupational Safety and Health Services. The Director is required to pay the
money to the injured employee or his dependants within 30 days of receipt of the money
from the employer.

Reporting of Accidents
A written or verbal notice of any accident which occurs in the course of employment
should be given by or on behalf of the employee to the employer; The employer is
required to notify fatal accidents to the Director within 24 hours of their occurrence using
the fastest means possible and thereafter report such accidents through the prescribed
form (DOSH 1) within 7 days of their occurrence.
Non-fatal accidents (those that incapacitates an employee for at least three days) should
be reported to the Director by the employer through form (DOSH 1) within 7 days of
their occurrence.
Implications of the Act to Occupational Diseases
An employee who contracts an occupational disease specified in the 2nd Schedule of the
WIBA or any other disease that arises in the course of his employment is entitled to
compensation as if the disablement or death caused by the disease had been caused by an
accident. If you can show that you were employed in any occupation listed in the 2nd
schedule at any time prior to the date you developed an occupational disease in respect of
that occupation, it shall be presumed that the disease was due to the nature of your
employment.

Reporting of Occupational Diseases

An employee should as soon as possible after the commencement of a disease give
written notice to the employer or to the employer where he was last employed, and to the
Director. An employer should, within 14 days after receiving the notice, report the
disease, using the prescribed form (DOSH1) to the Director. A doctor who examines an
employee should within 14 days after having diagnosed an occupational disease, furnish
a medical report to the Director using the prescribed form (DOSH 1).

CONTINGENCY MEASURES IN REGARD TO OHS

Contingency measures in regard to Occupational Health and Safety (OHS) involve
planning and implementing strategies to address unforeseen events, emergencies, or
incidents that may impact the health and safety of workers. These measures aim to
minimize harm, ensure an effective response, and facilitate a timely return to normal
operations. Here are some key contingency measures in OHS:

Emergency Response Plans: Developing and maintaining comprehensive emergency

response plans is crucial. These plans outline procedures for responding to emergencies
such as fires, natural disasters, chemical spills, or medical emergencies. They include
evacuation routes, assembly points, communication protocols, and roles and
responsibilities of emergency response teams.
First Aid and Medical Assistance: Ensuring that trained personnel are available to
provide first aid and medical assistance is vital. This includes having adequately stocked
first aid kits, training designated individuals in first aid and CPR, and establishing
protocols for summoning medical help.
Communication Systems: Establishing effective communication systems during
emergencies is essential. This may involve utilizing public address systems, two-way
radios, or emergency notification systems to disseminate information and instructions to
employees in a timely manner.
Evacuation Procedures: Developing clear evacuation procedures and regularly
conducting drills to familiarize employees with escape routes, assembly points, and
evacuation protocols. It is important to ensure that evacuation routes are wellmarked and
easily accessible.
Training and Education: Providing regular training and education to employees on
emergency procedures, hazard recognition, and appropriate response measures. This
ensures that employees are prepared to react appropriately during emergencies.
Hazardous Material Spills and Releases: Developing protocols and procedures for
handling and containing hazardous material spills or releases. This includes having
appropriate spill kits, implementing containment measures, and training employees on the
proper response to minimize exposure and environmental impact.
Business Continuity Planning: Identifying critical business functions and developing
plans to maintain operations during and after emergencies. This includes backup systems,
alternative work arrangements, and prioritizing safety while ensuring minimal disruption
to essential services.
Incident Investigation and Reporting: Establishing procedures for investigating
incidents, near-misses, and near-accidents. This helps identify the root causes, implement
corrective actions, and prevent similar incidents in the future.
Psychological Support: Recognizing the potential impact of emergencies on employees’
mental health and providing access to psychological support services. This can include
counseling services, employee assistance programs, or debriefing sessions following
traumatic incidents.
Review and Improvement: Regularly reviewing and updating contingency plans based
on lessons learned, changes in the workplace, or new hazards. Conducting drills and
exercises to test the effectiveness of contingency measures and identifying areas for
improvement.

EMERGENCY PROCEDURES IN REGARD TO OHS

Emergency procedures in regard to Occupational Health and Safety (OHS) are critical for
ensuring the safety and well-being of employees during emergency situations. These
procedures provide a structured framework for responding to emergencies effectively and
minimizing potential risks. Here are key components of emergency procedures in OHS:
1. Emergency Plan Development: Develop a comprehensive emergency plan
specific to the workplace. The plan should include information about potential hazards,
evacuation procedures, communication protocols, emergency contacts, assembly points,
and roles and responsibilities of emergency response teams.
2. Emergency Response Team: Establish an emergency response team comprising
trained individuals responsible for coordinating and executing emergency procedures.
Assign specific roles and responsibilities to team members, including first aiders, floor
wardens, and individuals responsible for communicating with emergency services.
3. Emergency Communication: Establish effective communication systems to relay
emergency information to employees. This can include using public address systems,
two-way radios, alarms, or emergency notification systems. Ensure that communication
methods are easily understood and accessible to all employees.
4. Evacuation Procedures: Develop clear and well-defined evacuation procedures.
Identify primary and secondary evacuation routes, mark exit paths, and ensure that they
are easily accessible and unobstructed. Establish assembly points where employees
should gather after evacuating the building or work area.
5. Alarm Systems: Install and maintain alarm systems to alert employees during
emergencies. Regularly test alarms to ensure they are functional and audible throughout
the workplace. Train employees on recognizing different alarm signals and appropriate
actions to take when an alarm is activated.
6. Emergency Equipment and Facilities: Provide and maintain emergency equipment
and facilities, such as fire extinguishers, first aid kits, emergency lighting, emergency
exits, and evacuation signage. Conduct regular inspections and ensure that equipment is
easily accessible, properly maintained, and in good working condition.
7. Training and Drills: Conduct regular training sessions and drills to educate
employees on emergency procedures and familiarize them with their roles and
responsibilities. Train employees on recognizing emergency alarms, evacuation
procedures, first aid techniques, and any specific hazards relevant to their work area.
8. Emergency Services Contact Information: Display prominently and provide easy
access to emergency contact information, including local emergency services, medical
facilities, and relevant authorities. Ensure that employees are aware of the appropriate
contact numbers to report emergencies.
9. Special Considerations: Consider special needs and requirements of individuals
with disabilities or those who may need additional assistance during emergencies.
Establish protocols for assisting and evacuating individuals who may have mobility
limitations or other specific needs.
10. Review and Improvement: Regularly review and update emergency procedures
based on feedback, lessons learned from drills or real incidents, and changes in the
workplace or workforce. Continuously seek opportunities for improvement and
incorporate any new information or best practices into the emergency plan.

EMERGENCY PREPAREDNESS AND ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION

Emergency preparedness
Employees spend around eight hours per day and there is therefore a need to prepare for
workplace disaster. Preparation for a disaster can save lives and organization’s assets.
Employee should prepare for emergencies like case of fire, a collapsing building, attacks
(e.g. the US World Trade centre and 1998 Nairobi attacks), earthquakes, floods, volcanic
eruptions among many others.

An organization should have an emergency plan. The plan may help reduce the risk of
injury to employees, customers, visitors as well as damage of property. Each employee
should have a responsibility in the plan. Employees should also be trained on how to
handle disasters. Management can outsource the people who are qualified in that area to
train the employees. So many lives were saved due to the high level of emergency
preparedness at the World Trade Centre. Although every disaster will require a unique
way of handling it, but all workplace emergencies will require officials who will respond
and floor plan of the building to assist in the rescue.
There should be a person who is responsible for emergencies in the organization and a
special place where emergency equipments are kept. It is important for every employee to
familiarize himself with the following:
i. Know the safe evacuation routes and fire exit in your workplace
ii. Know the locations of first aid equipments and first aid attendants
iii. Be aware of safe places in the workplace and also dangerous places
iv. Know the position of fire extinguishers.
Personal Workplace Disaster Supplies Kit
In a workplace when a disaster occurs a person may be confined a person may be
confined for hours or even days. Personal Workplace Disaster Supplies Kit can be of
great help. It contains the following:
 i. Flashlight with extra batteries
ii. Battery- powered radio(to receive information)
iii. Food(non-perishable for around 3 days)
iv. Water(plastic containers, avoid glass bottles due to breakages)
v. Medications(usual non-prescription e.g. pain relievers)
vi. First aid supplies( bandages, sterile dressing, waterless alcohol based hand
sanitizer, antiseptic wipes, medical groves, scissors, CPR breathing barrier) Tool
and supplies will include:
 Emergency blanket
 Plastic utensils iii. and feminine supplies)
 Personal hygiene items(toothbrush/paste, soaps
 Plastic garbage bags( for personal sanitation)
 Extra clothes
The kit will depend on personal needs and the nature of disaster one is preparing for.
CONTINGENCY MEASURES AND PROCEDURES
Written emergency procedures plan which describes what actions must be taken to minimize
hazards from fires, explosions or unplanned releases of hazardous waste to air,soil or water.
Contingency planning -is part of a cycle in which the identification and regular monitoring of
risks, vulnerabilities and capacities informs the planning and implementation of measures to
mitigate the risks and prepare to respond.
1. Risk analysis  Identify and monitor priority hazards threatening health  Make assumptions
and potential scenarios
2. Risk mitigation  Identify risk mitigation measures to reduce health consequences (all actions
to reduce the severity, probability of occurrence of, or exposure to, a given hazard and therefore
lessen its impact)  Ensure direct implementation
3. Preparedness actions  Identify preparedness measures to ensure readiness to respond
(planning, allocation of resources, training, exercising)  Plan implementation according to level
of needs and / or imminence of risks
4. Contingency plan  Introduce a contingency or preliminary response plan based on scenarios
 Set preliminary response specific objectives, activities, targets and indicators
5. Action plan  Develop action plan
6. Testing and monitoring  Test plan to ensure validity and functionality and address identified
weaknesses.
Types of emergencies  Fire,  Explosion  medical emergency  rescues,  incidents with
hazardous chemicals  bomb threats  armed confrontations  natural disasters.
Accident Investigation
Reasons for Investigating Accidents
a) Accident investigation and analysis is a means used to prevent accidents.
b) An accident involves several persons
An accident, particularly an injury accident, is an occurrence that usually involves several
persons directly ( i.e. the injured person, his family, his supervisor, the safety officer etc) and
many other indirectly (i.e. those people involved in the design, erection, training e.t.c.)
c) Several persons need to be informed about an accident or dangerous occurrence It will
therefore, nearly always be necessary to inform a number of persons about the occurrence, so
that remedial action may be taken, methods of work reviewed, and if necessary, legal proceeding
instituted It is therefore important that the report made should be comprehensive
d) Accident consequences (Adverse effects of an accident) It is important to note that an accident
can result in injuries or death to the persons who might be involved in the accident causing
destruction of property including:
i. Equipment (e.g. boilers, machinery) and,
ii. Premises (building) It is worth to not these equipments are usually imported and hence
expensive.
Main purpose of investigating an accident or dangerous occurrences.
The main purpose of investigating an accident or dangerous occurrence is to ensure that the
cause of the accident or incident is established with a view of;
(a) Taking remedial measures to ensure that a similar accident or incident does not recur
by;
i. Guarding of previously unguarded machinery.
ii. Servicing of previously un-serviced machines and plants like air receivers, boilers and lifting
equipment e.t.c.
iii. Modifying the process that led to the accident or occurrence of the dangerous incident e.g.
explosion in a reaction vessel resulting from an imbalanced chemical reaction.
iv. Servicing of previously un-serviced machines and plants like air receivers, boilers and lifting
equipment e.t.c.
v. Modifying the process that led to the accident or occurrence of the dangerous incident e.g.
explosion in a reaction vessel resulting from un imbalanced chemical reaction
vi. Establishing if there was any negligence on the part of the occupier (employer) or workers
leading to the accident or incident.
In case investigations reveal that there was negligence.
 i. By any person or persons and it is further established.
ii. that the negligence constitutes a contravention of any section of the Factories and
other places of work act, the Party that is guilty is prosecuted so that he or her can be
punished for breaking the law.
(b) Collection of information and data
Accident investigations help in the collection of information and data that can be used by either
the management or manufacturers in order to improve on the safety of machinery and processes.
Categories of accidents that should be investigated
Essentially all accidents whether minor of serious should be investigated. This is important
because some of the accidents, which might appear minor, may have a potential of being a major
accident that can cause serious injuries or cause loss of life or destruction of property. Also all
incidents of dangerous occurrences should be investigated
Also all cases of occupation diseases should be investigated; e.g. cases of;
a) Asbestosis b) Silicosis c) Cases of dermatitis d) Hearing loss e) Muscular-skeletal injuries
caused by lifting of heavy objects and poor working positions f) Poisoning. g) Cancers
All incidents involving dangerous occurrences should be investigated i.e.
a) Bursting of a revolving vessel, wheel, grindstone or abrasive wheel moved by mechanical
power
b) Failure of lifting machines including Collapse of a crane, hoist or other lifting appliances
c) Explosion or fire causing damage to structure of any room or place in which persons are
employed or to any machine or plant Electrical short circuit or failure of electrical machinery,
plant or apparatus, resulting in a fire or explosion or causing structural damage
d) Failure of pressure vessels resulting in explosion e.g. boiler, air receiver or container used for
storage at a pressure greater than atmospheric pressure
e) Accidental release of toxic chemical fumes, gases, vapours, liquid or substances injurious to
health into the environment or in water system like rivers.
NOTE
a) All accidents and dangerous occurrences should be investigated, regardless of severity of
injury or amount of property damage.
b) All near miss accidents should also be investigated.
The accidents and dangerous occurrences should be investigated by both the members of the
Health and Safety Committee and the Occupational health and safety officer.
Reporting of accidents and dangerous occurrences.
i. All accidents must be reported to Directorate of Occupational Health and Safety
Services. The fatal accident must be reported within 24 hours.
ii. The non-fatal accidents must be reported within a reasonable time and preferably
before the scene of the accident has been disturbed or interfered with. All dangerous
occurrences must be reported to Directorate of Occupational Health and safety
services. It is an offence not to report the accident or dangerous occurrence to
DOHSS. All accidents must also be reported internally to the management.
Investigation procedures
1. When the management receive a report that an accident has occurred in the workplace, the
Director, Manager or Supervisor shall immediately commence internal investigation and also
notify the Directorate of Occupational Health and Safety Services (DOHSS).
2. When the DOHSS receives the notification that an accident has occurred in workplaces,
the Department will send officers to the premises where the accident or dangerous
occurrence has occurred for the purpose of investigating the accident. The investigator will
also interview the injured person, other workers, manager, or supervisor in order to establish;
a) What the injured person was doing at the time of the accident
b) What he was supposed to be doing
c)What are the normal procedures of work?
d) How the machine is usually operated
e) Whether the management had put guards or established safe system of work e.g. work
permits
f) Whether the employee had been provided with safety equipment and if not, why
g) Whether the worker(s) were wearing the required personal protective clothing
h) Whether the worker was doing the assigned duties
i) Whether there was a first aid kit and trained fast aider
j) Whether the worker is properly trained and experienced
k) The nature of injury i.e. whether fatal or the extent of the injury
l) What actually led to the accident or dangerous occurrence
m) Whether the worker(s) had deviated from the normal safe working procedures
recommended for operating the plant, machine or process.
n) Establish whether any provided personal protective clothing was of the correct type and
well maintained.
After gathering information from the above interview, the investigators will determine
whether any section of the Occupational health safety health Act was violated and also
analyze the information.
3) Recording of Statements
While interviewing a person who might have witnessed the accident or dangerous occurrence
and those who have administrative powers and authority to ensure that safety and health is
maintained in the workplace, an occupational health and safety officer may take declarations
from the witness. This statement can be produced in court.
Taking of samples: Where chemicals are involved in the accident or dangerous occurrence,
the investigator should also take samples for analyses.
4) Preserving the scene of accident where machinery are concerned. Where machinery are
involved he or she can confiscate the equipment causing the accident or demand that the
machine causing the accident be preserved in its present state until he/she has completed the
investigation including making sketches and taking photographs.
5) Where a dangerous occurrence involves release of toxic chemicals to the environment, the
investigators can also take samples in the neighbourhood. After collecting all the evidence,
the investigator will then refer to the OSHA to see whether the accident resulted from
contravention of any section of the Act. The Occupational Health and Safety Officer will;
a) Prosecute the occupier in case he established that the law had been breached.
b) Advice the occupier on what should be done to avoid a recurrence.
Where the management from the workplace carries out the investigation, the management
shall take immediate steps to ensure that the hazard that had led to the accident or dangerous
occurrence is eliminated.
Other important factors and information to consider while investigating an accident
1. It is important to classify or identify the types of Accident that you are investigating by
establishing whether the accident resulted from;
a) Unsafe condition or, b) Unsafe behavior
2. It is also important to ensure that you obtain
a) Full names of the injured person(s) and witnesses.
b) Both full post office addresses and physical addresses of the witnesses residences.
c) Departments in which they work in.
d) Date of accident
e) Time of accident and shift
f) Location of the accident (scene of accident)
g) Usual occupational of the injured person(s)
h) Nature of incapacity, whether Fatal or Non fatal (If not fatal which part of the body was
injured)
i) Whether the injured person(s) was employed by the occupier or was a contractor or
visitor.
j) Get the name of the supervisor on duty at the time of the accident.
k) Establish what the injured person was doing at the time of the accident
l) Establish whether the injured person or the person(s) whose action resulted in an accident
or dangerous occurrence was authorised for the purpose of performance of his work to be
where he was and to be doing what he was doing.
m) Confirm whether the accident was reported to the responsible relevant authorities, i.e.
DOHSS and management and if so when it was first reported
n) If the incident involved machinery, plant or vehicle etc establish the type of machine or
plant and its identifying number (e.g. Serial No etc), machine or plant that inflicted injury
and part of the whether the machine or plant was in motion by mechanical power at the time
of incident.
o) If the incident includes chemicals or chemical processes, establish what chemicals were
involved and which process was involved
p) Where the scene has been disturbed, reconstruction of the accident at the original site with
the same equipment may be possible and helpful.
Accident Investigation Report
When an accident is investigated, it is necessary that an accident investigation report is
written.
A. The report;
i. Should be Clear, factual and complete.
[Link] not leave issues suspended or unclear.
[Link] be conclusive in itself and should contain the recommendations from the writer.
B. The report should record in details
The circumstances and cause of the accident,
ii) The application of the factories and other places of Occupational Safety and Health Act
and its subsidiary legislations.
iii) Comments and recommendations
C. The report should be aimed at persuading a person or persons to take action to alter
something or to initiate something that will prevent a repeat of a similar accident
D. Information for the report must be gathered from
i. those persons who witnessed the accident or incident,
ii. those who contributed to its occurrence,
iii. those who assign and supervise the work.
iv. those who can describe the plant or machine process and so on.
In case of an accident investigation carried out by persons employed by the company in
question e.g. safety officer, the report should be addressed to the; Director or Manager who is
expected to take action to remedy the situation.
In case of an investigation carried out by an occupational health and safety officer;
a) The report should be addressed to the Director of Occupational Health and Safety
Services (DOHSS) for further direction.
b) The information obtained by the Occupational Health and Safety officer from witness is
recorded in a declaration form LD. 263.
What should be included in the Report
The report should have the following details;
a) Registration Number of the workplace as per the certificate of registration from DOHSS. .
b) Name of the company
c) Address of the company
) Accident No. as per your classification
e) Nature of work of the industry, e.g. woodworking e.t.c.)
f) Date of the accident
g) Date of notification of the accident to the DOHSS
h) Date of investigation of the accident
i) Name of injured person(s)
j) Nature of injury e.g. fatal etc
k) Plant or machinery, or process involved
l) Name of person(s) interviewed
 The main report should consist of sections covering:
(a) Brief description of the manufacturing process involved.
(b) The circumstances before the occurrence e.g. what was being done
(c) A description of the occurrence i.e. what happened to result in the accident or incidence
(d) Application of the OSHA i.e. were any sections of the law contravened?
(e) Comments and conclusion
(f) Action to be taken e.g. legal action
Description of the Occurrence (part of the report)
The section dealing with the circumstances before the accident should stop at some
convenient place and lead into the occurrence of the accident itself. The description of the
accident or dangerous occurrence should be as detailed as possible, giving where necessary,
the source of the information. You should identify the machinery involved or the process
involved and what exactly happened. It is also useful to give the action after the accident, e.g.
sent to hospital and admitted, received first aid and resumed duty etc
Observation and comment (part of the report)
In this part you describe what your observation was in relation to the circumstances that led
to the accident or dangerous occurrence, giving your view on what might have caused the
accident or dangerous occurrence. You should also give the suggestions on how you think
the accident or dangerous occurrence could have been prevented from happening in the first
place.
Recommendations
Here the reporter puts down formally what he thinks the manager should do to prevent or to
reduce the possibility of a recurrence of a similar accident or dangerous occurrence
In general the duties of a health worker serving an industry are:
i. Pre-employment and routine medical examination of workers
ii. Keeping a continuous watch on working conditions, equipments and materials for
safety precautions and possible dangers,
iii. Co-operating with management in application, enforcement and training with regard
to protective measures
iv. Supervising a first aid clinic
v. Maintaining simple record on which to base prevention and control of occupational
illnesses and accidents
vi. Reporting any serious hazards, injury or accident
INCIDENTS AND EMERGENCIES in regard to OHS
Incidents and emergencies in regard to Occupational Health and Safety (OHS) refer to
unexpected events or situations that pose a threat to the health, safety, or well-being of
employees in the workplace. Prompt and appropriate actions are necessary to mitigate the risks,
protect individuals, and minimize the impact of these incidents. Here’s an overview of incidents
and emergencies in relation to OHS:
1. Incident Reporting: Establish a clear process for reporting all incidents, nearmisses, and
hazards in the workplace. Encourage employees to promptly report any unsafe
conditions, injuries, illnesses, or near-accidents they witness or experience. Incident
reporting provides valuable information for investigation and helps identify areas for
improvement.
2. First Aid and Medical Assistance: Provide immediate first aid and medical assistance to
injured or ill employees. Ensure that trained personnel are available to administer first
aid, assess the situation, and summon additional medical help if necessary. Prompt
medical attention can minimize the severity of injuries and aid in recovery.
3. Hazard Control and Isolation: Take immediate action to control and isolate the hazard to
prevent further harm. This may involve shutting down equipment, containing spills,
securing the area, or activating emergency stop mechanisms. Safeguarding individuals
from ongoing hazards is crucial to protect their safety.
4. Evacuation: If the incident poses an immediate threat to the safety of employees, initiate
an evacuation procedure. Follow established evacuation routes, assembly points, and
communication protocols to ensure a safe and orderly evacuation. ambulance, police).
Provide them with accurate and concise information about the incident, the location, and
the nature of the emergency.
5. Emergency Services Activation: If the incident requires the assistance of emergency
services, promptly contact the relevant authorities (e.g., fire department, ambulance,
police). Provide them with accurate and concise information about the incident, the
location, and the nature of the emergency.
6. Communication and Information Sharing: Establish effective communication
channels to relay information about the incident to employees, emergency responders,
and relevant stakeholders. Keep employees informed about the situation, evacuation
instructions, and any additional safety measures. Ensure that accurate information is
shared in a timely manner.
7. Incident Investigation: Conduct a thorough investigation into the incident to
determine its root causes and contributing factors. Identify any deficiencies in existing
controls or procedures and take corrective actions to prevent similar incidents from
occurring in the future. Document the investigation findings for future reference and
improvement.
8. Psychological Support: Recognize the potential psychological impact of incidents
on employees and provide appropriate support. Offer counseling services, debriefing
sessions, or access to employee assistance programs to address emotional trauma and
promote well-being.
 9. Recovery and Return to Normal Operations: Once the immediate risks have been
mitigated, focus on recovery and returning to normal operations. Assess the impact of the
incident on the workplace, implement necessary repairs or adjustments, and ensure that
employees feel supported and confident in resuming their work.
10. Lessons Learned and Continuous Improvement: Reflect on the incident and the
response to identify lessons learned and opportunities for improvement. Update policies,
procedures, and training programs to incorporate these lessons and enhance the overall
safety and preparedness of the organization. By addressing incidents and emergencies in
a proactive and systematic manner, organizations can protect their employees, minimize
the impact of incidents, and foster a safe work environment.

Provide assistance to individuals with disabilities or special needs as necessary.

Emergency Services Activation: If the incident requires the assistance of emergency services,
promptly contact the relevant authorities (e.g., fire department,
FIRE
It is a chemical reaction between oxygen and a combustible fuel. Combustion is the process by
which fire converts fuel and oxygen into energy usually in form of heat. Three elements are
required to start and sustain fire .
[Link] 2. Fuel 3. Heat
These three elements typically are referred to as the “fire triangle”. Fire is the result of the
reaction between the fuel and oxygen in the air.
Ignition sources can include the any material, equipment or operation that emits a spark or flame
—including obvious items, such as torches, as well as less obvious items, such as static
electricity and grinding operations. Equipment components that radiate heat, such as kettles,
catalytic converters and mufflers, also can be ignition sources.
Fuel sources include combustible materials, such as wood, paper, trash and clothing; flammables
liquids gasoline or solvents; and flammable gases, such as propane or natural gas.
Oxygen in the fire triangle comes from the air in the atmosphere. Air contains approximately
79% nitrogen and 21% oxygen. OSHA describes a hazardous atmosphere as one which is
oxygen-deficient because it has less than 19.5% oxygen, or oxygen enriched because it has
greater than 23.5% oxygen. Either instance is regarded by OSHA as an atmosphere immediately
dangerous to life and health for reasons unrelated to the presence of fire. Depending on the type
of fuel involved, fires can occur with much lower volume of oxygen present than needed to
support human respiration.
Causes of fire Civilian fires
In civilian fires with fatalities the leading causes of ignition are cigarettes,heating and cooking
equipment,matches,lighters andcandles.
Industrial fires
Leading causes are smoke materials,electrical (wiring and motors,poor equipment
maintenance) ,lighting
CLASSES OF FIRE
1. Class A Fire - Fires involving ordinary combustible materials, such as wood, cloth, paper,
rubber and many plastics. Water is used in a cooling or quenching effect to reduce the
temperature of the burning material below its ignition temperature.
CLASS A: Involve solids such as coal, wood, paper and refuse, plastic, textile and their products,
housing clothing. any rapid combustion is due to volatile materials liberated by heating.
Class A Fires: “Ordinary” Fires They occur when common combustible materials like wood,
paper, fabric, trash, and light plastics catch fire. These accidental fires are ubiquitous across a
variety of industries, so it’s recommended to have adequate protection against ―ordinary‖ fires
in addition to other condition specific fires. If there’s an abundance of fuel present, these fires
can intensify quickly. It’s best to put out a Class A fire quickly before it spreads using water or
monoammonium phosphate.
2. Class B Fires - Fires involving flammable liquids, greases and gases. The smothering or
blanketing effect of oxygen exclusion is most effective. Other extinguishing methods include
removal of fuel and temperature reduction.
CLASS B: Involve gases and liquid that must be vaporized for combustion to occur. they are
flammable liquids and gases. In many cases liquids in this fire class will float on water and
continue to burn as long as they are in contact with air.
Class B fires involve flammable liquids and gases, especially fuels like petroleum or petroleum-
based products such as gasoline, paint, and kerosene. Other gases that are highly flammable are
propane and butane, which are common causes of Class B fires. The best way to deal with these
types of fires is by smothering them or removing oxygen using foam or CO2 fire suppression
equipment.
3. Class C Fires - Fires involving energized electrical equipment. This fire can sometimes be
controlled by a non-conducting extinguishing agent. The safest procedure is always to attempt to
de-energize high voltage circuits and treat as a Class A or B fire depending upon the fuel
involved.
CLASS C: They are either class A or B fires but also involve electrical equipment or materials
near electrically powered equipmental refer. Electrical referring to live electricity situations, not
including fires in other materials started by electricity.
Electrical fires fall under Class C and are common in facilities that make heavy use of electrical
equipment, but they can occur in a wide range of industries. For example, data centers might be
an obvious risk area for Class C fires. They must have safeguards in place to deal with electrical
fires. Electrical fires require non-conductive materials to extinguish the flame, so water alone is
not a good solution. Facilities with sensitive equipment may prefer clean agent suppression
because it won ‘t leave residue or damage electrical equipment.
4. Class D Fires - Fires involving combustible metals, such as magnesium, titanium, zirconium,
sodium and potassium. The extremely high temperature of some burning metals makes water and
other common extinguishing agents ineffective. There is no agent available that will effectively
control fires in all combustible metals. Special extinguishing agents are available for control of
fire in each of the metals and are marked specifically for that metal.
CLASS D: Fire involving magnesium, aluminium, titanium, or other easily oxidized metals are
included here, combustion temperatures and energy are high compared to those of hydrocarbon
or wood fires.
Class D fires are not as common as the other classes, but they do require special attention
because they can be especially difficult to extinguish. Metallic fires involve flammable materials
like titanium, aluminum, magnesium, and potassium — all commonly occurring in laboratories.
Class D fires cannot be addressed with water, as this can exacerbate the fire and be potentially
dangerous. Dry powder agents are the best solution for smothering the flames and limiting
damage to property or people.
5. Class K Fires - Class K is a new classification of fire as of 1998 and involves fires in
combustible cooking fuels such as vegetable or animal fats. Its fuels are similar to Class B fuels
but involve high temperature cooking oils and therefore have special characteristics. Class K
agents are usually wet chemicals, water-based solutions of potassium carbonate-based chemical,
potassium acetate-based
Class K fires involve flammable liquids, similar to Class B fires, but are specifically related to
food service and the restaurant industry. These common fires start from the combustion of liquid
cooking materials including grease, oils, and vegetable and animal fats. Because they can spread
quickly and be difficult to manage, Class K fires are some of the most dangerous. Water can
make the situation worse, but smothering the flames or using a wet agent fire extinguisher is
effective.
SPECIAL CATEGORIES This class includes fires involving extremely active oxidizers or fuel
mixers such as flammables with oxygen, nitric acid, or hydrogen peroxide or fires involving
solid missile propellants
Types of fires
A flash fire: A flash fire is a sudden, intense fire caused by ignition of a mixture of air and a
dispersed flammable substance such as a solid (including dust), flammable or combustible liquid
(such as an aerosol or fine mist), or a flammable gas. It is characterized by high temperature,
short duration, and a rapidly moving flame front.
Jet fire: A fire type resulting from the discharge of liquid, vapor, or gas into free space from an
orifice, the momentum of which induces the surrounding atmosphere to mix with the discharged
material.
Pool fire: A pool fire is a type of diffusion flame where a layer of volatile liquid fuel is
evaporating and burning. The fuel layer can be either on a horizontal solid substrate or floating
on a higher-density liquid, usually water
Auto ignition: Auto ignition: is defined as the self-ignition of the vapors emitted by a liquid
heated above its ignition temperature and that, when escaping into the atmosphere, enter into
their explosive range.
Fire prevention.
Fire prevention requires segregating the three elements of the fire triangle.
Fire Extinguishers
Fire extinguishers are portable devices used to extinguish small fires or reduce their destruction
before firefighters arrive at the scene. Different types of fire extinguishers exist in order to
address the 5 different classes of fires. Each fire class describes the fuel or material a fire is
burning or what caused it to start — therefore, using the right extinguisher is essential to put out
the fire safely.
 In buildings, all fire extinguishers will be mounted on a wall and properly marked.
 All vehicles will carry at least one ABC-rated extinguisher.
 When at a job site, all employees will know the location of each fire extinguisher.
 Before using an extinguisher, all employees will be trained and familiar with the PASS method
of firefighting.

Types of Fire Extinguishers

Fire Extinguisher Types
When it comes to fire extinguisher types, there are only a few main ones.
a) Water Fire Extinguisher
These fire extinguishers have a red “water” label on the canister which is most of the time also
colored in red to be visible. The air-pressurized water fire extinguisher uses a mix of tap water
that has been pressurized (to give it force), meaning that it’s a giant, heavy squirt gun or super
soaker.
A water based extinguisher also referred to as a Stored Pressure Air-Water fire extinguisher is an
extinguisher that is filled with water which is stored under pressure (normally by air). These
extinguishers are only appropriate for use on Class A fires. A water extinguisher is effective
because it cools the fire, interrupting the exothermic reaction of a self-sustaining fire.
A water extinguisher operates when water, stored under pressure and contained within the
extinguisher container is expelled after the valve, operated by a hand-held trigger is depressed.
b) Dry Powder Fire Extinguishers
If you’ve ever seen a fire extinguisher, it was likely a dry chemical fire extinguisher. When it
comes to fire extinguisher types, this is the most common. You may have heard them called “dry
chemical” or “dry powder,” but they are basically interchangeable. These fire extinguisher types
often contain baking soda, which is why it comes out as a white powder when you distribute it.
Dry chemical fire extinguishers are used to combat the types of fires that might commonly occur
in the home: wood, paper, gasoline, grease, or electrical fires. These are some of the easiest
elements to ignite, so it’s great that when it comes to fire extinguisher types, this one
extinguisher can combat all these types of fires.
c)Foam Fire Extinguishers
They are good for Class A and Class B fires, which is wood, paper, and textile fires, and
flammable liquids (all things that are likely to catch fire in a home – rather than an industrial
building or laboratory).
d)Carbon Dioxide Fire Extinguishers
When a fire extinguisher is referred to as a “clean agent,” it just means that, after discharging the
extinguisher, there isn’t any residue leftover that needs to be cleaned up. CO2 fire extinguishers
are mainly aimed at electrical fires but are also suitable for Class B liquid fires and are used in
different ways depending on the type of fire they are being used on.
Do not use CO2 extinguishers in small rooms as CO2 gas is poisonous at only 4% concentration
and can kill at just 8%. Only tackle small fires with an extinguisher. If the fire has taken hold do
not fight the fire but evacuate immediately and warn others of the fire, then call the fire and
rescue service. CO2 extinguisher only has a very short discharge time. Ensure all the fire has
been extinguished as re-ignition is easily possible when a CO2 extinguisher has been used. CO2
gas drifts off after use and if the fire is still very hot it might just re-ignite.

Fire Extinguishers and` How They Work

A fire extinguisher is a portable, medium-sized device – typically painted red – that is used `to
put out fires if they start.
There are several fire extinguisher types, and different fire extinguishers work better for specific
types of fires.
A fire happens when three elements are combined in a specific way:
A type of fuel (this can be a liquid, combustible solid, or gas)
Oxygen (this will react with the fuel)
Heat (this has to be enough to take an item past its burning temperature, which will cause it to
ignite if the other two elements are also there
Since these three elements cause fires, it stands to reason that –to stop a fire – you just have to
remove one (or more) of these elements. In most cases, it’s easiest to remove the fuel or the heat,
although that can be harder with forest fires and the like. All fire extinguisher types work in
similar ways – their goal is to remove these three elements from each other. For example, a
carbon-dioxide fire extinguisher removes oxygen from the fire and replaces it with carbon
dioxide instead (which won’t keep the fire going). Luckily, even with multiple fire extinguisher
types, if you need to know how to dispose of a fire extinguisher after it’s empty, it’s pretty
simple.
How To Use Fire Extinguishers
When it comes to fire extinguisher types, you don’t have to worry too hard about how to use fire
extinguishers. They all use the same method, so if you’re having to fight a fire, just
remember . . . P.A.S.S! P.A.S.S. is an easy way to help you remember how to use fire
extinguishers. It stands for:
P = Pull the pin (which will break the seal meant to prevent tampering. If your fire extinguisher
is “new” but the tamper seal is broken, get a new fire extinguisher!)
A = Aim the fire extinguisher nozzle or hose at the base of the fire. Aim as low as possible.
(Also, try not to touch the plastic parts of the fire extinguisher. It can get very cold.)
S = Squeeze the handle. This will force whatever chemical or agent is in the f ire extinguisher to
be discharged. Make sure you’re aiming at the fire!
S = Sweep from side to side. You’re going to want to use a side-to-side motion when aiming at
the base of the fire.
Repeat steps 2-4 until the fire is out. Then wait to see if it re-ignites. If it doesn’t re-ignite, you’re
safe. If it re-ignites, repeat steps 2-4.
Fire Control Method
1. Identify fire hazard in your workplace, e.g. presence of ignition sources (heaters, lighting,
electrical equipment, etc.) and fuel (packaging, plastics, rubber, petrol, chemicals, etc.).
2. Assess the risks posed by the hazards that you’ve identified – this will determine which
hazards need the most urgent attention.
3. Put measures in place to control the risks – the hierarchy of control is a useful tool to use here,
e.g. eliminate work processes that could generate an explosive atmosphere, service and clean all
machinery as recommended by manufacturers, switch off electricity points when the business is
unattended, remove waste material (e.g. fuel) that could act as fuel, store and dispose of
flammable substances correctly.
4. Monitor the hazards and review the controls – this will ensure that the controls are minimizing
the risks effectively.
Reporting and Extinguishing a Fire
 The fire department and area supervisor will be notified when a fire is spotted.
 All workers will be alerted and evacuated a needed.
 The PASS method will be used to extinguish the fire by those employees who have been
properly trained.
 The area will be evacuated immediately if the fire is large.

Fire Protection
 Before each projects begin, the project manager or designer will contact the local fire
department and determine whether any variations from the company’s standard fire-prevention
procedures are required.
 No-smoking signs will be posted in all regulated areas.
 Only approved containers will be used to store flammable or combustible materials.]
 All work areas will be kept free of debris and other combustible materials.
 All employees will be trained on the use of fire extinguishers initially upon hire and annually
thereafter.
 No employee will be permitted to use an extinguisher without having been fully trained.
Fire detection, fire alarm and firefighting system
Fire detection systems are designed to discover fires early in their development when time will
still be available for the safe evacuation of occupants. Early detection also plays a significant role
in protecting the safety of emergency response personnel. Property loss can be reduced and
downtime for the operation minimized through early detection because control efforts are started
while the fire is still small.
Most alarm systems provide information to emergency responders on the location of the fire,
speeding the process of fire control. To be useful, detectors must be coupled with alarms. Alarm
systems provide notice to at least the building occupants and usually transmit a signal to a staffed
monitoring station either on or off site. In some cases, alarms may go directly to the fire
department, although in most locations this is no longer the typical approach.
The one major limitation of these systems is that they do nothing to contain or control the fire.
Suppression systems such as automatic sprinklers act to control the fire. They also provide
notification that they are operating, so they can fill the role of a heat detection-based system if
connected to notification appliances throughout the building. They will not, however, operate as
quickly as a smoke detection system. This is why facilities where rapid notice is essential, even
when equipped with sprinklers, still need detection and alarm systems.
Types of Fire Alarm Detectors:
– Heat detectors
– Smoke detectors
– Carbon Monoxide detectors
– Multi-sensor detectors
 Heat detector can either work on a fixed temperature basis, where it will trigger an alarm
if the temperature exceeds a pre-set value or they can work on the rate of change in
temperature. Commonly Heat detectors work in a similar way to an electrical fuse, the
detectors contain a eutectic alloy which is heat sensitive when a certain temperature is
reached the alloy turns from a solid to a liquid which in turn triggers the alarm.
 The Multi-sensor detectors combine inputs from both optical and heat sensors and
process them using a sophisticated algorithm built into the detector circuitry. When
polled by the control panel the detector returns a value based on the combined responses
from both the optical and heat sensors. They are designed to be sensitive to a wide range
of fires.
 Carbon monoxide detectors are known also as CO fire detectors are electronic detectors
used to indicate the outbreak of fire by sensing the level of carbon monoxide in the air.
Carbon monoxide is a poisonous gas produced by combustion. In this instance, these
detectors are not the same as Carbon monoxide detectors used in the home for protecting
residents against carbon monoxide produced by incomplete combustion in appliances
such as gas fires or boilers. Carbon Monoxide fire detectors use the same type of sensor
as those in the home but are more sensitive and respond more [Link] monoxide
detectors have an electrochemical cell, which senses carbon monoxide, but not smoke or
any other combustion products
 Smoke Detectors. There are three basic types of smoke detectors including:
• Ionization Smoke detector generally contains two chambers. The first is used as a
reference to compensate for changes in ambient temperature, humidity or
pressure. The second chamber contains a radioactive source, usually alpha
particle, which ionizes the air passing through the chamber where a current flows
between two electrodes. When smoke enters the chamber the current flow
decreases. This drop in current flow is used to initiate an alarm.
 • The light scattering smoke detector operates on the Tyndall effect; a photocell and
light source are separated from each other by a darkened chamber such that the
light source does not fall on the photocell. The passage of smoke into the chamber
causes the light from the source to be scattered and fall on the photocell. The
photocell output is being used to initiate an alarm.
• In the Light obscuring smoke detector, smoke interferes with a light beam
between a light source and photocell. The photocell measures the amount of light
it receives. The variation in photocell output, is being used to initiate an alarm.
This type of fire detection equipment can be used to protect large areas with the
light source and photocell positioned some distance apart.
RACE Protocol:
A systematic approach to fire emergencies:
Rescue: Remove patients and staff from the danger zone.
Alarm: Activate the fire alarm system and notify the switchboard.
Confine: Close doors and windows to contain the fire; shut off oxygen
supplies if instructed.
Extinguish / Evacuate: Use appropriate fire extinguishers or evacuate
the area if the fire cannot be controlled.
This protocol ensures a coordinated and effective response to fire
emergencies, minimizing damage and protecting lives
MINIMIZING FIRE RISKS
1. Isolate flammable solids, liquids and gases from sources of ignition such as open flames,
heated surface or unprotected electrical wiring (e.g. adequate marking, suitable fire resistant
containers, paper ventilation.
2. Restrict the distribution of flammable materials used for daily work to only the minimum
amount necessary.
3. Design fuel storage facilities in a clearly marked location well separated from areas where
personnel are working. Keep flammable substances or combustible materials isolated from hot
surface such as machines, equipment and furnaces.
4. When hazardous chemical is present, put into practices fire protection measures as indicated
on chemical safety data sheet.
5. Take adequate precaution when open flames are present (i.e. welding, smelting, and cutting).
Isolate sources of fuel or combustible materials from open flames. The correct fire extinguisher
should be at hand.
6. Safely install and maintain all electrical circuits. All electrical wires should be enclosed in
solid casing to prevent damage except portable tools and lighting.
Adequate earthing is important to prevent:
• arcing, sparking
• overloading and resulting resistance heat
• Short circuit
7. Protect each electrical circuit with an adequate fuse or circuit breaker located near the work
station. Ensure that each circuit is properly labeled. Do not use extension cords. Use fixed wiring
circuits instead. Never use multiple plugs to avoid overloading of circuits.
8. Arrange switches in such a way that individuals can rapidly shut down the work station in case
of an emergency.
9. Before going to bed, unplug every electrical energize appliances/equipment
10. In cases of fire apply the protocol SAFETY.
EMERGENCY EVACUATION
Emergency evacuation is the urgent immediate egress or escape of people away from an area that
contains an imminent threat, an ongoing threat or a hazard to lives or property. Examples range
from the small-scale evacuation of a building due to a storm or fire to the large-scale evacuation
of a city because of a flood, bombardment or approaching weather system, especially a Tropical
Cyclone. In situations involving hazardous materials or possible contamination, evacuees may be
decontaminated prior to being transported out of the contaminated area.
Evacuation Sequence- The sequence of an evacuation can be divided into the following phases:
1. detection 2. decision 3. alarm 4. reaction 5. movement to an area of refuge or an assembly
station 6. Transportation
The time for the first four phases is usually called pre-movement time. The most common
equipment in buildings to facilitate emergency evacuations are fire alarms, exit signs, and
emergency lights. Some structures need special emergency exits or fire escapes to ensure the
availability of alternative escape paths.
Evacuation
Evacuation implies removing all people from a threatened area to a safer place, before,
during or after an emergency. It has been observed that in most disaster events, like
earthquakes, cyclones and fires, a large percentage of total deaths occur due to wrong
evacuation practices or stampede. It is necessary to evacuate using short and safe exits.
Generally, those areas should be avoided that make occupants more vulnerable.
Evacuation in Slow and Rapid Onset Disasters
Mass evacuations are carried out to move people out of impact areas in case of cyclones
or floods, once the warnings have been received. People from expected areas of impact
are moved to cyclone shelters or schools or other public buildings in nearby places that
are designated, emergency shelters. Public vehicles are often organised to make such
evacuation possible. The general public is warned of the coming disaster, and advised to
evacuate themselves or take the help of the government or NGOs working in the area
to move out.

Evacuation is more difficult in very rapid onset disasters such as earthquakes, fires or
accidents. Mass evacuation is not possible in such cases since there is very little or no
warning time available. In such cases people caught in the event can just follow
preplanned evacuation systems and use exit signs, exit routes, meeting points etc. Pre
planning for evacuation is most critical for such situations. Such planning is discussed
in the following sections:

Evacuation Planning
An Evacuation Plan is a plan that shows the shortest and safest exit routes and the
location of first aid, firefighting equipment and SAR equipment in a building or area. The
evacuation plan should be prepared in non-disaster times, and should be kept updated.

It should also be used in mock drills.

To check the level of preparedness provided for in evacuation planning, Evacuation
Checklist has been provided in the Source Book on Disaster Management, Ministry of
Agriculture, and Lal Bahadur Shastri National Academy of Administration, Mussourie.

Evacuation Checklist
Does any person or organization have the authority to evacuate people?
Are there designated locations to which evacuees should travel?
How many people may need to be evacuated?
In what circumstances should they be evacuated?
Who will tell people, that it will be safe to return? Who will trigger this?
Are staging areas and pick -up points identified for evacuation?
Are evacuees to be provided with information or where they are going and how they
will be cared for?
Is there security for evacuated areas?
How are prisoners to be evacuated?
How are the cultural and religious requirements of evacuees to be catered for?
Who is responsible for traffic control during evacuation?
How are evacuees to be registered?

The process of making an evacuation plan is as follows:

First take the building or area plan as Base Map
Make separate floor plans
Remove the unnecessary text or dimension from the map
Show the Exit Route by arrow signs from each room to the assembly point or points
in easily accessible open spaces. Try to provide maximum number of exits.
Put ‘Emergency Exit’ labels at the functional exits
Show the locations of fire extinguishers
Locate and highlight the site for SAR and First-Aid Equipment
Mark safe open areas as assembly points
Locate ‘Danger Areas’ and mark them with red signs with skeleton symbols
Separately draw room exit plans and display them in individual rooms
There should be a provision for at least two exits for each room. Locate room exits
in opposite direction to the extent possible.
Importance of Exit Signs
Exit signs help in getting out of a building during an emergency. As we know, during
emergencies people panic and sometimes forget the exit routes. During such times, exit
signs help people get oriented and exit the danger areas. Getting out is not enough in
itself; getting out safely is important. Often people get injured and stampedes are caused
while getting out. Prominently visible exit signs help people out even when it is dark.

Pre-Planning for Evacuation

An order to evacuate could come at any moment. By planning ahead, individuals can
evacuate quickly and safely without sacrificing life, limb and property. The goal should be
to spend as little time as possible following an evacuation order.

Evacuation Activities
Lock door and windows and turn off utilities like water taps, cooking gas and
electricity.
Shut off systems that draw outside air, such as fireplaces and air conditioners.
If you can provide transportation for a neighbor who has none, do so. Try to
help the aged, disabled and other people around you who may need special
attention, such as women and children.

In case of fire or earthquake, evacuate immediately. In case of cyclone or any other

evacuation where there is a little time, carry essential items, such as:
Medical supplies (prescriptions, first aid)
Money (cash, credit cards, important documents)
Personal hygiene items (washing, shaving, dental, eye-care, sanitary)
Clothing, bedding
Baby needs (food, diapers, favorite toys)
Portable radio and batteries
Miscellaneous useful items (matches, flashlights, plastic bags)
Keep your radio tuned to a local station for emergency news updates.

The Top 10 Issues that Concern your Employees

1. Higher salaries and compensation. Surprise! Few managers should be surprised by this
concern.
2. Benefits programs. This is another very common – and understandable – concern of
employees. To limit turnover and increase retention, management typically tries to offer the best
benefit program they can afford. Should programs fall short of ideal, management should
communicate their dedication to make benefits the best they can be.
3. Pay increase guidelines. This concern might initially surprise you. Compensation guidelines
are normally in place for most larger companies, those with unionized workforces, and
government agencies. However, most businesses are classified as smaller companies and it
appears that this group often lacks this employee feature, generating confusion and concern from
staff.
4. Favoritism. This important concern may be related to item number three. Most senior
management would dispute this concern, but they may be forgetting one important item:
perception. Your company may be diligent in prohibiting favoritism, yet the perception of this
failing or the possibility of its existence remains a concern of employees.
5. Pay equity. While this concern may appear to relate to the above two issues, employee
feedback indicates that it stems from a different source. Employees want to feel secure they are
earning compensation equal to those who are in similar positions and have comparable
experience.
6. The Human Resource Department. Most H.R. professionals are aware of this employee
concern. Contemporary workers want and expect their H.R. departments to be fountains of
knowledge about a myriad of issues (benefits, compensation, corporate plans and goals, legal and
insurance issues, positions to be open in the future, etc.).
7. Excessive management. Sometimes called “over management” or “micro management,” this
concern relates to employees feeling that their every activity is separately managed and little
judgment or freedom is permitted
8. Inadequate communication. Has anyone heard this concern before? Employees have a need to
believe they are “in the loop” by having as much information as possible on employer plans,
goals, dreams, news, etc.
9. Over-work. Employees are often afraid that their efforts and high performance may only result
in management asking them to do more for the same compensation. Extra efforts should be
rewarded by additional compensation (if possible) and/or a sincere “Thank you” at a minimum.
Concern addressed.
10. Workplace conditions and cleanliness. Management is sometimes caught off guard when
advised that this concern consistently appears. But, upon reflection, it is perfectly logical. With
more and more people committed to improved health and quality of life in general, it is not
surprising that there is deep interest in their workplace physical conditions.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH SERVICES
History of occupational health services
The enactment of the Factories Act Cap 514 in 1951 saw the emergence of occupational safety
and health in Kenya. The crafting of this legislation was prompted by the enactment of the
Workers’ Compensation Act Cap 236 in 1948. However, it was not until 1974 that the then
Minister for Labour requested the International Labour Organization during the 62nd
International Labour Conference for assistance to strengthen factory inspection and in the
establishment of specialized inspections. This culminated in the ILO/FINNIDA Project that
commenced in 1978 that established specialized divisions, namely engineering, medical and
hygiene in support of the general inspection and field services. This led to the recruitment and
training of three medical officers, four nurses, four hygienists and the establishment of laboratory
and work environment monitoring services. This was the first time that coherent occupational
health services (OHS) were offered in Kenya.
Occupational health services are defined as services entrusted with essentially preventive
functions. As provided in the Occupational Health Services Convention, 1985 (No. 161), they
are responsible for advising the employer, the workers and their representatives in the workplace
on:
(i) The requirements for establishing and maintaining a safe and healthy working
environment which will facilitate optimal physical and mental health in relation to
work;
(ii) The adaptation of work to the capabilities of workers in the light of their state of
physical and mental health.
It is desirable that some sort of occupational health services be established in every country. This
may be done either by laws or regulations, or by collective agreements, or as otherwise agreed
upon by the employers and workers concerned, or in any other manner approved by the
competent authority after consultation with the representative organizations of employers and
workers concerned.
Organization of occupational health services
Occupational health services can be organized as a service for a single enterprise or as a service
common to a number of enterprises, depending on which type is more appropriate in terms of
national conditions and practice. Similarly, these services may be organized by:
 The enterprise or group of enterprises concerned.  The public authorities or official services. 
Social security institutions.  Any other bodies authorized by the competent authority.  A
combination of any of the above.
In the absence of a specific occupational health service, the competent authority may, as an
interim measure, designate an appropriate existing service, for instance a local medical service,
to act as an occupational health service.
Aims and Functions of occupational health services
Occupational health services aim:  To protect and promote the health of workers.  Improve
working conditions and the working environment.  Maintain the health of the enterprise as a
whole.
Functions of an occupational health services
The main functions of an occupational health service are to:
 identify and assess the risks from health hazards in the workplace;
 watch for factors in the work environment and working practices that may affect
workers’ health, such as sanitary installations, canteens and housing provided by the
employer;
 advise on work planning and organization, including workplace design and the choice,
maintenance and condition of machinery, and other equipment and substances used in
work;
 participate in the development of programmes for the improvement of work practices;
 collaborate in testing new equipment and Evaluating its health aspects advise on
occupational health, safety and hygiene, and on ergonomics and protective equipment;
 Health surveillance systems- pre-employment physical examination, Monitor workers’
health in relation to work;
 Try to make sure that work is adapted to the worker;
 contribute to vocational rehabilitation i.e introduce Employee Assistance Programme
(EAPs)
 collaborate in providing training and education in occupational health and hygiene, and
ergonomics;
 organize first aid and emergency treatment; and
 Participate in the analysis of occupational accidents and occupational diseases
Aims and functions of occupational health services
Job placement
People with certain preexisting medical conditions may be at a disadvantage in some jobs. A
preemployment health questionnaire or medical examination can be of great value in such cases
by determining job unsuitability before training time and expense have been incurred. Job
suitability may also need to be regularly monitored in order to assure employee health and
ability. Airline pilots, for example, undergo regular medical checkups because a pilot with failing
vision or one who suffers from an undetected heart condition that can lead to a heart attack could
endanger many lives. The health service can also give valuable advice with regard
to alternative employment when a worker is found to be unfit for a particular job.
Safety training
An occupational health service has a responsibility to keep all employees informed about hazards
in the workplace. The measures taken to protect employee health should be thoroughly explained
so that workers understand the necessity of complying with such irksome or unpleasant
restrictions as the wearing of protective clothing and face masks. First aid facilities should be
organized and employees instructed about first aid procedures in case of accidental injuries or
other emergencies.
Supervision of high-risk groups
Exposure levels considered safe for a young male worker may be hazardous for a pregnant
woman (the fetus, especially during the first three months of development, is particularly
sensitive to environmental toxic agents). Pregnant women, as well as such
other vulnerable groups as the very young, the elderly, and the disabled, therefore require
appropriate medical surveillance and advice about specific precautionary measures they can take.
Control of recognized hazards
A complex system of environmental and biological monitoring has been developed for the
control of known hazards at work. Occupational health practice is concerned with monitoring the
concentration of toxic substances in the environment, determining safe exposure levels,
suggesting procedures to limit worker exposure, and monitoring workers for signs of
overexposure. Occupational health specialists can also contribute to the prevention of health
risks by assisting in the planning and design of new equipment and factories.
Identification of unrecognized hazards
Occupational health services can play a major role in the detection of new health hazards of all
types. Clinical observation and study may reveal a causal relationship between patterns of
sickness or mortality in groups of workers and their occupational exposure. Examples of hazards
identified in this manner include lung and nasal cancer among nickel workers, lung
cancer in asbestos workers, and coronary heart disease among workers exposed to carbon
disulfide (used in the manufacture of rayon).
Treatment
Quick, on-site treatment of work injuries and poisonings can prevent complications and aid
recovery. Such treatment can also be economically beneficial by saving traveling and waiting
time. Furthermore, physicians and nurses who are unfamiliar with their patients’ working
conditions may keep workers with minor injuries away from work longer than necessary. An
occupational treatment service offers opportunities for specialized counseling and
health education.
Economic benefits of occupational health services
 Virtual elimination of lead poisoning in a group of factors making electrical accumulators.
 Substantial reduction in lost time accidents and time spent in getting treatment outside the
workplace
 Reduced absenteeism.
 reduction in workmen’s compensation payment.
Fundamental principles of occupational health programs
1. Occupational health programs exist because individuals have occupations and work together
in groups.
2. The purpose of occupational health programs is to serve the workers’ health needs and thereby
improve their effectiveness.
3. The purpose of occupational health programs is best fulfilled when the members of the
occupational health team –physician, nurse, engineer and allied personnel provide service jointly
and cooperatively.
4. Medical and administrative supervision of the occupational health programs are necessary.
OHS-RELATED RECORDS
OHS-related records are important documents that organizations maintain to demonstrate
compliance with Occupational Health and Safety (OHS) regulations, track safety performance,
and ensure the effective management of workplace health and safety. These records serve as
evidence of OHS activities, provide historical information, and assist in monitoring and
improving safety practices. Here are some key OHS-related records that organizations typically
maintain:
[Link] Reports: Records of all workplace incidents, accidents, injuries, illnesses, near-misses,
and property damage. These reports document the details of the incident, including date, time,
location, individuals involved, and a description of the event. Incident reports help identify
trends, determine root causes, and implement corrective actions.
Covers incidents reports for which no expenses have been incurred. Incidents only, no medical
expenses incurred and no lost time. Information on incidents is documented in the accident
report, supervisory analysis, safety officer analysis and related correspondence.
[Link] Assessments: Documentation of risk assessments conducted to identify and evaluate
workplace hazards. These records include information about the identified hazards, their
associated risks, control measures implemented, and any residual risks. Risk assessments help
prioritize safety measures and monitor the effectiveness of control strategies.
[Link] Inspections and Audits: Records of regular safety inspections, workplace audits, or
walkthroughs conducted to assess compliance with safety standards and identify potential
hazards. These records outline the findings, recommendations, and corrective actions taken to
address identified issues.
[Link] Records: Documentation of employee training and education related to OHS. This
includes records of safety orientation, specific training programs, certifications, and
qualifications. Training records demonstrate that employees have received necessary safety
instructions, understand workplace hazards, and are equipped with the required skills and
knowledge to perform their work safely.
[Link] Meeting Minutes: Minutes or records of safety committee meetings, toolbox talks, or
safety briefings. These records capture discussions on safety-related topics, identification of
hazards, review of incident reports, and the implementation of safety initiatives. Safety meeting
minutes serve as evidence of ongoing safety communication and collaboration.
[Link] Policies and Procedures: Records of the organization’s OHS policies, procedures,
guidelines, and manuals. These documents outline the company’s commitment to workplace
safety, provide guidance on safe work practices, and
detail the responsibilities of employees and management regarding OHS. Updates and revisions
to these documents should also be recorded.
[Link] and Testing Records: Records of inspections, maintenance, and testing of safety
equipment, machinery, and systems. This includes records of equipment inspections, calibration
certificates, maintenance schedules, and service reports. These records demonstrate that
equipment is regularly checked, maintained, and functioning properly.
[Link] Records: Confidential medical records related to workplace injuries, illnesses, or
exposures. These records typically include medical assessments, reports, treatment details,
return-to-work plans, and any relevant medical certifications or restrictions. Medical records are
maintained in compliance with privacy regulations and used to monitor employee health and
track recovery progress.
[Link] Data Sheets (SDS): Records of Safety Data Sheets for hazardous substances used in the
workplace. SDS provide detailed information about the chemical composition, properties, safe
handling procedures, and emergency response measures for each substance. SDS are readily
accessible to employees and used to ensure proper handling and control of hazardous materials.
Per OSHA each workplace is supposed to keep safety data sheets provided by manufacturers and
importers of hazardous chemicals.
[Link] Compliance Documentation: Records of compliance with OHS regulations,
permits, licenses, and certifications. This includes documentation related to inspections by
regulatory authorities, safety audits, and any correspondence or notifications with OHS
regulatory bodies.
11. Near-miss reports
Documentation on accident analysis forms describing hazardous working conditions that could
lead to workers compensation claims. To study trend and improve safe working environment.
12. Safety and health program
State agency’s written safety programs, annual plans, policies, procedures, guidelines,
components, monitoring data and reports for programs such as Confined Space, Ergonomics,
Hazard Communication, Bloodborne Pathogens, Fall Protection, Hot Work, Lockout/Tagout,
Hazard Communication, Hearing Conservation, Respiratory Protection, Powered Industrial
Trucks, Personal Protective Equipment and other similar safety programs. Also includes agency
Emergency Action Plans and Employee Summary Guides (i.e. agencies’ evacuation and safe
sheltering plans and procedures for employee safety during emergency conditions, evacuation
routes, etc. It also includes agency fire and tornado drill reports).
13. Exposure records
Includes the specifics of the incident and any agency related form, report or record. It also
includes records of personal exposures required to be maintained by the agency that has
conducted or contracted for the monitoring. In most cases records includes documents such as
personal exposure samples for chemicals, ionizing radiation, asbestos, lead, and noise; wipe
samples to determine surface contamination; bulk samples to analyze for asbestos content; and
reports or inspections or surveys of activities related to actual or potential occupational
exposures.
14. Internal Workplace Safety Inspections
Includes safety inspections, audits, surveys or reviews of the workplace initiated or contracted
by the resident state agency.
15. Compliance workplace safety inspections Safety inspections, audits, department orders,
section violations, corrective action orders and surveys or reviews of the workplace performed
by an outside compliance agency such as OSHA or the Department of Safety and Professional
Services. Includes citations and notifications of penalties, results of investigations, Modification
Abatement Plan requests, and final Abatement Plan documentation.
16. Job Hazard Analysis
Job safety surveys and analysis of a specific job or task. Includes documents used to identify,
analyze and record the steps involved in performing a specific job, existing or potential safety
and health hazards associated with each step and the recommended action(s)/procedure(s) that
will eliminate or reduce the hazards and the risk of a workplace injury or illness.
17. Ergonomics Assessments and Related Material
Includes individual and workstation evaluations, preevaluation questionnaires, potential
procurement documents, follow-ups and all related materials.
18. Industrial Hygiene Supporting
Documents and Reports Includes control measures that protect employees from chemical,
physical and/or biological stressors, such as noise, chemical exposures, excessive temperatures,
dusts, mists, and vapors, and air quality evaluations/results. Included among these records are
indoor air quality surveys, noise and hearing conservation, respiratory protection, compliance
exposure monitoring, baseline noise surveys, and other similar industrial hygiene surveys,
assessments and reports.
19. General Safety Reports, Issues, Complaints and Inquiries Received/Generated by Safety Staff
Included in the file are responses to all inquiries and noted follow-up steps, if any, to correct any
noted deficiencies. Also includes periodic reports concerning agency safety activities, including
minutes of monthly safety meetings, accident data analysis, safety and health program
assessments, trend or accident analysis reports, chemical inventory lists, SCBA (SelfContained
Breathing Apparatus) inspections and other similar or related reports.
20. Safety permits
Approved plan of work for specific job safety action. Examples include permits for Confined
Space Entry, Lockout/Tagout, Hot Works and other related permits.
21. Safety Training Not Required by Law
Any safety related training not required by law whether provided internally by safety staff or
contracted out. Includes materials created or used by state agencies and/or the Bureau of State
Risk Management to promote training or train state employees. Includes training schedules,
course materials, evaluations, study guides, questionnaires, registration, sign-in sheets and
tracking.
22. Safety Training Required by Law Any safety related training required by law whether
provided internally by safety staff or contracted out. Includes materials created or used by state
agencies and/or the Bureau of State Risk Management to promote training or train state
employees. Includes training schedules, course materials, evaluations, study guides,
questionnaires, registration, sign-in sheets and tracking.
It is important to maintain these OHS-related records in a secure and organized manner, ensuring
confidentiality where necessary. Regular review and updating of records, along with proper
retention and disposal practices, are essential for effective OHS management and legal
compliance.
Industrial Pollution and health
Industrial pollution is defined as any form of pollution that can trace its immediate source to
industrial practices
With the coming of the Industrial Revolution, humans were able to advance further into the 21st
century. Technology developed rapidly, science became advanced and the manufacturing age
came into view. With all of these came one more effect, industrial pollution. Early industries
were small factories that produced smoke as the main pollutant. However, since the number of
factories were limited and worked only a certain number of hours a day, the levels of pollution
did not grow significantly. But when these factories became full scale industries and
manufacturing units, the issue of industrial pollution started to take on more importance.
Most of the pollution on the planet can be traced back to industries of some kind. In fact, the
issue of industrial pollution has taken on grave importance for agencies trying to fight against
environmental degradation. Nations facing sudden and rapid growth of such industries are
finding it to be a serious problem which has to be brought under control immediately.
Industrial pollution takes on many faces. It contaminates many sources of drinking water,
released unwanted toxins into the air and reduces the quality of soil all over the world. Major
environmental disasters have been caused due to industrial mishaps, which have yet to be
brought under control. There are many different factors that comprise of the issue of industrial
pollution.
Causes of Industrial Pollution
1. Lack of Policies to Control Pollution: Lack of effective policies and poor enforcement drive
allowed many industries to bypass laws made by pollution control board which resulted in mass
scale pollution that effected lives of many people.
2. Unplanned Industrial Growth: In most industrial townships, unplanned growth took place
wherein those companies flouted rules and norms and polluted the environment with both air and
water pollution.
3. Use of Outdated Technologies: Most industries still rely on old technologies to produce
products that generate large amount of waste. To avoid high cost and expenditure, many
companies still make use of traditional technologies to produce high end products.
4. Presence of Large Number of Small Scale Industries: Many small scale industries and
factories that don’t have enough capital and rely on government grants to run their day-to-day
business often escape environment regulations and release large amount of toxic gases in the
atmosphere.
5. Inefficient Waste Disposal: Water pollution and soil pollution are often caused directly due to
inefficiency in disposal of waste. Long term exposure causes chronic health problems, making
the issue of industrial pollution into a severe one. It also lowers the air quality in surrounding
areas, causing many respiratory disorders.
6. Leaching of Resources: From Our Natural World: Industries do require large amount of raw
material to make them into finished products. This requires extraction of minerals from beneath
the earth. It destroys the land used for mining and drilling, by removing all resources and leaving
it to waste away, or through leaks and accidents that cause oil spills in both the land and the sea.
Effects of Industrial Pollution
1. Water Pollution:
The effects of industrial pollution are far reaching and liable to affect the eco system for many
years to come. Most industries require large amounts of water for their work. When involved in a
series of processes, the water comes into contact with heavy metals, harmful chemicals,
radioactive waste and even organic sludge. These are either dumped into open oceans or rivers,
or the water that has been polluted by them is released into the ground. As a result, many of our
water sources have trace amounts of industrial waste in them and it seriously impacts the health
of our eco-system. This water is used for irrigation, washing our food at home and sometimes
recycled into drinking water. Water pollution has already rendered many ground water resources
useless for humans and wildlife. It can at best be recycled for further usage in industries, which
costs tremendous amounts of money.
2. Soil Pollution: Soil pollution is creating problems in agriculture and destroying local
vegetation. It also causes chronic health issues for the people that come in contact with such soil
on a daily basis.
3. Air Pollution: Air pollution has led to a steep increase in various illnesses and it continues to
affect us on a daily basis. With so many small, mid and large scale industries coming up, air
pollution has taken toll on the health of people.
4. Wildlife Extinction: By and large, the issue of industrial pollution shows us that it causes
natural rhythms and patterns to fail, meaning that the wildlife is affected in a severe manner.
Habitats are being lost, species are becoming extinct and it is harder for the environment to
recover from each natural disaster. Major industrial accidents like oil spills, fires, leak of
radioactive material and damage to property are harder to clean-up, since they have a higher
impact in a shorter span of time.
5. Global Warming: With the rise in industrial pollution, global warming has been increasing at
a steady pace. Smoke and greenhouse gases are released by the factories into the air, which
causes an increase in the greenhouse effect and increase in global warming. Melting of glaciers,
extinction of polar beers, floods, tsunamis, hurricanes are few of the effects of global warming.
Importance of social security and health insurance in occupational health and safety.
SOCIAL SECURITY-NSSF and HEALTH INSURANCE-NHIF
Insurance has evolved as a process ofsafeguarding the interest of people fromloss and
uncertainty. It may be describedas a social device to reduce or eliminaterisk of loss to life and
property.
Insurance provide financial support andreduce uncertainties in business andhuman life. It
provides safety andsecurity against particular event. There isalways a fear of sudden loss.
Insurance provides a cover against any sudden loss. For example, in case of life insurance
financial assistance is provided to thefamily of the insured on his death. Incase of other insurance
security isprovided against the loss due to fire, marine, accidents etc.
A medical insurance considered essential in managing risk in health. Anyone canbe a victim of
critical illnessunexpectedly. And rising medical expenseis of great concern. Medical Insurance
isone of the insurance policies that caterfor different type of health risks. Theinsured gets a
medical support in case ofmedical insurance policy.
Social Security provides a guaranteed lifetime income. The best part about these benefits is
theynever run out until surviving childrenbecome adults. These benefits include:
Pension Rights Members are eligible for old age benefit (pension) when they reach the age of 55
years, or when they ultimately retire from regular paid employment. The benefit is paid as a
lump sum of the total employee and employer contributions plus interest .
Dependents' / Survivors' Benefit "The above laws provide for survivor benefit these include
dependents including widow, widower, children and even parents of the deceased worker. The
benefit is paid as a lump sum of the total employee and employer contributions plus interest
Invalidity Benefit "The National Social Security Fund Act, 1965 provides for invalidity benefit
in the case of non occupational accident/injury/disease resulting into permanent invalidity. The
benefit is paid as a lump sum of the total employee and employer contributions plus interest
Health insurance is insurance against the risk of incurring medical expenses among individuals.
By estimating the overall risk of health care and health system expenses, among a targeted
group, an insurer develop a routine finance structure, such as a monthly premium or payroll tax,
to ensure that money is available to pay for the health care benefits specified in the insurance
agreement. The benefit is administered by a central organization such as a government agency,
private business, or not-for-profit entity. Health insurance program caters for individuals from
both the low-income and needy people and the abled.
Health insurance is important for both health and personal financial wellness. People who have
health insurance benefit from:
1. Better health outcomes, driven by a consistent source of health care. People who are uninsured
have worse health outcomes, and are four times as likely to delay needed health care as insured
persons.
2. Better access to preventive health care services, with health insurance companies alerting
members when and where to get diagnostic screenings such as mammograms and colonoscopies.
People without health insurance tend to postpone prevention, leading to later diagnoses of
illnesses, complications and higher costs in the long-run. Uninsured cancer patients are
diagnosed later and die earlier compared to those with insurance Kaiser
3. Access to prescription drugs, where uninsured people are five times as likely not to get needed
medications. Many prescriptions take care of many chronic conditions like high blood pressure,
cholesterol, diabetes and asthma. Unchecked and untreated, these conditions can worsen and lead
people to hospital emergency rooms which cost more.. Furthermore, people without health
insurance are 3 times more likely to not take their meds as prescribed.
4. A more productive work life, enhancing job security and satisfaction. There is evidence that
employees’ lower out-of-pocket costs raise productivity at the workplace. Furthermore,
employers are expanding wellness programs to help workers improve personal health status and
bolster productivity on-the-job — and, ultimately, corporate profits. without health insurance are
3 times more likely to not take their meds as prescribed.
5. Better financial health, where insured people can usually access health care services at cheaper
rates. Access to insurance allows consumers to take advantage of discounts negotiated by health
plans with hospitals and doctors compared with paying for services on your own. Uninsured
consumers who show up in the emergency room and get admitted to hospital are generally
charged the full “rack rate” for care.
6. While cost barriers to health care have been growing in the past decade, even among insured
adults, uninsured people have been more severely impacted by growing costs. This has left
people without health insurance more at-risk for having high medical bills.
7. Health insurance boosts the link between health and wealth. The uninsured are three times
more likely than the insured to be unable to pay for basic necessities because of their medical
bills. Uninsured people are also more likely to use up their savings on medical care.
8. Good health insurance covers catastrophic costs when people get very sick – requiring long
and successive hospital admissions and expensive treatments. For people without health
insurance, medical debt can lead to lower credit scores: uninsured people are at greater risk of
filing for personal bankruptcy. Medical expenses are a leading cause of bankruptcy
Social Security is much more than a retirement program. Social Security provides benefits to
young workers and their families if they become disabled, and it provides benefits to the
survivors of deceased workers, including their children. E.g. NSSF Social Security protects
young people even before they've obtained protection based on their own work. In conclusion,
the social security and health insurance basically covers those unpredictable
Health sector Hazards
 Unsafe patient handling Lifting, transferring, repositioning and moving patients without using
proper techniques or handing equipment can cause musculoskeletal injury (e.g., back injury and
chronic back pain).
 Exposure to hazardous chemicals The most common hazardous chemicals in the health sector
include cleaning and disinfecting agents, sterilants, mercury, toxic drugs, pesticides, latex and
laboratory chemicals and reagents.
 Exposure to radiation Ionizing (x-rays, radionuclides) and non-ionizing radiation (UV, lasers)
exposure may occur in health-care settings and pose specific risk to the health and safety of
health workers.
 Occupational stress, burnout and fatigue Time pressure, lack of control over work tasks, long
working hours, shift work, lack of support and moral injury are important risk factors for
occupational stress, burnout and fatigue among health workers.
 Violence and harassment These are incidents involving work-related abuse, threats or assaults
among health workers including physical, sexual, verbal and psychological abuse and workplace
harassment.
 Risks in ambient work environment These are work related factors, such as thermal discomfort
(heat or cold stress) and noise, which may cause harm to a health worker.
 Occupational injuries slips, trips and falls, road traffic injuries (ambulance crashes, motorbike
and bicycle injuries), electric shock, explosions and fire.
 Environmental health hazards Unsafe and insufficient water for drinking and washing,
inadequate sanitation and hygiene, hazardous healthcare waste and climate related risks may
cause work related diseases and injuries among health workers.
COMPANY OSH PROGRAMS
 Employee Wellness Program When businesses focus on the wellness of their employees, there
are many upsides including boosting company morale, increasing productivity and attracting top
talent. Here are employee wellness program ideas that focus on these goals and more.
 Host Standing Meetings Meetings are typically those that include worktables with many chairs
surrounding them. Typically, the only people standing are those heading the meeting or
conducting presentations. Instead of hosting a conference or meeting in that manner, change
things up in an effort to support workplace wellness programs by hosting standing or walking
and talking meetings. These meetings can still consist of workstations in the conference room,
but they encourage participants to engage in standing-room conversations.
 Purchase Gym Passes Brainstorming wellness program ideas should include purchasing gym
passes or memberships for your employees. When you’re placing focus on an employee wellness
program, this is an optimal way to ensure employees remaining healthy throughout the year.
Encourage them to take classes, participate in wellness challenges and keep track of fitness goals
when using these passes and gym memberships
 Include Free Health Screenings Staff members often neglect their health due to busy schedules
or lack of sufficient health insurance coverage. Therefore, when you’re developing wellness
programs for employees, include free health screenings throughout the year. These wellness
programs at work can include screenings that occur quarterly, every six months or annually. Be
sure there’s a poster, email announcement, newsletter article and text message alert giving
employees plenty of information regarding these screenings.
 Encourage Inter-Office Wellness Challenges Do you work with competitive team members? If
so, setting up work wellness programs that embody the competitive spirit. For example, you
could create employee wellness programs focusing on who takes the most steps during a given
period or who is drinking the most water. The idea is to develop a program that focuses on
increasing wellness.
 Don’t Forget Healthy Snacks Your work site wellness programs should include stocking your
break room or work site kitchen with healthy snacks. When there are opportunities for staff
members to take breaks and indulge in something healthy throughout their day, it helps them
focus on their work better. Implement a corporate wellness program that allows employees to
change up their eating habits from eating salty and sugary vending machine foods to healthier
options. You’ll be working with team members who aren’t sluggish. They’ll feel energized, and
these changes may begin occurring at home as well.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY PROCEDURES AND GUIDELINES
Workplace safety is an important part of any job and requires that everyone in the company
adhere to the safety guidelines and policies in place. Carefully following appropriate safety
guidelines can go a long way toward preventing workplace injuries. Here are some ways you can
work to stay safe on the job.
Be Aware
Always be alert to what’s happening in your surroundings; remember that your safety is your
responsibility. Understand the particular hazards related to your job or workplace, and keep clear
of potentially hazardous areas or situations. Be awake and attentive on the job, and be
particularly aware of machinery. Avoid going to work under the influence of alcohol or drugs,
which can compromise your concentration, coordination, judgment, motor control and alertness.
Maintain Correct Posture Use correct posture to protect your back while at work. If you sit at a
desk, keep your shoulders and hips in line and avoid hunching over. Use correct form when
lifting objects and avoid twisting and stooping.
 The following tips provide information about lifting correctly: Use both hands to lift or carry a
heavy object. Adopt a proper lifting stance by putting the strain on your legs, keeping your back
straight and not bending at the waist. Wear a back brace for heavy work. Test the weight before
picking up the item. Lift items smoothly and slowly. Move your feet instead of your back when
traveling or turning with a heavy object. Hold the load close to your body. Ask for help to move
loads that are too heavy for you.
Take Breaks Regularly
Feeling tired and burned out makes you less likely to be aware of your surroundings and is a
common cause of workplace injuries. Regular breaks help you stay fresh and alert on the job. It
is particularly important to take short breaks when you have a task that requires repetitive
movements over a long period of time.
Use Equipment Properly
Always take the proper precautions when operating machinery or using tools. Taking shortcuts is
a leading cause of workplace injuries. Use the appropriate tool for the job, and use it in the right
way.
When using tools and machinery, put safety first with the following tips: Only use machinery
you are trained and authorized to use. Keep tools clean and in good working order. Organize
tools and always return them to their proper place. Make sure the machine operator sees you,
don’t approach from a blind spot or from behind. Only perform tasks you have been properly
trained to perform. Never leave machinery unattended while it is running. Always obey
operating instructions. Never remove or tamper with safety guards. If something seems wrong,
immediately stop the machine and get assistance. Communicate with those around you. Never
walk in front of heavy equipment. Read and follow all labels and instructions. Don’t tamper with
hazardous items, including cords, switches and electric controls. Wear appropriate and compact
clothing; loose, billowing clothing and accessories can easily get caught in moving parts. Never
place fingers or other objects into moving machinery. Turn off equipment before moving,
cleaning, adjusting, oiling or un jamming.
Locate Emergency Exits
Always know where emergency exits are located and keep the path to them clear. You should
also have clear access to emergency shutoffs on machinery.
Report Safety Concerns
If you notice a potential safety hazard or risk, report it to your supervisor immediately so they
can address the situation. Keep communication lines open and work as a team to create a safe
working environment
Practice Effective Housekeeping
Maintain a clean and organized workplace environment. Make housekeeping an ongoing project
that everyone is involved in and keep these tips in mind: Prevent trips, slips and falls by keeping
all floors clean and dry. Eliminate fire hazards by removing combustible materials and storing f
lammable materials away from sources of ignition. Control dust accumulation. Avoid tracking
materials and cross contamination by keeping mats clean and having separate cleaning protocols
for different areas. Use appropriate procedures to prevent falling objects. Keep the workplace
clutter free. Store all materials and equipment properly. Regularly inspect tools and personal
protective equipment to make sure they are in good working order.
Make Use of Mechanical Aids
Take the extra time to obtain a wheelbarrow, crank, conveyor belt, forklift or other mechanical
aid to assist you in lifting heavy objects. Attempting to lift something that is too heavy can cause
injuries that could have been avoided.
Reduce Workplace Stress
Stress can contribute to difficulty concentrating and depression, which make it hard to be alert at
work. There are many causes of stress at work including conflicts with others, heavy workloads,
long hours and job insecurity. If you are experiencing workplace stress, talk to your supervisor
about ways to address your concerns.
Use Appropriate Safety Equipment
It is important to use the proper safety equipment for a task to help protect yourself from injury:
Wear appropriate clothing and shoes for your job. Know the location of fire extinguishers and
first aid kits. Use a hard hat if there is a risk of falling objects. Wear gloves when handling toxic
substances or sharp objects. Wear goggles when there is a hazard to your eyes. Use safety
harnesses if there is a danger of falling. Wear non-skid shoes when working on slippery surfaces
or lifting heavy objects. Wear a breathing mask. Use all protective equipment intended for your
task including seat belts, protective headgear or clothing and safety glasses.
Creating an environment that is safe is the responsibility of everyone; do your part by following
safety guidelines and policies. If you are injured on the job, notify your supervisor immediately
and get assistance. Avoid taking risks when it comes to safety, be aware and do your part to
maintain a safe workplace environment. If you’ve been injured on the job, call to schedule an
appointment to see how our team of specialists can help to get you feeling better and back to
work
HEALTH AND SAFETY PROCEDURES
Health and Safety procedures are a set of standardized actions that detail every step needed
to conduct a job safely, with the aim of minimizing health and safety risk to people and the
workplace. Every organization has some sort of Health and Safety procedure. Even if it's just
telling people to wear their seatbelt or not to work on some equipment until the power has been
cut out. These procedures are usually set in place to protect both employees and the general
public from injury and harm.
1. Hazard Identification and Risk Assessment Procedures Hazard identification and risk
assessment procedures are a crucial part of workplace health and safety measures. Without
proper hazard identification, an organization runs the risk of overlooking potential in-house risks,
which place the workers and those around them at potential risk.
The purpose of these procedures therefore is to familiarize personnel with duties involved in the
identification of hazards in any hazardous environment, and the steps to be followed in the
development of a risk assessment. All of the employees should be aware of workplace hazards
and understand the procedures for identifying and addressing these risks to help determine safe
work areas, maintain hazard awareness, and assessments.
Safer worksites require hazard recognition and risk assessment, to be carried out by a competent
person using the best available resources including Hazard Identification checklist. In addition, it
is required to carry out regular risk assessments onsite using a risk matrix to priorities risks and
comply with regulations in most states. These procedures should be implemented at all work
locations.
2. Hazardous material storage and handling It is important to store and handle the hazardous
materials properly at all times. There are numerous steps that can be taken in order to prevent
workplace accidents. Knowing the procedures for the different types of hazardous materials can
save employees from serious injury, should an emergency arise. Hazards like liquid
hydrocarbons, lead, chlorine, asbestos and asbestos-containing materials etc. must be handled
carefully, so that they are not released into the environment where they cause harm.
Workplace health and safety procedures for dealing with these types of substances include:
Identification of all hazardous materials in the work environment, as well as obtaining the Safety
Data Sheet for each chemical Bold labelling of each chemical Using the appropriate storage
medium and ensuring an optimal storage environment (temperature, ventilation, and lighting)
Marking the location of each storage area Risk assessment to determine the hazard each material
poses (flammable, corrosive, irritant, poisonous, explosive etc.) Determine and train persons
authorized to have access to storage Ensure ignition sources are kept away from flammable
materials Use the Hierarchy of Control (Elimination, Substitution ton, Engineering,
Administration, PPE) to handle hazard risks
3. Emergency Evacuation Procedures
It is mandatory for workplaces to follow a set of emergency evacuation procedures. This assists
in reducing the risk of injury to employees while they are in the workplace. Every workplace has
a duty to follow these procedures preventing harm to employees during evacuations and/or fire
breaks. The procedures are designed and implemented, so that they minimize and control the
risks to people and property, in accordance with the Safe Work Australia Model Code of Practice
2011. Ideally, evacuation procedures typically cover areas such as:
Detailed evacuation plan Establishing and identification of emergency exits and stations Chain of
command and line of communication Notification and system of notifying emergency services
Training and drills Regular reviews
4. Safely working with electricity and electrical equipment Electricity is one of the most
dangerous sources of energy that we use in our day-to day life. It is therefore important to know
how to work with electrical equipment safely. Here is an overview of procedures employed when
dealing with electricity in the workplace by organizations:
Only qualified persons with verified license(s) are allowed to conduct or supervise electrical
work Use of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE). Before any work is carried out, equipment is
tested to determine if it is de energized Employ steps that ensure the restoration of electricity
supply. Following isolation will not pose risks to health and safety at the workplace Appropriate
termination of all exposed conductors Identification and labelling of all electrical equipment
Inspection, testing and tagging of all portable electrical appliances by a competent person
Removal of all portable electrical equipment that fails testing and without a valid inspection tag
Keeping of records
5. Fire safety procedures
Fire safety procedures in the workplace are essential to protect the employees and anyone
visiting the business. Building codes that are set forth by local governments maintain a minimum
level of fire protection, and should be in place during the planning and development stages of
any building. The fire safety procedures that are employed by organizations depend on the size,
use, location, occupancy, and construction of a particular type of building. It should also take
into consideration the type of business and how many people are working there.
Here is a generic outline for establishing fire safety procedures:
A detailed Fire Risk Assessment that includes: fire hazard identification, ignition sources,
identification of persons at risk from fire etc. Methods for alerting employees to a fire emergency
Description of how employees should respond to a fire alarm or fire emergency Designation of
evacuation routes and exits Establishment of areas of refuge and corresponding evacuation plans
A clear outline describing conditions for which employees will fight a fire Appropriate
firefighting training Provision of firefighting equipment
6. Housekeeping Procedures
Housekeeping is the process of creating and maintaining a clean environment in a residential or
public setting. It involves keeping work spaces orderly, hallways and f loors clear of trip and slip
hazards, and proper waste disposal. Good housekeeping also considers storage, and ensuring that
tools are properly secured. The processes on how to achieve these and more are described and
communicated to employees and specific persons of interest.
7. Workplace First Aid and Medical Care
Workplace injuries can happen at any time; they are a constant source of worry and expense. If a
serious accident or illness occurs at the workplace, it is the moral and legal responsibility of the
employer to provide the proper first aid and medical care to those who are injured. There are
strict federal and many state laws that govern how employers must treat victims of workplace
accidents and illnesses. If employers fail to properly deal with emergencies at work, they could
be held accountable before a court. Therefore, it is critical that there are first aid procedures in a
particular workplace. The procedure in many work environments is to have a trained first aid
officer in charge of a first aid station. The officer is tasked with handling a wide range of medical
care such as controlling bleeding, bandaging and dressing minor cuts, splinting fractures,
conducting CPR etc. As part of the practice, the first aid station and/or kit is clearly marked -
workers are shown where they are during induction. Additionally, all incidents are reported and
contact information of emergency services are provided.
8. Workers Orientation and Training
Workers getting injured on the job is a huge pressure point for any employer. We know training
is no magic bullet, but it can help reduce the number of work-related injuries with a range of
solutions. For example, not understanding how to use equipment in the workplace is an accident
waiting to happen! Plus with lack of clarity, workers feel frustrated and powerless, thus unhappy
and unmotivated at work. For these reasons, many businesses generally have a standard
procedure for training their workers.
It includes: Conducting a Training Needs Assessment Induction training for new workers
Training of workers following the introduction of a new equipment of work process Routine and
continuous training workshops to build capacity and stay on trend
The method of training is outlined - this could be via e-modules, on-the-job demonstrations, class
settings etc. Facilitators are identified whether it be in-house or outsourced.
9. Access and Egress
Workplace Access and Egress procedures are there to protect workers and first responders when
they respond to an emergency. These procedures facilitate the safe movement of employees,
students, patients, customers, or members as they enter or leave their place of work. Typically,
these procedures would identify parking areas for emergency vehicles, specific emergency
routes, access permits etc.
[Link] Investigation and Reporting
Accidents are preventable if proper accident investigation and reporting procedures are followed.
When accidents happen, there are processes that businesses should follow for an effective
investigation and report. Accident Investigation and Reporting procedures allow for the correct
implementation of safety measures in the workplace, help resolve workplace safety and liability
issues. Investigation typically includes any incident that involves an injury, fatalities, loss of
time, or substantial damage to company property, or equipment.
Procedures for investigating and reporting incidents would include:
 Reporting incident to the officer in charge and relevant regulatory authorities Securing the
scene Gathering information as soon as possible from witnesses and other sources (e.g CCTV)
Analyzing facts and sequence of events to identify actions, in actions, or conditions that would
have led to the accident Preparing a written report Developing and implementing a corrective
action Reviewing the process.
OSHA STANDARD
OSHA standards are rules that describe the methods that employers must use to protect their
employees from hazards.
An OSHA safety standard is a list of material and equipment requirements along with guidelines
and instructions for employers to minimize employee risk in the performance of work. The
adherence to OSHA standards protects workers from fatal hazards and health risks. re