ASSAM STATE TRANSPORT CORPORATION JORHAT

INDUSTRIAL INTERNSHIP REPORT

(11/06/2024 to 08/07/2024)

SUBMITTED TO:

Mr. Biswajit Kalita

Divisional Engineer, ASTC, JORHAT

 AN INTERNSHIP REPORT ON
IC ENGINE AND ITS APPLICATIONS IN PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION
For the 7th semester B.Tech course requirement

Submitted By-
ABHILASH BORPUZARI (2121310002001)
AYANMOY BHUYAN (212310002012)
DEVAPROTIM BORAH (212310002019)

NETISH KR SAIKIA (212310002036)

SUBHANKAR BORDOLOI (212310002050)
NITTOM BORA (222350002003)

Under the supervision of

Mr. BISWAJIT KALITA
Divisional Superintendent cum Training Officer
ASTC, Jorhat

Department of Mechanical Engineering

GOLAGHAT ENGINEERING COLLEGE, GOLAGHAT
Assam Science and Technology University, Guwahati
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

At the very outset, we would like to express our profound gratitude and sincere thanks to our
respected guide Mr.Biswajit Kalita, Divisional Superintendent & Training Engineer,
ASTC Jorhat who spared his valuable time and helped us despite his busy schedule and
motivated us during the whole duration of our internship and provided all support in
completing this project and for extending various facilities in witnessing hearing of cases,
preparing briefs and drafting few orders which played an important role in completing this
project.
It would not have been possible without the kind support and help of many individuals and
the organization. We would like to extend our sincere thanks to all of them.

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 CERTIFICATE

The Candidate has successfully attended the Industrial Internship from 11/06/2024 to
08/07/2024 under the supervision of Mr. Biswajit Kalita. The regularity and sincerity has
been found satisfactory during the programme.

Assistant Engineer
(ASTC) Jorhat, Assam
Place: Jorhat , Assam
Date:

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 DECLARATION

We declare that this written submission represents our idea in our own words and where
other’s ideas or words have been included. We have adequately cited and referred the
original sources. We also declared that we have adhered to all principles of academic
honesty and integrity and have not misinterpreted or fabricated or falsified any
idea/data/fact/source in our submission. We understand that any violation of the above will
be a cause of disciplinary actions by the institution and can also evoke penal action from the
sources which have not been properly cited or from whom proper permission has not been
taken when needed.

ABHILASH BORPUZARI (212310002001)

AYANMOY BHUYAN (212310002012)

DEVAPROTIM BORAH (212310002019)

NETISH KUMAR SAIKIA (212310002036)

NITTOM BORA (222350002003)

SUBHANKAR BORDOLOI (212210002050)

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page No
A. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT…………………………………………………………….. I
B. CERTIFICATE……………………………………………………………………….. II
C. DECLARATION………………………………………………………………………..III
D. TABLE OF CONTENTS ……………………………………………………………….IV-V
E. LIST OF FIGURES………………………………………………………………………VI

1. INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………… 1
2. MAIN PARTS OF AN ENGINE……………………………………………. 2-6
2.1 Engine Head 2
2.2 Engine Block 2
2.2.1 Components of an Engine Block
2.3 Oil Sump 6
3. POWER GENERATION IN 4-STROKE ENGINE………………………… 7-8
4. FUEL SYSTEM……………………………………………………….. 9-11
4.2 Components of fuel system 9-10
4.2 Working principle of fuel system 11
5. GEAR SYSTEM………………………………………………………………. 12-14
5.1 Types of Gearbox 12
6. CLUTCH SYSTEM……………………………………………………………….. 15-17
6.1 Working principle of clutch 17
6.2 Functions of clutch 17
7. LUBRICATION SYSTEM……………………………………………………… 18-19
7.1 Purpose of Lubrication 18
7.2 Types of Lubricants 19
7.3 Functions of Lubrication 19

8. COOLING SYSTEM……………………………………………………………….. 20-21

8.1 Factors for selection of Cooling System 21
9. STEERING SYSTEM…………………………………………………………. 22-23
9.1 Basic Steering system components 22
9.2 Hydraulic Steering System 22
10. DIFFERENTIAL ……………………………………………………………… 24-29
10.1 Need of Differential 24
10.2 Construction of Differential 25
10.3 Components of Differential 25
11. BRAKE SYSTEM…………………………………………………………………... 30-34
11.1 Principle of Braking System 30
11.2 Functions of Brake 30
11.3 Types of Brakes 30
11.4 Hydraulic Brakes 31
11.4.1 Construction of Hydraulic Brakes 31
11.4.2 Working of Hydraulic Brakes 32

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 11.5 Air Braking System 34
11.5.1 Working of Air Brake System 34
11.5.2 Parts of Air Brake System 36

12. CONCLUSION…………………………………………………………………………....38
13. REFERENCES ………………………………………………………………………….. 39

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 LIST OF FIGURES
Fig no. Titles Page No.
1. IC Engine 1
2. Engine Head 2
3. Engine Block 3
4. Connecting Rod 3
5. Piston 4
6. Piston Ring 4
7. Crank Shaft 5
8. Cam Shaft 5
9. Oil Sump 6
10. Architecture of Air fuel system in IC ENGINE 9
11. Fuel feed pump 10
12. Injector Nozzle 10
13. Gear Box 12
14. Sliding Mesh Gearbox 13
15. Synchromesh Gearbox 14
16. Clutch Plate 15
17. Pressure Plate 16
18. Clutch Cover 17
19. Radiator 20
20. Water Pump 21
21. Differential Gearbox 24
22. Sun Gear 25
23. Half Shaft 26
24. Ring Gear 27
25. Bevel Pinion 27
26. Planet Gear 28
27. Propeller Shaft 29
28. Hydraulic braking system 33
29. Air Brake system 35

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1. INTRODUCTION

The Internal combustion engine (ICEs) is an engine in which the burning of a fuel
occurs in a confined space called a combustion chamber. This exothermic reaction
of a fuel with an oxidizer creates gases of high temperature and pressure, which
are permitted to expand. The defining feature of an internal combustion engine is
that useful work is performed by the expanding hot gases acting directly to cause
movement, for example by acting on pistons, rotors, or even by pressing on and
moving the entire engine itself. They are widely used in various sectors of
transportation such as automobiles, ships, trains, and aircraft. Among them public
transportation is one of the most important application of ICEs, as it provides
mobility and convenience.

Fig: IC Engine

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2. MAIN PARTS OF ENGINE

There are three main parts of an IC engine, they are-

1. Engine head
2. Engine Block
3. Oil Sump
2.1 ENGINE HEAD: It is an internal combustion engine the cylinder head sits
above the cylinders and forms the root of the combustion chamber. Cylinder head
is more complicated containing inlet and exhaust passages. Coolant passages,
valves, camshaft, spark plugs and fuel injectors. This controls the suction and
exhaust stroke of power generation.

Fig: Engine head

2.2 ENGINE BLOCK: The Engine block, also known as the cylinder block, is a
crucial component of an internal combustion engine. It serves as the main structural
foundation of the engine and houses several critical components. The primary
function of the engine block is to provide a rigid structure that supports the
cylinders, crankshaft, and other internal components. It forms the lower portion of
the engine and contains multiple cylinder bores, usually arranged in a row or a V-
formation, depending on the engine configuration. Engine blocks are typically
made from robust materials such as cast iron or aluminium alloy, chosen for their
durability, heat dissipation properties and weight considerations. The energy
produced is transmitted to the crankshaft through a connecting rod.

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2.2.1 Components of an Engine Block

Fig: Engine block

a) Connecting rod: A Connecting rod plays a crucial role in transmitting the
power generated by the engine's piston to the crankshaft, which ultimately
converts the linear motion of the piston into rotational motion. The primary
function of a connecting rod is to connect the piston to the crankshaft. When the
air-fuel mixture is ignited within the combustion chamber, it creates a high-
pressure force that drivesthe piston downward.

Fig: Connecting rod

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b) Piston: The piston is a cylindrical component that fits inside the cylinder bore
and moves up and down. It is connected to the crankshaft via a connecting rod.
During the engine's operation, the piston undergoes reciprocating motion, driven by
the combustion of fuel and air mixture in the cylinder.

Fig: Piston
c) Piston ring: Piston rings are metal rings that are installed around the outer
circumference of the piston. They provide a tight seal between the piston and the
cylinder wall, preventing excessive leakage of combustion gases and oil. Piston
rings also help to control oil consumption and maintain compression within the
cylinder.

Fig: Piston ring

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d) Crank shaft:
The crankshaft is a mechanical component in an engine that converts the
reciprocating motion of the pistons into rotational motion. It is responsible for
transferring power from the combustion chamber to the drivetrain. As the air-fuel
mixture ignites within the cylinders, it exerts pressure on the pistons, driving them
downward. This force is transmitted through the connecting rods to the crankshaft.
The crankshaft's rotation then transfers power to the transmission system,
ultimately propelling the vehicle.

Fig: Crank shaft

e) Cam shaft: A Camshaft, also known as a cam, is a rotating component that

controls the opening and closing of the engine's valves. It is a critical part of the
engine's timing system and plays a crucial role in the operation of the engine. It is
typically located in the engine block, above the cylinder head, and is driven by the
crankshaft via a timing belt, timing chain, or gears. It has a series of lobes or cams
that are designed to push against the engine's valves, opening them at the right
time to allow the intake of air and fuel and the exhaust of combustion gases.

Fig: Cam shaft

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2.3 Oil Sump: The oil sump is also known as an oil pan or oil reservoir. It is usually
madeof steel pressing. Sometimes, it is made of aluminum or cast iron. It contains a
drain plug at its lowest part to drain out the oil.

Fig: Oil Sump

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3. POWER GENERATION IN FOUR STROKE DIESEL
ENGINE
Power generation in a 4-stroke diesel engine involves a series of events that
occur ineach stroke of the engine cycle. Here's a point wise explanation of the
power generation process in a 4-stroke diesel engine:

a) INTAKE STROKE:
* The intake valve opens and the pistons moves downward creating a vaccum in
the cylinder
*Air is drawn into the cylinder from the atmosphere

b) COMPRESSION STROKE:
* The intake valve closes and the piston moves upward compressing the cylinder
*The temperature and pressure of the air increase during compression

c) INJECTION/COMBUSTION STROKE:
* Fuel is injected into the highly compressed air
* The mixture auto-ignites due to the high temperature and pressure,
initiatingcombustion.

* The combustion process releases a large amount of heat energy

d ) POWER STROKE:

* The expanding gases from combustion force the piston downward

* This downward motion is converted into rotational motion by the crank shaft

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e) EXHAUST STROKE:
* The exhaust valve opens, and the piston moves upward, pushing the burned gases
out of the cylinder.

*The cycle is then ready to repeat with the next intake stroke.

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4. FUEL SYSTEM:
A fuel system plays a crucial role in ensuring that the correct amount of fuel is
delivered to the cylinders of an internal combustion engine, thereby ensuring
efficient combustion. In a car, a bus, etc., is installed, the fuel tank is usually
quite far away from the engine. This fuel tank is where the fuel is stored in
order to provide fuel to the combustion chamber through the fuel pump.
Different components of the fuel system perform their duties by supplying
fuel from the fuel pump to the combustion chamber.

Fig: Fig: Architecture of Air fuel System in IC engine

4.1 COMPONENTS OF FUEL SYSTEM

 Fuel Tank: The fuel tank stores the fuel (gasoline, diesel or alternative fuel)
before it is supplied to the engine. It often contains a fuel level sensor to
provide information about the fuel quantity.
 Fuel pipes: Fuel pipes are responsible for transporting fuel from the fuel
tank to the other components of the fuel system. They are designed to
withstand pressure and ensure proper fuel flow
 Preliminary Fuel Filter: The preliminary fuel filter is located between the
fuel tank and the fuel feed pump. It removes larger impurities and debris
from the fuel to protect the fuel system from damage
 Fuel filter and water separator: The fuel filter and water separator are
designed to remove smaller impurities and water from the fuel. They
ensure that only clean fuel reaches the engine, preventing clogging potential
damage to the fuel injection system.

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 Fuel feed pump: The fuel feed pump, also known as the lift pump, draws
fuel from the fuel tank and delivers it to the fuel injection pump. It creates
the necessary pressure to overcome the resistance in the fuel system.

Fig: Fuel feed pump

 Fuel Injection Pump: The fuel injection pump pressurizes the fuel and
distributes it to the individual injectors .It ensures that the fuel is delivered at
the correct pressure and timing for efficient combustion

 Injector Nozzle: The injector nozzle also referred to as the fuel injector, is
responsible for atomizing the fuel and injecting it into the engine cylinders
in a fine spray. It precisely controls the fuel delivery to achieve optimal
combustion

Fig: Injector nozzle

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  Over flow pipes: The overflow pipes also known as the spill pipes or
returnpipes ,are connected to the fuel injection pump and allow excess fuel
to return to the fuel tank .They help maintain the desired fuel pressure in
the system.

4.2 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF FUEL SYSTEM

Fuel is drawn from the fuel tank by the fuel feed pump and pushed through
the fuel pipes to the fuel filter by the fuel pump. The preliminary fuel filter
removes larger impurities, while the fuel filter and the water separator remove
smaller particles and water. After the fuel feed pump has supplied the filtered
fuel to the fuel injection pump, the pump then pumps the pressure and timing
of the fuel based on the engine's demands. The fuel pump also delivers the
filtered fuel to the fuel injection pump, which then pressurizes the fuel to the
needed level. Injector nozzles are attached to the fuel injection pump by
atomizing the fuel into a fine spray that is then injected directly into the
engine cylinders at the exact moment necessary for combustion by injecting
the pressurized fuel. Any excess fuel from the fuel injection pump or
injectors that is returned to the fuel tank via the over flow pipes allows a
consistent fuel pressure to be maintained within the system. Over
pressurizing the system is thus prevented.

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5. GEAR SYSTEM
GEARBOX: A gearbox, also known as transmission, is a critical
component in a vehicle that transfers power from the engine to the wheel.
It uses a series of gears to change the speed and torque, allowing the driver
to adapt to different driving conditions. By selecting the appropriate gear
ratio, the gear box ensures optimal fuel efficiency and performance. Mutual
transmissions require manual gear shifting, while automatic transmission
shifts gear automatically. The gear box is essential for converting the
engine’s power into forward motion, enabling smooth and efficient driving.

Fig :Gear box

5.1 TYPES OF GEAR BOX:

Sliding mesh gearbox: Sliding mesh gearbox is a type of manual
transmission that uses a series of gears that are arranged on two shafts.
Thegears on the first shaft are called the layshaft gears, and the gears on
the second shaft are called the main shaft gears. The layshaft gears are
fixed to the shaft, but the main shaft gears can slide axially along the
shaft. When the driver shifts gears, a selector fork moves one of the
main shaft gears into mesh with a layshaft gear. This engages the desired
gear ratio. Sliding mesh gearboxes are relatively simple to manufacture.

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 Fig: Sliding mesh gear

Constant mesh gear box: A constant mesh gearbox is a type of manual

transmission in which all forward gear pairs remain engaged at all times.
This means that the gears are always in mesh with each other, even when
the vehicle is not moving. When the driver changes gears, a dog clutch is
used to engage the desired gear with the output shaft. Constant mesh
gearboxes are relatively simple to manufacture and maintain, and they
are very durable. However, they can be noisy, and they can be difficult to
shift gears smoothly. Constant mesh gearboxes are typically used in
heavy-duty vehicles, such as trucks and buses.

Some of the advantage of constant mesh gear box includes-

 They are relatively simple to manufacture and maintain.
 They are very durable.
 They can handle high loads.

Synchromesh gear box: A synchromesh gearbox is a type of manual

transmission that uses synchronizers to match the speeds of the input and
output shafts before engaging a gear. This prevents gear clashing and allows
for smoother gear changes. Synchronizers are made up of a series of cones
and rings that mesh together to slow down the input shaft until it is at the
same speed as the output shaft. Once the speeds are matched, the synchronizers
allow the gear to be engaged smoothly. Synchromesh gearboxes are now
standard on most manual transmissions, as they make gear changes easier and
more comfortable for the driver. They also help to protect the transmission
from damage caused by gear clashing.

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 Here are some additional details about synchromesh gearboxes:

 Synchromesh gearboxes were first introduced in the early 1920s, but

they did not become widespread until the 1950s.
 Synchromesh gearboxes are more complex and expensive to
manufacture than constant mesh gearboxes, but they offer several
advantages, including smoother gear changes, increased durability, and
better fuel economy.
 Synchromesh gearboxes are used in most manual transmissions today,
including those found in cars, trucks, and motorcycles.

Fig: Synchromesh gear box

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6. CLUTCH SYSTEM:
A clutch is a mechanical device that engages and disengages power
transmission, especially from a drive shaft (driving shaft) to a driven shaft.
The clutch acts as a mechanical linkage between the engine and transmission;
and briefly disconnects, or separates the engine from the drive train, and
therefore the drive wheels, whenever the pedal is pressed, allowing the driver to
smoothly change gears. Parts of the clutch includes:-

Clutch Plate:

The clutch plate consists of a flat, circular metal plate with a friction material
lining on both sides. The friction material is usually made of a composite
material, such as organic or ceramic compounds, which have high friction
coefficients and excellent heat resistance. These friction linings enable the
clutch plate to grip and transfer power effectively when engaged. The clutch
plate works in conjunction with the pressure plate and the flywheel. When the
clutch pedal is pressed, it activates the release mechanism, which disengages the
clutch plate from the flywheel.

Fig:Clutch Plate

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Pressure Plate:

The primary function of the pressure plate is to engage and disengage the
clutch by applying pressure to the clutch plate and forcing it against the
flywheel. When the clutch pedal is released, the pressure plate exerts pressure
on the clutch plate. This pressure brings the clutch plate into contact with the
flywheel, creating a frictional connection between the engine and the
transmission. It is typically made from high-strength steel and undergoes heat
treatment processes to enhance its durability and reliability.

Fig: Pressure Plate

Clutch Cover:
A clutch cover or a clutch case is a metal housing that encloses the clutch
assembly and protects it from external elements .The clutch cover is located
between the engine and the transmission and is bolted to the flywheel. Its main
purpose is to provide a protective cover for the clutch components, such as the
pressure plate, clutch disc, and release bearing. The clutch cover also serves to
keep the clutch assembly in place and maintain the proper alignment with
flywheel.

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 Fig: Clutch Cover

6.1 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF CLUTCH

A Clutch is a mechanical device used in automotive applications to engage or
disengage power transmission between two rotating shafts. It allows the transfer
of power from the engine to the transmission, enabling gear changes and control
over the vehicles movement. The working principle of a clutch involves two
states engaged and disengaged states. In the engaged where the clutch pedal is
released force is applied on the pressure plate to move towards the flywheel,
exerting pressure on the clutch disc. The friction between the clutch disc and the
flywheel allows the transfer of engine torque to the transmission input shaft,
enabling power transmission. In the engaged state when the clutch pedal is
depressed, the release bearing moves away from the pressure plate, relieving the
pressure on the clutch disc .This action separates the clutch disc from the
flywheel, interrupting the power transmission between the engine and the
transmission. The engine continues to rotate independently of the transmission,
allowing for the gear changes or the vehicle to come to a stop.

6.2 FUNCTIONS OF CLUTCH

The clutch is an essential part of the manual transmission system and it has the following
functions to perform
1. To transmit the engine power to the wheel and make the vehicle move.
2. To permit coupling or uncoupling of a gear for a stationary vehicle but
with theengine running
3. To permit coupling or uncoupling of a gear for a stationary vehicle but with the
engine running.

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7. LUBRICATION SYSTEM
The mobile parts in an IC engine such as pistons, crankshafts, camshafts,
andbearings rub against each other and create friction. Lubrication helps
reduce friction, minimize wear and tear, dissipate heat, and prevent
damage to engine components.
Modern IC engines have a pressurized lubrication system. The
systemconsists of the following components:
● Oil Sump: It is a reservoir located at the bottom of the
engine,containing lubricating oil.
● Oil Pump: The oil pump draws oil from the sump and
delivers it tovarious engine components.
● Oil Filter: The oil filter removes contaminants and debris from
the oilbefore it reaches the engine components.
● Oil Passages: These are channels and passages within the
engine block and cylinder head that direct the oil flow to
specific areas that require lubrication, such as crankshaft
bearings, piston rings, etc.
Proper maintenance of the lubrication system is essential for engine health.
This includes regular oil changes, using the recommended oil grade and
viscosity, and replacing the oil filter at recommended intervals. Additionally,
monitoring oil levels and checking for any signs of oil leaks are important.

7.1 PURPOSE OF LUBRICATION:

The purpose of lubrication in an internal combustion engine (IC) engine serves
several important functions .Here are the primary purpose of lubrication in an
Internal combustion engine.
1. Reduce Friction: One of the main purpose of lubrication is to
minimize friction between moving parts. The lubricating oil forms a
thin film between metal surface, preventing direct metal to metal
contact .This reduces frictional forces which in turn reduces wear and
tear on engine components
2. Heat Dissipation: The lubricating oil helps in dissipating the
heat produced in different parts of the engine .As the oil flows
through the engine , it absorbs heat from the engine components and
carries it away to the cooler

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3. Corrosion and Rust Prevention: The Lubricating oil forms a protective layer
on the metal surface, preventing the formation of rust and inhibiting the
corrosive action of combustion by products and moisture
4. Minimizing wear and tear: Lubrication help to minimize wear and tear on
various engine components. As the oil film separates the moving parts, it acts a
protective barrier, preventing them from rubbing against each other

7.2 TYPES OF LUBRICANT:

 Solid Lubricant:-graphite, molybdenum, mica
 Semi solid lubricants-heavy greases
 Liquid lubricants: mineral oil obtained by refining petroleum

7.3 FUNCTIONS OF LUBRICATION:

The function of lubrication in an internal combustion(IC) engines is crucial for its
smooth and efficient operation. Here are the main features of lubrication in an IC
engine.
1. Friction Reduction: Lubrication plays a vital role in reducing friction between
moving parts within the engine. By creating a thin film of lubricating oil between
the surfaces, it minimizes direct metal to metal contact, thereby reducing
frictional forces.
2. Wear prevention: Lubrication serves as a protective barrier between moving
parts ,preventing them from rubbing against each other and causing excessive wear
3. Heat Dissipation: IC engines generate significant amounts of heat during
operation .The lubricating oil helps dissipate this heat by absorbing it from the
engine components and carrying it away.
4. Seal Formation: Lubrication aids in the formation of effective seals within
theengine. For example, it helps the piston ring create a proper seal against the
cylinder walls, preventing the leakage of combustion gases.

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8. COOLING SYSTEM
The cooling system in an internal combustion engine is designed to regulate and
dissipate the heat generated during the combustion process. Excessive heat can
lead to engine damage and reduced efficiency, so an effective cooling system is
essential. Here an overview of the key components and functions of cooling
system in a typical IC engine.
Radiator:
-The radiator is a heat exchanger that transfers heat from the engine coolant to the
surrounding air
-Its typically consist of a network of tubes and fine through which the coolant
flows.

Fig: Radiator
Coolant:
Coolant is a mixture of water and antifreeze that circulates through the engine to
absorb and carry away heat
-It prevents the coolant from freezing in cold temperature and protects the system
from corrosion
Water Pump:
The water pump circulates the coolant through the engine and radiator-It is usually
driven by a belt connected to the crankshaft or another engine component

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 Fig: Water pump

Coolant Hoses:
Hoses connect various components of the cooling system, allowing the coolant to
circulate between the engine, radiator and other parts.
Temperature Sensors:
Temperature sensors monitor the engine temperature and provide feedback to the
engine control unit (ECU) or temperature gauge.

8.1 FACTORS FOR SELECTION OF COOLING SYSTEM

The type of cooling system required depends on the following factors:

1. Design and size of the engine: Smaller engines and those with limited
space might use air cooling systems, while larger engines may use
water cooling systems.
2. Cooling efficiency: High-performance or heavy-load engines may
require water cooling. For efficient temperature regulation in hot
climates and demanding operating conditions, water cooling systems
may be required.
3. Conditions: Hot climates or demanding operating conditions may
demand water cooling systems.
4. Maintenance considerations: Air cooling systems typically need less
maintenance than water cooling systems.
5. Cost and complexity: A budget constraint and simplicity may lead
some applications to choose air cooling systems.
6. Application type: Depending on the type of vehicle, cooling systems
may differ, for example, motorcycles commonly use air cooling and cars
use water cooling.

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9. STEERING SYSTEM:
The steering system is an essential component of an automobile that
allows the driver to control the direction of the vehicle. It plays a crucial role
in ensuring safe and precise maneuverability. This report provides an
overview of steering systems, their types, and recent advancements in the
field.
9.1. Basic Steering System Components
The primary components of a typical steering system include:
1. Steering Wheel: The steering wheel is the interface between the
driver and the steering system, allowing the driver to input
steeringcommands.
2. Steering Column: The steering column connects the steering
wheelto the steering mechanism and transfers the driver's input.
3. Steering Gear: The steering gear converts the rotational
motion from the steering wheel into linear motion that moves
the wheels.
4. Pitman Arm and Idler Arm: These components, in
conjunction with the steering gear, transmit the motion to the
steering linkage.
5. Tie Rods: The tie rods connect the steering linkage to the
wheels, enabling the wheels to turn in response to steering
inputs.
6. Steering Knuckles: The steering knuckles are part of the front
suspension system and provide a connection point for the tie rods,
wheel bearings, and other suspension components.
There are two common types of power steering systems, Hydraulic power
steering (HPS), Electric power steering (EPS).
9.2 HYDRAULIC POWER STEERING (HPS):
Power steering pump:
The power steering pump is typically belt-driven by the engine
It pressurizes hydraulic fluid (power steering fluid) to assist in steering
Hydraulic Lines:
High pressure and low pressure hydraulic lines connect the power steering pump
to the steering gear (rack and pinion or steering box)

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Power Steering Fluid Reservoir:
The reservoir stores power steering fluid
It allows the fluid level to be maintained, and it typically has a dipstick on a level
indicator
Steering Gear (Rack and pinion or steering box):
The steering gear translates the rotational movement of the steering wheel into
lateral movement of the wheels
-In a rack and pinion system, hydraulic pressure assists in turning the recirculating
ball or worm gear
Control Valve:
The control valve regulates the flow of power steering fluid to the steering gear
based on the piston of the steering wheel.
ELECTRIC POWER STEERING (EPS)
1. Electric Motor:
Instead of hydraulic pump EPS systems use an electric motor to assist in steering
The electric motor is often integrated into the steering column or the steering gear
2. Control Module:
The control module or electronic control unit (ECU) monitors various inputs
Including steering wheel position and vehicle speed, to adjust the level of
assistance
3. Torque Sensor:
The torque sensor measure the amount of force applied to the steering wheel
It provides feedback to the control module to determine the appropriate level of
power assistance
4. Steering Gear:
The steering gear translates the rotational input from the steering wheel into
lateral movement of wheels.

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10 .DIFFERENTIAL
The primary function of a differential is to allow the wheels on an axle to
rotate at different speeds while receiving power from the engine. It is
necessary because during cornering, the outer wheel travels a greater distance
than the inner wheel, requiring different rotational speeds. The differential
compensates for this speed difference and enables smooth turning without
wheel slippage or binding.

Fig: Differential gear box

10.1 NEED OF DIFFERENTIAL

The differential is needed in an automotive drivetrain for several
important reasons:
1. Cornering and Turning: When a vehicle takes a turn, the outer wheels
have to travel a greater distance than the inner wheels. Without a
differential, the wheels would bind and experience excessive stress,
leading to tire wear and potential drivetrain damage. The differential
allows the wheels to rotate at different speeds, enabling smooth and
controlled turning without wheel slippage.

2. Traction and Stability: The differential plays a crucial role in

distributing power and torque to the wheels. In normal driving
conditions, the differential ensures that the torque is evenly
distributed to both the wheels, maximizing traction and stability.
This allows the vehicle to maintain control and prevent wheel spin,
especially on slippery or uneven surfaces

3. Wheel Slip Compensation: In situations where one wheel loses traction

such as when driving on a slippery surface or uneven terrain,the
differential helps transfer power to the wheel with a better grip. This
ensures that the wheel with traction receives more torque

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 which allows the vehicle to maintain forward motion and improve overall stability.

5. Different Wheel Sizes and Conditions: In some cases, vehicles mayhave

different-sized wheels or tires due to various factors. The differential
helps compensate for the differences in circumference and rotation
between the wheels, ensuring smooth operation and preventing drivetrain
damage

10.2 CONSTRUCTION OF DIFFERENTIAL

10.3 COMPONENTS OF DIFFERENTIAL

Differential side gear or sun gear:
In an automobile differential, the side gears are a crucial component of the
differential assembly. They are located inside the differential case and play a
key role in transferring power from the differential to the axle shafts and
ultimately to the wheels.

Fig:- Sun Gear

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Pinion shaft or cross pin
The pinion shaft, also known as the pinion gear shaft, is a component of the
differential assembly. It refers to the shaft on which the pinion gear is
mounted. The pinion gear is responsible for transferring rotational power from
the driveshaft or transmission output to the differential assembly. The pinion
shaft is usually supported by bearings within the differential case, allowing it
to rotate smoothly.
Axle shafts or Half shafts:
Half shafts, also known as drive shafts or axle shafts, are components of a
vehicle's drivetrain that transmit power from the differential to the wheels.
They are responsible for transferring rotational power from the differential
assembly to the wheels, allowing them to rotate and propel the vehicle
forward.

Fig: Half Shaft

Half shafts are typically located within the axle housing or axle tube. They
connect the differential to the wheel hubs or axle flanges. Half shafts are
usually solid, tubular shafts made of hardened steel or alloy materials to
withstand the torque and stresses applied during operation. They are
designed to provide strength and durability while maintaining a relatively
lightweight construction. At each end of the half shaft, there are splines or
splined shafts that engage with the differential side gears and the wheel
hubs or axle flanges. These splines allow for rotational movement and
transfer of torque.

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Ring gear or crown gear
The Ring gear is a crucial component in the differential assembly of a
vehicle's drivetrain. It is a large, circular gear that surrounds the differential
case and serves as the primary input for the differential. The ring gear is
typically connected to the driveshaft or transmission output shaft, and it
plays a key role in transmitting rotational power to the differential and
ultimately to the wheels.

Fig: Ring Gear

Drive pinion or bevel pinion:
The drive pinion, also known as the bevel pinion, is a crucial
component in the drivetrain of a vehicle. It is a small gear that is
mounted on the pinion shaft and meshes with the ring gear in the
differential assembly. The drive pinion is responsible for transmitting
rotational power from the driveshaft or transmission to the differential,
initiating the power transfer to the wheels.

Fig: Bevel pinion

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DIFFERENTIAL PINIONS OR PLANET GEAR
The planet gear, also known as a planetary gear, is a key component in a
planetary gear system. It is a type of gear that revolves around a central
sun gear while also meshing with an outer ring gear. The planet gear gets
its name from its orbital motion resembling the rotation of planets around
the sun. The rotation of the planet gear around the sun gear, combined with
its own rotational motion, enables power transmission from the input (sun
gear) to the output (ring gear). The planet gear acts as an intermediary
between the sun gear and the ring gear, facilitating torque transfer and
speed reduction or increase depending on the gear ratios.

Fig: Planet Gear

Propeller shaft
The propeller shaft, also known as the drive shaft or prop shaft, is a
key component of the drivetrain in a vehicle. It is a cylindrical metal shaft
that transmits rotational power from the transmission or transfer case to the
differential or axle assembly. The primary function of the propeller shaft is
to transfer torque from the engine to the wheels, enabling the vehicle to
move forward. The propeller shaft is typically located underneath the
vehicle, running along the length of the chassis. It is a solid or tubular shaft
made of steel or aluminum to provide strength and rigidity while
minimizing weight.

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 Fig: Propeller Shaft

The propeller shaft is connected to the transmission and differential using

universal joints (U-joints) at each end. U-joints allow for the transfer of
torque while accommodating the vertical and angular movement of the
suspension system.

The propeller shaft needs to be carefully balanced to minimize vibrations and

ensure smooth operation. Imbalances in the propeller shaft can lead to
driveline vibrations and other issues. Balancing may involve adding weights
or employingspecialized techniques to achieve optimal balance.

The propeller shaft is supported by bearings and bushings along its length
to reduce friction and allow for smooth rotation. These supports help
maintain alignment and prevent excessive wear or damage.

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11.BRAKE SYSTEM
Brakes are employed to stop or slow down the speed of vehicle When brake
applied to wheel braking force is created that force oppose the speed of wheel
of rotation of force.

11.1 PRINCIPLE OF BRAKING SYSTEM

While operating the braking system the Kinetic Energy of moving vehicle
is converted in to Heat Energy

11.2 FUNCTIONS OF BRAKE:

Brakes have the following functions
1. To stop or slow the vehicle in the shortest possible distance.
2. To control the speed where and when required
3. To control the vehicle while descending along the slope.

11.3 .TYPES OF BRAKES

1. On the basis of purpose
(a) Main brake
(b) Parking brake
2. On the basis of location
(a) Foot brake
(b) Transmission mounted
3. On the basis actuating
(a) Mechanical brake
(b)Hydraulic brake
(c) Air brake
(d) Electric brake

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4. On the basis of construction
(a) Drum brake
(b) Disc brake
5. On the basis of application of brake efforts
(a) Manual brake
(b) Power brake
(c) Power assisted
Hydraulic Braking System and Pneumatic Braking System are
discussed below.
11.4 HYDRAULIC BRAKING SYSTEM
The principle of Pascal’s law governs hydraulic brakes.
1. When pressure is applied to a fluid, it travels uniformly in all directions,
according to this law.
2. As a result, when force is exerted on a small piston, pressure is created,
which is communicated to a larger piston via the fluid.
3. Uniform braking is provided to all four wheels as a result of the increased force

HYDRAULIC BRAKES:
1. Hydraulic brakes are named as such as they create braking force through
hydraulic pressure.
2. Because liquids are incompressible ,they are employed instead of gas
3. Brake fluid is the fluid used in hydraulic brakes.

11.4.1 CONSTRUCTION OF HYDRAULIC BRAKES

1. It comprises a master cylinder with a piston attached.
2. With the use of lever system, the piston is connected to the brake pedal
3. A tube connects the master cylinder to the wheel cylinder. The wheel cylinder
has two pistons, B1and B2.

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11.4.2 WORKING OF HYDRAULIC BRAKES:
1. When the foot pedal is squeezed to apply brakes, pressure is applied to the
liquid in the master cylinder P, causing the liquid to flow out of the master
cylinder P and into the wheel cylinder Q.
2. As a result ,the pressure is equally transmitted and undiminished through the
liquid to the piston B1and B2, of the wheel cylinder, causing both pistons to be
forced outward and the brake shoes to be pressed against the wheel rim,
causing the wheel to slow down.
3. As pressure is transmitted via the liquid, it exerts equal pressure on all of the
vehicle wheels connected to pipeline R
4. When the pedals are released, the liquids return from the wheel cylinder Q
to the master cylinder P, the spring returns the brake shoes to their original
piston, and the pistons B1and B2 are compelled to retune the wheel cylinder
Q.
5. As a result, breaks are liberating.

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Fig:- Hydraulic Braking System

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11.5 AIR BRAKING SYSTEM
11.5.1Working of Air Brakes System:
When the brake pedals are pressed, the exhaust passage closes, and the air
intake route opens and the compressed air moves back into the chamber.
During the return stroke, the exhaust passage opens while the intake is
closed and the air used goes into the atmosphere. The system is equipped with
an emergency mechanical brake, which can be used when the air supply fails
the air brake system, known as the air-assisted hydraulic braking system.

When the driver of the vehicle presses the brake pedal to stop or stop the
vehicle, the following procedure takes place-When the driver starts the engine,
the brake compressor starts because it is powered by the engine, which in turn
starts compressing atmospheric air and the compressed air is sent to the
compressed air reservoir with this optimal air through the compressor governor
that always contains some amount of air stored from the previous cycle.

These compressed air flowing through the brake lines are then transferred to
the brake cylinder ,which has a pinion inside it .When compressed air pressurizes
the piston inside the brake chamber, the piston moves away from the
original position which converts the pneumatic energy into mechanical
energy.

At the wheel end of the brake cylinder, brake drums are placed inside, which is
a housing of mechanical actuators such as springs or slacks with brake pads at
the outer end. Due to the piston speed due to the pressure applied by the
compressed air, the mechanical actuator inside the brake drum expands, which
pushes the brake pads in an outward direction to create frictionless contact with
the rotating drum lines.

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11.5.2 PARTS OF AIR BRAKE SYSTEM:

1. AIR COMPRESSOR:
The air compressor is the main part of any air brake system that is driven by
the engine using a belt drive. It compresses atmospheric air to the desired
pressureand transfers it to the storage tank.
2. STORAGE TANK:
It stores compressed atmospheric air at high pressure. Also an essential part of
the air brake systems as compressed air is responsible for the entire operation.
The brakes can be applied several times while the automobile is running, so the
compressor is not capable of performing these tasks alone, which requires
aerial storage.
3. BRAKE PEDAL:
The brake pedal is an input to the brake mechanism. It is operated by the
drivers insides the automobile .The brake pedal is a type of mechanical linkage
that transfers the input motion to the forward mechanism and initiated the
brakeapplication.
4. BRAKE ACTUATOR:
A brake actuator is a piston-cylinder arrangement that is directly connected
with the brake pedal. When the brake pedals are pressed, it creates pressure
throughout the assembly.

5.SAFETY VALVE:
The safety valve is a safety component that attaches to the air storage tank.
This prevents the bursting of the tank due to excessive pressure because the air
compressor works continuously and supplies the compressed air in the tank.
Air is released by the safety valves when the air pressure reaches certain
values.
6.DIRT COLLECTOR:
A dirt collector is a small device used before the triplet valve. It is used to
collect dirt particles separated by air filters.
7.BRAKE DRUM:
The brake drum is the part that performs the brake. This is the last part of the
brake assembly. It is mounted on automobile tires.
8.BRAKING LINES:
Braking lines are also known as supply lines. The transfers of compressed
airfrom the reservoir to the brake drum are done by simply breaking the lines.

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9.TRIPLE VALVE:
The triple brake is responsible for the entire operation of the air brake.
Applying and releasing the brakes requires a continuously applied and
releasing mechanism that is performed by the triple valve.

10 AIR FILTER AND DRYER:

Air filters and dryers are the two major components that are used before
entering the air compressor. Air filters are used to remove dust mites from
atmospheric air, while a dryer inlet removes moisture and humidity from the
air.

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12. CONCLUSION:
We have successfully completed 4 weeks Industrial internship
programme at Assam State Transport Corporation, Jorhat. In this 4 weeks
training programme, we have gone through the practical knowledge of
I.C. engine of a diesel engine with its power transmission system. From
this training programme we got practical knowledge about the various
systems of IC engine like ignition system, cooling system, electronic
system and power transmission systems like gear box, propeller shaft etc.
Apart from studying the existing engine system, we had also gone
through some brainstorming ideas to make current engine systems more
efficient.

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 REFERENCE

1. Air Brake Systems Market 2020 Future Growth By In-Depth Industry (openpr.com)
2. An Overview of Hydraulic Brake Fluid Contamination . Sunday Bako ,Thomas
Usman, Ezra Parason Mijinwaya , Sanyol Ityokumbul Igyax

3. Layout of Hydraulic Braking System (Panka, 2018) | Download

Scientific Diagram (researchgate.net)
4. What Is Clutch: Types, Application and Working (godigit.com)
5. Clutch Definition -Working, Types, Uses, and various Advantages. (testbook.com)
6. Differential in Automobile: Definition, Functions, Working, Types (testbook.com)
7. IC ENGINE: COMPONENTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS, TYPES AND
TERMINOLOGY - INGENIERÍA Y MECÁNICA AUTOMOTRIZ
(ingenieriaymecanicaautomotriz.com)

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