Entropy analysis of open systems (control volumes)
Extending the second law to systems with mass flow.
Objective. To apply the second law of thermodynamics to open systems (control volumes)
through which mass and energy cross the boundary, and to identify entropy transfer, change,
and generation.
1. General entropy balance for a control volume.
dScv X X X Q̇j
= ṁin sin − ṁout sout + + Ṡgen
dt out
Tj
in j
dScv
• rate of change of entropy inside the control volume,
dt
• ṁs entropy transfer due to mass flow,
Q̇j
• entropy transfer due to heat interaction at boundary temperature Tj ,
Tj
• Ṡgen entropy generation due to irreversibilities (≥ 0).
dScv
2. Steady-state operation. If the process is steady ( = 0),
dt
X X X Q̇j
ṁout sout − ṁin sin = + Ṡgen .
out
Tj
in j
This form is commonly used for turbines, compressors, heat exchangers, and nozzles.
Interpretation.
• Entropy is carried in and out with the mass flow (ṁs terms).
• Entropy can also enter or leave by heat transfer across system boundaries.
• Entropy is generated inside the control volume due to real (irreversible) effects:
Ṡgen = Ṡfriction + Ṡheat transfer + Ṡmixing + Ṡexpansion + · · ·
3. Significance of Ṡgen .
• Ṡgen = 0 Reversible steady-flow device.
• Ṡgen > 0 Real (irreversible) device.
• Negative Ṡgen Impossible (violates the second law).
4. Steady-flow entropy balance examples.
• Adiabatic turbine:
ṁ(s2 − s1 ) = Ṡgen ≥ 0 ⇒ s2 ≥ s1 .
1
• Adiabatic nozzle:
s2 ≥ s1 , with equality for reversible flow.
• Heat exchanger: Both fluids may experience Ṡgen > 0 even if Q̇net = 0.
Example. Air enters an adiabatic nozzle at 600 K, 300 kPa, and exits at 100 kPa. Assume
isentropic behavior. Find exit temperature using s2 = s1 for air (k = 1.4):
(k−1)/k 0.286
T2 p2 1
= = = 0.67, T2 = 0.67 × 600 = 402 K.
T1 p1 3
If actual T2 = 430 K, then Ṡgen > 0 (irreversible losses).
5. Entropy generation and exergy destruction.
I˙ = T0 Ṡgen
where T0 is the ambient temperature. This quantifies lost work potential due to irreversibility
within the control volume.
6. Summary.
• Entropy balance applies to both transient and steady-flow systems.
• Entropy enters/leaves with both heat and mass flow.
• Entropy generation measures how far a real process deviates from reversible behavior.
• Exergy destruction (T0 Sgen ) provides a measure of inefficiency.
Quick check.
1. What carries entropy in open systems besides heat? Mass flow.
2. Can a steady adiabatic turbine have Ṡgen < 0? No, violates 2nd law.
3. What does I˙ = T0 Ṡgen represent? Exergy (work) loss due to irreversibility.
