AGR223:

INTRODUCTORY AGROMETEOROLOGY AND CLIMATE CHANGE

Unit 5: Weather hazards and weather relation with agriculture:

• Weather hazards - drought, floods, frost, tropical cyclones and extreme weather
conditions such as heat-wave and cold- wave, agriculture and weather relations

• Modifications of crop microclimate, climatic normal for crop and livestock

production

Lecture by: Dr. Sujatha H. T., Assistant Professor (Agronomy), School of Agriculture, Lovely
Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab
Hazards
• A meteorological or geophysical event which has the potential to negatively impact on
humans , animals or the environment
• Primary- Occur as a result of itself. Ex- earthquake
• Secondary – Occur due to primary one caused on them.
• Eg- soil liquification
• Tertiary – Due to primary and secondary one and have long term effects. Eg- Land instability
Weather Hazards
• A weather hazard is any naturally occurring weather condition that has the potential to
cause harm or damage, such as: hurricanes, tornadoes ,white-outs, forest fires.
• By understanding weather hazards we can minimize the damage they cause. The effect of
weather hazards can be felt for a short time or they can be more permanent
• Damaging extent of these hazards depends on time of occurrence, intensity and duration.
Natural Disasters that commonly affect Indian Areas are:
• TROPICAL CYCLONES
• EARTHQUAKES
• TSUNAMIS
• FLOODS
• DROUGHTS
• HEAT & COLD WAVES
Weather Hazards
• Major abnormalities which affect the crop production :
• Floods
• Drought
 • Untimely rain
• Storms, Cyclones and depressions
• Thunder storms, hailstorms and dust storms
• Cold waves
• Hot waves
• High winds
Effect of Weather Hazards
• Short term Effect- short-term effects will normally only last a few days or weeks. They will
not cause any lasting or permanent damage. Examples may include: slight damage to land
and/or buildings, temporary migration of the population, a disruption to power supplies
• Long-term effects can include large-scale destruction of property, or a complete alteration
of the physical landscape. The pictures show the Chandeleur islands in the USA before and
after Hurricane Katrina.
Tropical Cyclone
• A tropical cyclone is a rotating, organized system of clouds and thunderstorms that originates
over tropical or subtropical waters and has a closed low-level circulation.
• Tropical cyclones rotate counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere
• Cyclones can be observed on land, but they cannot originate on land. This is because they
need the moisture from the sea in order to form the huge clouds.
• Cyclones are formed when warm air meets cool air, The less dense warm air rises over dense
cool air
• Tropical cyclone, also called typhoon or hurricane, an intense circular storm that originates
over warm tropical oceans and is characterized by low atmospheric pressure, high winds, and
heavy rain.
• a tropical cyclone generates winds that exceed 119 km (74 miles) per hour.
• In extreme cases winds may exceed 240 km (150 miles) per hour, and gusts may surpass 320
km (200 miles) per hour.
Favourable conditions for a Cyclonic Storm
• Pre existing area of disturbed weather
• Sea surface temperatures greater than 80˚ Fahrenheit/26.5 ˚ Centigrade
• Absence of wind
Hailstorm

Dust storm
CYCLONE SEASONS(For Indian Seas)
• Pre-Monsoon Cyclone Season : March to May
• Post-Monsoon Cyclone Season : October to December
• Tropical cyclones are not formed in 5 degree N-S area near equator due to absence of Coriolis
Force. Coriolis force is responsible for the formation of a wind system over oceans as trade
winds get deflected due to this force in both the hemisphere. ... So, on
equators cyclones are not formed
• Dimensions of Tropical Cyclones
Size
• Large ( 700-1000km dia)
• Medium (300-700km dia)
• Small(<300km dia)
Speed of Movement
• 10-14kmph (slow)
• 15-25(moderate)
• >25(fast)
MONITORING OF CYCLONES BY IMD
• One of the most important functions of IMD
• A constant watch is kept on the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal for the likely genesis of
tropical cyclones with the help of satellite imagery.
• Data from ships is also very valuable.
• When the systems come nearer to the Indian coastline, their subsequent development and
movement is monitored by a chain of Cyclone Detection Radars.
• The likely movement of the storms is predicted with the help of track prediction models
(Computer Programs) and by reference to past climatology which has been built up using 125
years of cyclone data.
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Potential Impact upon Land

• Low Atmospheric Pressure in the Centre
• Rain Storm
 • Flooding
• Loss of Human Life
• Damage to structures & Flooding of Low-Lying Coastal Areas
• Damage to Shipping & Fishing Facilities
• Loss of Communications & Power
• Bushfire
• Loss of Soil Fertility from Saline Intrusion
• Contamination of Domestic Water Supply
• Destruction of Vegetation, Crops, Livestock
• A Storm Surge is an abnormal rise of sea level caused by a cyclone moving over a
continental shelf
CYCLONE WARNING FOUR STAGES:
• I Stage -PRE-CYCLONE WATCH: 72 Hrs in Advance. Early warning about development of
a cyclone, its likely intensification, coastal belt likely to be affected etc. Issued by DGM
himself and addressed to Cabinet Secy of GOI and Chief Secy of concerned State Govts.
• II Stage – Cyclone Alert :At least 48 Hours in advance of adverse weather. Contains location
of storm, direction of movement, intensification, coastal districts likely to be affected.
• III Stage – Cyclone Warning :At least 24 hrs in advance. Contains latest position of cyclone,
its intensity, maximum sustained surface wind speed, forecast of landfall point, time of landfall
, impact of strong winds, heavy rain and advice to fishermen and general public.
• IV Stage – Post Landfall Outlook:Issued 12 hrs in advance of expected time of land fall
issued. Contains likely direction of movement after landfall, adverse weather likely to be
experienced in the areas away from coast

Heat waves
• Heat wave is the period of prolonged abnormally high surface temperatures relative to
those normally expected.
• Heat waves may span several days to several weeks.
• The World Meteorological Organization defines it as five or more consecutive days during
which the daily maximum temperature surpasses the average maximum temperature by 5 °C
(9 °F) or more.
Q. What is heat wave?
Ans. Qualitatively, heat wave is a condition of air temperature which becomes fatal to human
body when exposed. It is defined based on the temperature thresholds over a region in terms of actual
temperature or its departure from normal.
In certain countries it is defined in term of the heat index based on temperature and humidity.
Q. What is criterion for declaring heat wave?
Ans: Heat wave is considered if maximum temperature of a station reaches at least 400C or more
for Plains and at least 300C or more for Hilly regions.
a) Based on Departure from Normal
• Heat Wave: Departure from normal is 4.50C to 6.40C
• Severe Heat Wave: Departure from normal is >6.40C
b) Based on Actual Maximum Temperature
• Heat Wave: When actual maximum temperature ≥ 450C
• Severe Heat Wave:When actual maximum temperature ≥470C
• If above criteria met at least in 2 stations in a Meteorological sub-division for at least two
consecutive days and it declared on the second day.
Q. What is a criterion for describing Heat Wave for coastal stations?
• When maximum temperature departure is 4.50C or more from normal, Heat Wave may be
described provided actual maximum temperature is 370C or more.
Q. What is warm night?
• It is considered only when maximum temperature remains 400C or more.
• It is defined based on departures or actual minimum temperatures as follows:
• Warm night: minimum temperature departure is 4.50C to 6.40C
• Very warm night: minimum temperature departure is >6.40C
• India Meteorological Department refers that temperatures increase 5–6 °C (9–10.8 °F) or
more above the normal temperature.
• U.S. National Weather Service defines a heat wave as a spell of “abnormally and
uncomfortably hot and unusually humid weather” spanning two days or more.
• The European heat wave of 2003 (in which more than 30,000 people died), the U.S. heat wave
and drought of 1988 (which killed more than 4,000 people), and the Indian heat wave of
2015 (which killed more than 2,500 people).
• Extreme heat events are responsible for more deaths annually than hurricanes, lightning,
tornadoes, floods, and earthquakes combined.
• Last year, India witnessed an unprecedented heat wave spell that started early in March.
• By the first week of June, there were 73 spells of heatwave.
 • According to the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), 23 states reported
heatwaves in 2019, up from 19 in 2018.
• A recently released study by the Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology (IITM) said
frequency of heatwaves in India would increase from 2020.
• This study forecast more heatwaves to hit southern India between 2020 and 2064.
• There were 54 heatwaves in India between 1961 and 2005. The IITM study said the number
would go up to 138 between 2020 and 2064.
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TSUNAMIS
• A series of traveling ocean waves of extremely long length generated primarily by
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, outer-space meteorite splash or landslides occurring below
or near the ocean floor.
• Tsunamis are a threat to life and property for all coastal residents living near the ocean.
• Although 80% of the tsunamis occur in the Pacific, they can also threaten coastlines of
countries in other regions, including the Indian Ocean, Mediterranean Sea, Caribbean
region, and even the Atlantic Ocean.
TSUNAMI Monitoring and EARLY WARNING IN INDIA
• National Tsunami Warning Centre at INCOIS (Indian National Centre for Ocean
Information Service), Hyderabad
• Network of 17 Real Time Seismo Monitoring Stations being installed by IMD which transmit
data to IMD and INCOIS
• INCOIS processes data and issue warnings to Ministry of Home Affairs at Delhi
• MHA at Delhi co-ordinates dissemination
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Cold wave
• Cold Wave Conditions: For the plains, a cold wave is declared when the minimum
temperature is 10 degrees Celsius or below and is 4.5 degrees Celsius (C) less than normal
for two consecutive days.
• For coastal stations, the threshold value of minimum temperature of 10 degree Celsius is
rarely reached.
 • However, the local people feel discomfort due to the wind chill factor which reduces the
minimum temperature by a few degrees depending upon the wind speed.
A wind chill factor is a measure of the cooling effect of the wind on the temperature of the
air
• India’s Core Cold Wave Zone: India’s ‘core cold wave zone’ covers Punjab, Himachal
Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Delhi, Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh,
Chhattisgarh, Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Odisha and Telangana.
In 2019, Delhi and adjoining areas in the north had experienced its coldest winter of the
century
Unabated cold wave grips north India

• India experienced severe cold wave from December 2002 to January 2003.
• Some parts of Jammu, Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and
the North Eastern States experienced unprecedented cold wave.
• The crop yield loss varied between 10 and 100% in the case of horticultural crops and
seasonal crops.
• The fruit size and quality were also adversely affected in horticultural crops.
• However, temperate fruits like apple, peach, plum and cherry gave higher yield due to
extreme chilling.
• The damage was more in low-lying areas where cold air settled and remained for a longer time
on the ground.
• Cold Wave Situation in Delhi: On 3rd November 2020, Delhi recorded a minimum
temperature of 10 degree Celsius which was 5 degrees C below normal.
• IMD may consider declaring a cold wave if the temperature continues to stay the same for
another day.

Reasons for the Fall in Minimum Temperature:

• Absence of cloud cover in the region: Clouds trap some of the outgoing infrared radiation
and radiate it back downward, warming the ground.

• Snowfall in the upper Himalayas that has blown cold winds towards the region.

• Subsidence of cold air over the region: Subsidence is the downward movement of cold and
dry air closer to the surface.

• Prevailing weak La Nina conditions in the Pacific Ocean.

 • La Nina is the abnormal cooler sea surface temperatures reported along the equatorial
Pacific Ocean and it is known to favour cold waves.

• During La Nina years, the severity of cold conditions becomes intense. The frequency and
area covered under the grip of a cold wave becomes larger.

Frost

• Ground frost, meanwhile, refers to icy deposits on the ground formed when soil moisture
freezes.
• Frost can affect crops in various ways. It can form a layer on stems, leaves and fruits, causing
the plant cells to rupture. Similarly, ground frost limits the availability of soil oxygen and
moisture to plants. “When plants cannot access soil nutrients in this way, it is called a
physiological drought,”
• Combination of low moisture and clear skies, along with calm winds, creates ideal conditions
for the ground temperature to fall sharply overnight, increasing chances of ground frost.

EARTH QUAKES
• India Meteorological Department is The National Agency For Detecting And Locating
Earthquakes and Evaluation of Seismicity in Different Parts of The Country.
• A network of Seismological sensors is maintained by IMD.
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FLOODS
• Floods are mainly triggered by severe thunderstorms, cyclones or monsoons.
• In low-lying coastal areas, storm surges, tsunamis or rivers swollen by exceptionally high
tides can cause flooding.
 • Floods can threaten human life and property.
• Floods affect Agriculture sector
• Flood water can become a breeding ground for mosquitoes, tsetse fly creating an increased
risk of malaria, sleeping sickness, typhoid, cholera and dengue fever outbreak
Monitoring of Floods
• IMD monitors Flood situations through a network 10 Flood Met Offices located in various
states and as per river basins.
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DROUGHT

a. The condition under which crops fail to mature because of insufficient supply of water
through rains.
b. The situation in which the amount of water required for transpiration and evaporation by
crop plants in a defined area exceeds the amount of available moisture in the soil.
c. A situation of no precipitation in a rainy season for more than 15 days continuously.
Droughts Classification
• Droughts are commonly classified into four categories which are mostly based on different
parts of the hydrological cycle.
1. Meteorological drought: If annual rainfall is significantly short of certain level (75 per cent)
of the climatologically expected normal rainfall over a wide area, then the situation is called
by Meteorological drought.
2. Hydrological drought: This is a situation in which the hydrological resources like
streams, rivers, reservoirs, lakes, wells etc., dry up because of marked depletion of surface
water. The ground water table also depletes. The industry, power generation and other
income generating major sources are affected.
• If meteorological drought is significantly prolonged, the hydrological drought sets in.
3. Agricultural drought :This is a situation which is a result of inadequate rainfall. Because
of this, the soil moisture falls short to meet the demands of the crop during its growth.
Since the soil moisture available to a crop is insufficient, it affects growth and finally results in
the reduction of yield.
4. Socio-economic drought: The socio-economic drought expresses the deficit of water as an
economic good and addresses the damage caused by all the different types of drought.
Measurement/indication of Four different ways of drought
• Meteorological-a measure of departure of precipitation from normal. Due to climatic
differences, what might be considered a drought in one location of the country may not be a
drought in another location.
• Agricultural-refers to a situation where the amount of moisture in the soil no longer meets the
needs of a particular crop.
• Hydrological-occurs when surface and subsurface water supplies are below normal.
• Socioeconomic-refers to the situation that occurs when physical water shortages begin to affect
people
• Drought differs from aridity, which is characterized by a dry climate with low precipitation and
high evaporation losses.
• Drought characteristics vary significantly from one region to another, e.g., some days without
receiving rainfall in a tropical region might be considered a drought occurrence, whereas in dry
regions a drought may first be recognized after some years without rain
Sequence of Drought Impacts
• When drought (i.e. meteorological drought ) begins, the agricultural sector is usually the first
to be affected because of its heavy dependence on stored soil-water.
• Those who rely on surface water (i.e, reservoirs and lakes) and subsurface water (i.e,ground
water) are usually the last to be affected.
• A deficit of precipitation has different impacts on the ground water, reservoir storage, soil
moisture, snowpack, and streamflow.
• Soil moisture conditions respond to precipitation anomalies on a relatively short scale, while
ground water, streamflow, and reservoir storage reflect the longer-term precipitation
anomalies
Monitoring drought: Physical, Biological and Social Indicators
• Physical indicators include Rainfall, Effective soil moisture, Surface water availability, Depth
to groundwater, etc.
• Biological/ Agricultural indicators comprise: Vegetation cover & composition, Crop & Fodder
yield, Condition of domestic animals, Pest incidence, etc.
• Social indicators are mostly impact indicators and include Food and Feed availability, Land
use conditions, Livelihood shifts, Migration of population, etc.
Drought monitoring by IMD
• During 1965 and 1966, major parts of India were under prolonged and severe drought
conditions due to deficient monsoon rainfall.
• On the recommendations of the Planning commission, India Meteorological Department (IMD)
has started Drought Research and monitoring at Pune in 1967.
• IMD monitors drought by using three well established drought indices. One of which is purely
meteorological drought, the second one is agricultural drought and the third one started after
covers meteorological, agricultural as well as hydrological droughts.
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Percent of Normal
• The percent of normal precipitation is one of the simplest measurements of rainfall
departure/deficiency for a location.
• Analyses using the percent of normal are very effective when used for a single region or a
single season. Percent of normal is also easily misunderstood and gives different indications of
conditions, depending on the location and season.
• It is calculated by dividing actual precipitation by normal precipitation i.e. long period average
and multiplying by 100%. This can be calculated for a variety of time scales.
• Normal precipitation for a specific location is considered to be 100%.
Category of rainfall % departure of actual from normal rainfall
Excess RF +20% or more
Normal RF -19 to +19%
Deficient RF -20 to -59%
Scanty RF -60 to -99%
No rain -100%
Drought can be considered as slight if 11 to 25% deficiency of rain moderate drought if deficiency
of rainfall is 26 to 50% and severe drought if more than 50%

Based on rainfall deficit we are having three terms:

1. Dry spell: Rainless period for short time (i.e., >10 days in light soils, >15 days in heavy soils).
2. Drought: Prolonged dry spell resulting in wilting or drying of crops.
3. Famine: Severe form of drought called as famine.

Based on relevance to the users (National Commission on Agriculture, 1976):

1. Meteorological drought: It is defined as a condition, where the annual precipitation is less than
the normal over an area for prolonged period (month, season or year). As per precipitation, the
below normal departure of rainfall was classified by the IMD, India, as mild (1- 25%) moderate
(26 – 50%) and severe (above 50%). This is also a period of abnormally dry weather which is
 as per spatial extent sufficiently prolonged. Droughts are considered as large scale (up to 25%
area is affected) and worst (from 26 to 50% area affected).
2. Atmospheric drought: It is due to low air humidity, frequently accompanied by hot dry winds.
It may occur even under conditions of adequate available soil moisture. It refers to a condition
when plants show wilting symptoms during the hot part of the day when transpiration
exceeds absorption temporarily for a short period. When absorption keeps pace with
transpiration the plants revive. (Midday depression or incipient wilting).

Field Climate Modifications

• Field climate refers to the microclimate of the soil and that of the crop plants.
• Microclimate range is 1mm to 1 km,
• Mesoclimate :1km-100 km and
• Macroclimate: 100km-10,000km
• The microclimate of the bare soil is different from that of the vegetative surface.
• The microclimate of the bare soil refers to the surface layer of soil and the air layer just
above and below the soil surface
• During day time, soil surface receives solar radiation and warms up by absorbing it. The soil
surface becomes warmer than the soil layer below the active ground surface.
• When plants begin to grow, the microclimate of the field is modified.
• In a short period of time, the leaves of one plant begin to touch the leaves of other adjacent
plants. These plants and leaves tend to interfere with exchange of heat and moisture between
ground and the atmosphere
• The plant growth can be affected directly as well as indirectly by the wind. The plants become
dwarf in those areas where strong winds prevail. This is due to the formation of small cells
through reduced turgidity, when the cells are expanding and maturing
• Wind speed exerts a direct effect on the transpiration by removing water vapours from
the surroundings of the leaves
• Many investigators attempted to determine the techniques to reduce the adverse effects of
strong surface winds. This can be done by planting wind breaks, which may be a hedge or a
shelter made up of artificial material
• Similarly, field microclimate can be modified by using different types of mulches.
• Shelterbelts are one of the best techniques to protect the crops from harmful effects of cold
and hot winds.
 • The growth of the crops depends upon the amount of rainfall and its distribution throughout
its life cycle.
• Moisture deficit at any stage of the crop is harmful, but its effect is more lethal, if moisture
deficit occurs during reproductive period.
• The effect of the moisture deficit can be minimized by causing artificial rain
• The modification of the cyclones can be undertaken by seeding the outer clouds surrounding
the eye of the cyclone so that precipitation may occur before the mature stage is reached
• Fog is a humidity related phenomenon which occurs on clear nights with calm conditions.
• Fog occurs over moist land due to radiational cooling at night. As a result of cooling, the air
near the earth’s surface becomes saturated
Dissipation of Warm Fog
1. Mechanical Mixing
• It is based on the fact that drier, cleaner and warmer air is lying above the fog. In this case,
helicopters can be used to generate downdraft, which can force the warm air downward
and mixing with the fog. Once the warm air enters the fog, the temperature increases, which
can evaporate the water droplets. But this method is effective only for a smaller area, where
there is shallow fog.
2. Hygroscopic Nuclei:
• In this method, hygroscopic nuclei of sodium chloride and urea are introduced into the fog.
Sodium chloride and urea have strong affinity for water. These particles can absorb water by
condensation, grow in size and fall out in about five minutes.
3. Direct Heating:
• If sufficient heat is added to the fog layer, the water holding capacity of the air is increased.
As a result, the water droplets evaporate. Jet engines installed along the sides of the runways
of the airport are found to be effective, but are costly to install
Dispersal of Cold Fog
• This type of fog can be cleared very easily.
• The dispersal of cold fog is based on the fact that saturation vapour pressure on the surface of
the ice crystals is slightly less than that over the water surface at the same temperature.
• The most common substances used are dry ice and liquid propane.
• Dry ice is released from an aircraft above the fog.
Modification of Frost
• The objective of the frost control is to maintain vegetation above lethal temperature.
• During winter season, night time temperature decreases due to radiational cooling
 • This can be done by raising the air temperature where crop grows.
• Slope helps in improving cold air drainage, with the result the frost may be less frequent on
sloping land as compared to low land below it
• Soil mulches can be used to prevent excessive soil cooling
• Soil moisture can be an important source of heat on cold nights to reduce frost risk in wetter
soils, as these have more latent heat.
• Radiative frost occurs due to radiational cooling with clear skies and light winds.
• Advective frost occurs in those areas where cold air is advected from colder areas by stronger
winds. Advective frost or wind frost can occur at any time of the day or night irrespective of
the sky conditions.
Modification of Evaporation

• Evaporation losses can be minimized by using windbreaks known as shelter belts. Shelter
belts can reduce the wind speed on the leeward side.

• The water vapours transpired by the plants accumulate in the sheltered area.

• As a result, the relative humidity increases.

• The albedo of the water surface can also be increased for reducing the evaporation eg.
Acetyl alcohol,

a) Mulches
• Mulching can be defined as the application or creation of any soil cover that constitutes a
barrier to the transfer of heat or vapour .
• Mulching is the practice of placing a heat or moisture barrier over the top of the soil surface
to check evaporation and to improve soil moisture conditions.
• During summer season in the tropical and sub-tropical areas, heat load on plants exceeds the
tolerance limit. As a result of accumulation of heat energy, the soil temperature increases.
• At the same time, the atmospheric water demand increases resulting high evapotranspiration.
The rate of depletion of soil moisture increases
• Extremely high soil temperatures have harmful effect on the roots and may cause
destructive lesions on the stems of the plants.
• On the other hand, low soil temperatures adversely affect the uptake of the soil moisture and
nutrients by the roots of the plants.
• Mulches of straw or crop residues are used to reduce the rate of infiltration of water, which
depends on the soil structure and texture, soil depth and duration and intensity of rainfall.
 • Tillage of the soil creates favourable soil conditions for the development and penetration of the
roots in the soil.
• Tillage plays a significant role in the conservation of water by increasing the infiltration of
water. Thus, tillage has a direct bearing on the crop growth and grain yield
Types of Mulches
1. Soil mulch:
• If the surface of the soil is loosened, it acts as a mulch for reducing evaporation. The loose
surface soil is called soil mulch.
• Intercultivation creates soil mulch in a growing crop. This mulch interrupts the continuity of
capillaries and hence creates a barrier to the vapour.
2. Straw mulch:
• If straw is used as mulch, it is called straw mulch
3. Stubble mulch:
• It is created by permitting residues of small grain crops to remain standing in the field so as
to increase surface roughness and reduce soil blowing. Crop residues like wheat straw or
cotton stalks are left on the soil surface as stubble mulch. This type of mulch protects the soil
from erosion and evaporation losses are reduced.
4. Plastic mulch:
• Plastic material like polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride are used as mulching materials.
Purpose of Mulching:
• 1. To conserve soil moisture by reducing evaporation.
• 2. To modify soil temperature.
• 3. To control weed and improvement of soil structure

b) WIND BREAKS AND SHELTERBELTS

 Windbreaks are such structures which break the wind-flow and reduce wind speed while
shelterbelts are rows of trees or shrubs planted for protection of crop against wind.
 They provide a protective shelter against wind In the wind erosion areas, windbreaks and
shelterbelts are to be planted
• They prevent the soil erosion.
• A row of trees and shrubs planted across the winds-direction is the most effective. It reduces
the wind speed up to 60-80% on leeward side.
• The height of tall tree and length of wind break determine the extent of protection provided to
soil.
 • Windbreaks and shelterbelts provide the protective shelter against desiccating winds to extent
of 5-10 times the height of the tall tree on windward side and up to 30 times on leeward
side.
• For example a 10-11 meter tall windbreak when encountered by 45-50 km /hr wind, it reduces
on windward side to 20-30 km /hr and to 10 km / hr on just leeward side.
• To control the capacity of shelterbelt depends upon the speed and direction of wind.
• In case of high wind speed, the protective area is reduced and in such areas, the interval
between two shelterbelts is to be reduced. To counter winds direction, it is necessary to be
long length of windbreak so that wind blows across the wind break.
• Depending upon the porosity of shelterbelt, certain amount of wind passes through it and some
deflects & crosses over it. As a general rule 40% porosity is recommended.
• Reducing the wind speed reduces the evaporation losses and makes available more water to
crops.
• The beneficial effects of the shelterbelts are more clearly seen in drought areas.
• In such areas windbreaks of 3-7 rows are more effective. The windbreaks and shelterbelts
should be formed in North-West direction. These shall secure the crops and livestock against
cold wave also.

Reduction of transpiration rate in plants

• Antitranspirants materials or chemicals can be used, which decrease the water loss from
plant leaves by reducing the size and number of stomata.
• Nearly 99 per cent of the water absorbed by the plant is lost in transpiration.
• Antiranspirants and is any natural applied to transpiring plant surfaces for reducing water loss
from the plant.
• Different antitranspirants:
1. Metabolic inhibiter like phenyl mercuric acetate, some alkanyl succinic acids, GLOSA
2. Growth retardant such as A.B.A. Cycocel.
3. Herbicides, fungicides
4. Salicylic acid.
5. Colourless plastics, silicon oil, wax or plastic.
6. White reflecting materials (e.g. Kaolin) emulsions or white wash.
• Number of materials that may be used as antitranspirants. According to the mode of
action, antiranspirants are classified into four types, viz.
 1. Stomatal closing type: Most of the transpiration occur through the stomata on the leaf surface.
Some fungicides like phenyl mercuric acetate (PMA) and herbicides like Atrazine in low
concentration serve as antitranspirants by inducing stomatal closing. These might reduce the
photosynthesis. PMA was found to decrease transpiration than photosynthesis.
2. Film forming type: Plastic and waxy material which form a thin film on the leaf surface and
result into physical barrier. For example ethyl alcohol. It reduces photosynthesis eg. Tag 9; S - 789
foliate., mobileaf
3. Reflectance type: They are white materials which form a coating on the leaves and increase
the leaf reflectance (albedo). By reflecting the radiation, vapour pressure gradient and thus reduce
transpiration. Application of 5% kaoline spray reduces transpiration losses. eg. Diatomaceous earth
product (Celite), hydrated lime, calcium carbonate, magnesium carbonate, zinc sulphate etc.
4. Growth retardant: These chemicals reduce shoot growth and increase root growth and thus
enable the plants to resist drought. They may also induce stomatal closure. Cycocel is useful for
improving water status of the plant.
Increasing soil moisture storage
• Spreading manure or compost over the soil – this minimizes evapotranspiration and also
provides valuable nutrients to the soil through processes of decomposition
• Mulching –mulch materials include straw, wood chips, peat. inorganic mulch in form of plastic
sheet is also used.
• Conservation tillage – reducing or, in extreme cases, completely eliminating the tillage to
maintain healthy soil organic levels which increases the soils capacity to absorb and retain
water.
• Crop rotation – growing different types of crops every season helps improve soil structure
and thus water holding capacity.
• Examples include rotating deep-rooted and shallow rooted crops that make use of
previously unused soil moisture, as plants draw water from different depth levels within the
soil.
• Crop rotation may also improve soil fertility and help control pests and diseases.
• Green manuring – growing of plant materials with the sole purpose of adding to the soil for
improved organic matter and nutrients. The improved soil quality then also improves water
retention capacity.
• Deep tillage – suited for some areas and soils, deep tillage can help increase porosity and
permeability of the soil to increase its water absorption capacity.
 • Mixed cropping and interplanting - cultivating a combination of crops with different planting
times and different length of growth periods.
• Contour ploughing – by ploughing the soil along the contour instead of up- and downward
slopes, the velocity of runoff is reduced, creating even barriers, and more water is retained in
the soils and distributed more equally across the cropland.
• Strip cropping - growing erosion permitting crops and erosion resisting crops in alternate strips.
Other soil moisture conservation techniques may include rainwater harvesting to minimize
runoff and collect water for use on site.

Climatic normals for

Rice
• For germination, minimum of 10 ͦC temp. is required.
• Optimum temp required for flowering is 22-23 ͦC and for grain formation is 20-21 ͦC.
• A mean temperature around 22 ͦC is required for the entire growing period of the crop.
• Temp below 14 and above 38 ͦC induce sterility.
Wheat
• Cool weather during vegetative phase and warm during maturity is desirable
• Minimum, optimum and maximum cardinal temperatures for the wheat crop are 3-4.5 ͦC,25 and
30-32 ͦC respectively.
• High temperature beyond 30-35 ͦC is generally detrimental for growth.
• It is a long day crop
• Wheat crop converts 1% solar energy to dry matter
• Optimum conditions for yellow rust are mean temp 9-13 ͦC, RH 70% and partly cloudy
weather.
Maize
• Maize produces good results where the growing season is more than 140 days, with a mean
temperature of around 24 ͦC and a night temperature above 15 ͦC.
• Maize seed can germinate at 7 ͦC.
• If the temperature remains above 35 ͦC during noon hours for several days, pollen is destroyed
and yield is drastically reduced.
• On an average consumptive use of water by maize is 41-64cm.
Sugarcane
• Sugarcane requires a uniform but high temperature.
• For the best crop, the mean monthly temperature should remain above 22 ͦC.
 • The optimum temperature for the best growth is known to be around 30 ͦC.
Groundnut
• Min T for germination is 10 ͦC , desirable is 20 and opt is 25-30 for vegetative growth
• For reproductive growth 20-26 ͦC is optimum
• Flower expression can proceed up-to a mean temp of 33 but pod formation is retarded above
ͦ
26 C
Cotton
• Min, opt and max temp should be around 16,34 and 39 respectively
• Temp limits for germination are 5 ͦC higher than that for maize and about 10 ͦC higher than
that of wheat
• Air temp less than 16 ͦC or greater than 38 ͦC not conducive for vegetative development.
• Mean temp of 22-27 ͦC is opt for boll and fibre in relation to maturation

With increasing temperature milk production in animals generally decrease.