Module 1 - Introduction to Python

1. Compiler Vs Interpretor

Compiler

●​ Definition: Translates the entire source code into machine code or an intermediate form
before execution.
●​ Key Features:
1.​ Faster execution after compilation since the whole code is pre-converted.
2.​ Generates a standalone binary or intermediate bytecode.
3.​ Errors are reported after analyzing the entire source code.
●​ Examples: C, C++, Java (with bytecode compilation).

Interpreter

●​ Definition: Translates and executes code line by line.

●​ Key Features:
1.​ Slower execution due to on-the-fly interpretation.
2.​ Does not produce a standalone executable; the source code is required.
3.​ Stops immediately when an error is encountered.
●​ Examples: JavaScript, Ruby.

How Python Works

1.​ Compilation:
○​ Python first compiles the source code (.py files) into an intermediate bytecode
(.pyc files).
○​ This bytecode is platform-independent and stored in the __pycache__
directory for reuse.
2.​ Interpretation:
○​ The bytecode is interpreted by the Python Virtual Machine (PVM), which
executes the instructions.
Python's Nature

●​ Compiled Aspect: Python converts source code to bytecode, making it faster to execute
on subsequent runs.
●​ Interpreted Aspect: The bytecode is executed by an interpreter (PVM), and no
standalone executable is produced.

Advantages of Python's Hybrid Model

1.​ Platform independence due to bytecode.

2.​ Easier debugging and runtime flexibility, as the PVM can dynamically interpret and
execute the bytecode.

By combining compilation and interpretation, Python achieves both performance and flexibility,
making it one of the most versatile languages.

2. PIP

PIP stands for "Pip Installs Packages" or "Preferred Installer Program", and it is the default
package manager for Python. It allows you to install, manage, and uninstall Python libraries and
packages from the Python Package Index (PyPI) and other package repositories.

Key Features of PIP

1.​ Easy Package Installation: Install packages with a single command.

2.​ Dependency Management: Automatically resolves and installs dependencies required
by a package.
3.​ Wide Package Support: Access to a vast collection of Python packages hosted on PyPI.
4.​ Uninstall and Upgrade: Quickly remove or update packages.
5.​ Customizable: Supports installing from requirements files or local/remote repositories.
Basic PIP Commands

1. Verify PIP Installation

pip --version

2. Install a Package

pip install package_name

Example:

pip install numpy

3. Upgrade a Package

pip install --upgrade package_name

4. Uninstall a Package

pip uninstall package_name

5. List Installed Packages

pip list

6. Check for Outdated Packages

pip list --outdated

7. Install from a Requirements File

pip install -r [Link]

The [Link] file lists package names and their versions.

8. Install a Specific Version

pip install package_name==version_number

Example:

pip install requests==2.26.0

9. Search for a Package

pip search package_name

Installing PIP

1.​ Bundled with Python: Modern Python versions (≥3.4) include PIP by default.
2.​ Manual Installation:
○​ Download [Link] from [Link].

Run:​
python [Link]

Using PIP with Virtual Environments

PIP works seamlessly with Python's virtual environments (via venv or virtualenv),
allowing you to manage dependencies for specific projects without interfering with global
installations.

Example Workflow
# Create a virtual environment
python -m venv myenv
# Activate the virtual environment
# On Windows
myenv\Scripts\activate
# On macOS/Linux
source myenv/bin/activate
# Install a package
pip install flask
# Deactivate the environment
deactivate
Troubleshooting
Upgrade PIP:​
python -m pip install --upgrade pip
Fix Installation Issues: Use --user to install packages locally if you face permission errors:​
pip install package_name --user

PIP is an essential tool for Python developers, simplifying the process of working with
third-party packages and maintaining project environments.

3. Python

Python commands are used to execute Python programs or interact with the Python interpreter.
Below are common Python commands categorized for various purposes:

1. Running Python Code

Interactive Mode

Open the Python interpreter in the terminal or command prompt:

python

You can now type and execute Python commands interactively.

Example:

>>> print("Hello, World!")

Hello, World!

Running a Script

Execute a .py file:

python [Link]
Command-Line Arguments

Pass arguments to your Python script:

python [Link] arg1 arg2

Access these arguments in the script using [Link].

Running Python in Debug Mode

python -m pdb [Link]

2. Virtual Environments

Create a Virtual Environment

python -m venv env_name

Activate the Virtual Environment

Windows:​

env_name\Scripts\activate
macOS/Linux:​
source env_name/bin/activate

Deactivate the Virtual Environment

deactivate
3. PIP Commands

(For managing Python packages; see the PIP section above.)

Install a Package

pip install package_name

Upgrade PIP

python -m pip install --upgrade pip

4. Python Help and Information

Check Python Version

python --version

Access Help

Enter the Python interpreter and type: >>> help()

Exit help with: >>> exit

Show Installed Libraries

pip list

Check Python Executable Path

python -m site

5. Running Python One-Liners

Execute single-line Python code:

python -c "print('Hello, World!')"

6. File Handling Commands

Run Python in Interactive Mode with File Input

python -i [Link]

This keeps the Python shell open after the script executes, allowing you to inspect variables.

Read a File from Command Line

Use a Python one-liner:

python -c "print(open('[Link]').read())"
7. Python REPL Shortcuts

Exit REPL: Type exit() or press Ctrl+D (Linux/macOS) or Ctrl+Z (Windows).

Clear REPL: While Python doesn’t have a native clear command, you can simulate it with:​
import os
[Link]('cls' if [Link] == 'nt' else 'clear')

8. Performance Optimization

Run Python in Optimized Mode

python -O [Link]

This removes assert statements and sets the __debug__ flag to False.

9. Install Modules Globally

For global installations (requires admin privileges):

pip install package_name

10. Generate Bytecode

Create .pyc files:

python -m py_compile [Link]

These commands cover common scenarios for Python developers, from running scripts to
managing environments and debugging.
4. Features of Python

Python is a versatile, high-level programming language known for its simplicity and power. Here
are the key features that make Python a popular choice among developers:

1. Easy to Learn and Use

●​ Readable Syntax: Python’s syntax is simple and resembles natural language, making it
beginner-friendly.
●​ Minimal Boilerplate: Developers can focus on logic rather than syntax details.

2. Interpreted Language

●​ Code is executed line-by-line, allowing for immediate testing and debugging.

●​ No need for compilation, making it quicker to develop and test.

3. Dynamically Typed
You don’t need to declare variable types explicitly.​
x = 10 # x is an integer
x = "Hello" # x is now a string

4. Extensive Standard Library

●​ Comes with a wide range of built-in modules and libraries to handle tasks like:
○​ File I/O
○​ Regular expressions
○​ Networking
○​ Databases
○​ Web services

5. Cross-Platform Compatibility

●​ Python is platform-independent.
●​ Write code once, run it anywhere (Windows, macOS, Linux).
6. Object-Oriented and Procedural

●​ Supports multiple programming paradigms:

○​ Object-Oriented: Encapsulation, inheritance, and polymorphism.
○​ Procedural: Functions and procedures.
○​ Functional: Lambda functions, map/reduce/filter.

7. High-Level Language

●​ Abstracts low-level details like memory management, making it user-friendly and less
error-prone.

8. Extensible and Embeddable

●​ Extensible: You can write parts of Python code in other languages like C or C++ to
optimize performance.
●​ Embeddable: Embed Python in other languages for scripting capabilities.

9. Large Community Support

●​ Python has a vast and active community.

●​ Resources like forums, tutorials, and libraries are widely available.

10. Support for Third-Party Libraries

●​ Tools like PIP make it easy to install and use third-party packages from the Python
Package Index (PyPI).
●​ Popular libraries:
○​ Data Science: NumPy, Pandas, Matplotlib
○​ Machine Learning: TensorFlow, scikit-learn
○​ Web Development: Django, Flask
11. Scalability

●​ Python can scale from small scripts to large-scale enterprise applications.

●​ Frameworks like Django and Flask simplify web application development.

12. Automatic Memory Management

●​ Python has an in-built garbage collector to manage memory automatically.

13. Versatility

●​ Applications:
○​ Web Development
○​ Data Analysis
○​ Machine Learning and AI
○​ Game Development
○​ Scripting and Automation
○​ Desktop Applications
○​ Networking Applications

14. Interactive

●​ Python’s interactive shell allows you to execute code snippets and test ideas quickly.

15. Integration Capabilities

●​ Integrates well with other technologies and languages (e.g., .NET, Java).
●​ Can interact with APIs, databases, and web services seamlessly.

16. Support for Multi-Threading

●​ Python provides modules like threading and asyncio for concurrent programming.
17. Open-Source

●​ Python is free to use, distribute, and modify, making it an excellent choice for personal
and commercial projects.

18. Rich Framework Ecosystem

●​ Python offers robust frameworks for specialized purposes:

○​ Web Development: Django, Flask, FastAPI
○​ Data Science: PyTorch, SciPy
○​ Automation: Selenium, PyAutoGUI

19. Portability

●​ Python scripts can run on any machine with Python installed, ensuring code portability.

20. Backward Compatibility

●​ Many Python features are backward-compatible, though updates (like Python 3) may
introduce changes.

Python’s combination of simplicity, versatility, and power makes it an ideal language for projects
ranging from small scripts to large enterprise systems.

5. Execution of a Python Program

The execution of a Python program involves several steps, transforming source code into actions
performed by the computer. Here's how Python handles program execution:

1. Writing the Source Code

●​ A Python program starts as a text file with a .py extension.

Example:​
print("Hello, World!")
2. Compilation to Bytecode

●​ When you run a Python script, the Python interpreter compiles the source code into an
intermediate format called bytecode.
○​ Bytecode files are saved with a .pyc extension in the __pycache__ folder.
○​ This step is implicit; you don’t need to do anything manually.
●​ Bytecode is platform-independent.

3. Interpretation by the Python Virtual Machine (PVM)

●​ The bytecode is then passed to the Python Virtual Machine (PVM).

●​ The PVM reads the bytecode and translates it into machine-level instructions for the
operating system to execute.
●​ The PVM also manages memory allocation and garbage collection during execution.

4. Execution Flow

1.​ Line-by-Line Execution:

○​ Python executes each line of code sequentially, starting from the top.
○​ Syntax and runtime errors are caught during execution.
2.​ Import Statements:
○​ If your program imports other modules, Python locates, compiles (if necessary),
and loads them.
3.​ Function and Class Definitions:
○​ Python only executes functions and classes when they are called.
4.​ Global Scope:
○​ Code outside functions or classes (in the global scope) is executed immediately.
5. Example of Execution Process

Source Code ([Link]):

def greet(name):
print(f"Hello, {name}!")
greet("Alice")

Execution Steps:

1.​ Compilation:
○​ [Link] is compiled to [Link] in the __pycache__ directory.
2.​ Interpretation:
○​ The PVM loads the bytecode.
3.​ Execution:
○​ greet is defined but not executed initially.
○​ When greet("Alice") is called, the function is executed.

6. Interactive Mode Execution

●​ In the interactive Python shell (REPL), each line of code is compiled and executed
immediately.

Example:​
>>> x = 5
>>> print(x)
5

7. Error Handling During Execution

●​ Syntax Errors:
○​ Detected during the compilation step.
○​ print "Hello" # Missing parentheses
●​ Runtime Errors:
 ○​ Detected during execution.
○​ print(1 / 0) # Division by zero

8. Optimization (Optional)

Python can optimize bytecode with the -O flag, creating optimized .pyo files:​
python -O [Link]

9. Execution from Command Line

Run a Python script:​
python [Link]
Execute a single-line command:​
python -c "print('Hello')"

10. Tools for Execution

●​ IDEs/Editors:
○​ Use IDEs like PyCharm, Visual Studio Code, or Jupyter Notebook to run Python
code.
●​ Virtual Environments:
○​ Manage dependencies specific to a project using virtual environments.

Summary

The execution of a Python program involves:

1.​ Writing code (.py).

2.​ Compilation to bytecode (.pyc).
3.​ Interpretation and execution by the PVM.

This process ensures flexibility, portability, and simplicity in Python development.

6. Viewing the Byte Code

Viewing the bytecode of a Python program can be helpful for understanding how Python
interprets your code internally. Python provides the dis module (short for disassembler) to
examine the bytecode instructions.

Steps to View Bytecode

1. Import the dis Module

●​ The dis module disassembles Python functions, methods, or code objects into their
bytecode representation.

2. Disassemble a Function or Code Block

Use the [Link]() function to view the bytecode.

Examples

Example 1: Simple Function

import dis

def greet(name):

return f"Hello, {name}!"

# View the bytecode of the greet function

[Link](greet)
Output:

2 0 LOAD_CONST 1 ('Hello, ')

2 LOAD_FAST 0 (name)

4 FORMAT_VALUE 0

6 BUILD_STRING 2

8 RETURN_VALUE

Example 2: Disassemble Inline Code

import dis

# Use the compile() function to create a code object

code = compile("x = 10 + 20", "<string>", "exec")

# Disassemble the code object

[Link](code)

Output:

1 0 LOAD_CONST 0 (10)

2 LOAD_CONST 1 (20)

4 BINARY_ADD

6 STORE_NAME 0 (x)

8 LOAD_CONST 2 (None)
 10 RETURN_VALUE

Understanding Bytecode Instructions

1.​ LOAD_CONST: Loads a constant (e.g., numbers, strings) onto the stack.
2.​ LOAD_FAST: Loads a local variable.
3.​ BINARY_ADD: Performs addition on the top two stack items.
4.​ RETURN_VALUE: Returns the value at the top of the stack.

Viewing Bytecode for a Class

import dis

class Greeter:

def greet(self, name):

return f"Hello, {name}!"

# Disassemble a method

[Link]([Link])

Viewing Bytecode with __code__ Attribute

You can use the __code__ attribute to inspect a function's code object:

def square(x):

return x * x

print(square.__code__.co_code) # Raw bytecode as bytes

Using Bytecode for Debugging or Optimization

●​ Examine the efficiency of loops, conditional statements, and function calls.

●​ Analyze how Python handles certain constructs under the hood.

By using dis, developers can gain insights into Python's execution model and improve their
understanding of the language.

7. Flavors of Python

The term "flavors of Python" refers to different implementations of the Python programming
language. These implementations are tailored to specific use cases, platforms, or performance
needs while maintaining compatibility with the Python language specification. Below are the
most popular flavors of Python:

1. CPython

●​ Overview:
○​ The default and most widely used implementation of Python.
○​ Written in C, it is the reference implementation of Python.
●​ Features:
○​ Supports the entire Python ecosystem.
○​ Provides the standard Python interpreter and compiler.
○​ Best for general-purpose use.
●​ Use Cases:
○​ Web development, scripting, data science, and more.
●​ Example:
○​ If you download Python from [Link], you're getting CPython.
2. Jython

●​ Overview:
○​ An implementation of Python written in Java.
○​ Integrates Python seamlessly with Java applications.
●​ Features:
○​ Can use Java libraries directly in Python code.
○​ Compiles Python code into Java bytecode.
○​ No support for CPython-specific modules like NumPy and SciPy.
●​ Use Cases:
○​ Applications that require integration with Java.
○​ Enterprise software and Java-based systems.
●​ Website: [Link]

3. IronPython

●​ Overview:
○​ An implementation of Python for the .NET framework.
○​ Written in C#.
●​ Features:
○​ Seamlessly integrates with .NET libraries and tools.
○​ Can execute Python scripts in .NET environments.
○​ Does not support CPython-specific extensions like NumPy.
●​ Use Cases:
○​ .NET-based applications.
○​ Integration with Microsoft technologies.
●​ Website: [Link]

4. PyPy

●​ Overview:
○​ A just-in-time (JIT) compiled implementation of Python.
○​ Focuses on speed and efficiency.
 ●​ Features:
○​ Faster execution for long-running programs.
○​ Memory-efficient for certain workloads.
○​ Mostly compatible with CPython but may have issues with some extensions.
●​ Use Cases:
○​ High-performance applications.
○​ Scenarios requiring faster execution of Python code.
●​ Website: [Link]

5. MicroPython

●​ Overview:
○​ A lightweight implementation of Python designed for microcontrollers and
embedded systems.
●​ Features:
○​ Optimized for environments with limited resources.
○​ Supports hardware-level programming (e.g., GPIO, I2C, SPI).
○​ Smaller standard library compared to CPython.
●​ Use Cases:
○​ IoT (Internet of Things) devices.
○​ Embedded systems development.
●​ Website: [Link]

6. Stackless Python

●​ Overview:
○​ A CPython variant focused on concurrency.
●​ Features:
○​ Provides microthreads for better concurrency and performance.
○​ Lightweight and efficient threading model.
●​ Use Cases:
 ○​ Applications requiring high levels of concurrency.
○​ Games, networking, and real-time systems.
●​ Website: [Link]

7. Brython

●​ Overview:
○​ A Python implementation for running in web browsers.
○​ Transpiles Python code into JavaScript.
●​ Features:
○​ Write Python code that runs on the client side in web browsers.
○​ Access to JavaScript APIs through Python.
●​ Use Cases:
○​ Web development (frontend).
○​ Replacing JavaScript with Python for client-side scripting.
●​ Website: [Link]

8. Pyston

●​ Overview:
○​ A Python implementation optimized for performance, particularly for web
applications.
●​ Features:
○​ Faster than CPython due to optimizations.
○​ Compatible with most CPython code.
●​ Use Cases:
○​ High-performance Python applications.
○​ Web servers, data processing tasks.
●​ Website: [Link]
9. CircuitPython

●​ Overview:
○​ A variant of MicroPython designed for educational purposes and electronics
projects.
●​ Features:
○​ Simplified APIs for controlling hardware.
○​ Easy-to-use for beginners in programming and electronics.
●​ Use Cases:
○​ Maker projects, hardware prototyping, and education.
●​ Website: [Link]/circuitpython

10. RustPython

●​ Overview:
○​ A Python implementation written in Rust.
●​ Features:
○​ Focuses on safety and performance.
○​ Still in development and not production-ready.
●​ Use Cases:
○​ Research, experimentation, and learning Rust with Python.
●​ Website: [Link]
 Flavor Key Feature Use Case

CPython Default implementation General-purpose development

Jython Integrates with Java Java-based applications

IronPython .NET compatibility .NET and C# applications

PyPy High performance Speed-critical applications

MicroPython Lightweight for microcontrollers IoT and embedded systems

Stackless Python Concurrency with microthreads Games and real-time applications

Brython Python in the browser Client-side web development

Pyston Faster Python execution Web servers and data processing

CircuitPython Beginner-friendly hardware Educational electronics projects

RustPython Rust-based implementation Research and experimentation

Each flavor is suited to a specific domain, allowing Python to remain versatile and powerful
across various industries.
8. Python Virtual Machine (PVM)

The Python Virtual Machine (PVM) is a crucial component of Python's execution process. It
serves as an interpreter that runs the bytecode (a low-level, platform-independent representation
of Python code) produced by Python's compiler. The PVM handles the execution of this
bytecode and interacts with the underlying hardware or operating system.

Key Features of PVM

1.​ Platform Independence:

○​ The bytecode executed by the PVM is platform-independent, enabling Python to
run on multiple operating systems.
2.​ Just-in-Time Execution:
○​ PVM translates bytecode into machine code just before execution.
3.​ Error Handling:
○​ PVM manages runtime errors and exceptions during execution.
4.​ Dynamic Nature:
○​ Handles Python’s dynamic typing and garbage collection.

How the PVM Works

1.​ Compilation to Bytecode:

○​ Python source code (.py) is first compiled into bytecode (.pyc files) in the
__pycache__ directory.
○​ Bytecode is a set of instructions understandable by the PVM.
2.​ Execution:
○​ The PVM reads the bytecode instructions and executes them sequentially.
○​ During execution, the PVM handles:
■​ Function calls
■​ Memory management
■​ Object creation and destruction
Components of the PVM

1.​ Interpreter Loop:

○​ Executes the bytecode instructions one at a time.
○​ Implements Python's semantics.
2.​ Memory Manager:
○​ Allocates and deallocates memory for objects dynamically.
○​ Includes a garbage collector to clean up unused objects.
3.​ Error Handler:
○​ Monitors for runtime errors and exceptions.
○​ Provides detailed traceback information when errors occur.

Interaction Between PVM and Python Programs

Step Role of PVM

Write Source Code Not directly involved; developers write .py files.

Compile to Bytecode Not directly involved; python compiles code into .pyc.

Execute Bytecode Executes the .pyc bytecode in a platform-independent

manner.

Advantages of the PVM

1.​ Cross-Platform Compatibility:

○​ Same bytecode can run on any system with a compatible Python installation.
2.​ Flexibility:
○​ Handles dynamic features like runtime type checking.
3.​ Garbage Collection:
○​ Automatic memory management simplifies programming.
Limitations of the PVM

1.​ Performance:
○​ Interpreted execution is slower than compiled languages like C/C++.
○​ Tools like PyPy aim to improve this with JIT compilation.
2.​ Dependency:
○​ Python programs depend on the PVM to execute, requiring Python to be installed
on the system.

How to Inspect Bytecode for PVM

Use the dis module to view the bytecode that the PVM executes:

import dis
def greet(name):
return f"Hello, {name}!"
[Link](greet)

Output:

2 0 LOAD_CONST 1 ('Hello, ')

2 LOAD_FAST 0 (name)
4 FORMAT_VALUE 0
6 BUILD_STRING 2
8 RETURN_VALUE

Alternatives/Optimizations

While the PVM is efficient, alternatives like PyPy (a faster Python implementation with a JIT
compiler) are used when performance is critical.

The PVM is at the heart of Python's versatility, allowing developers to focus on high-level
problem-solving without worrying about machine-specific details.
9. Frozen Binaries

Frozen binaries in Python refer to standalone executable files created from Python scripts.
These binaries bundle the Python interpreter and the script's code into a single package, allowing
the program to run on systems that do not have Python installed.

Purpose of Frozen Binaries

●​ Distribute Python programs as standalone executables.

●​ Eliminate the need for the end-user to install Python or manage dependencies.
●​ Protect source code (to some extent) by hiding it in the compiled executable.

Tools for Creating Frozen Binaries

Several tools can be used to create frozen binaries in Python:

1. PyInstaller

●​ Description:
○​ One of the most popular tools for freezing Python scripts.
●​ Features:
○​ Cross-platform: Supports Windows, macOS, and Linux.
○​ Bundles all dependencies into a single folder or file.
○​ Supports GUI and console applications.

Usage:​
pip install pyinstaller
pyinstaller --onefile your_script.py

○​ The --onefile option creates a single standalone executable.

2. cx_Freeze

●​ Description:
○​ A cross-platform tool for creating executables.
 ●​ Features:
○​ Works on Windows, macOS, and Linux.
○​ Good for distributing applications with complex dependencies.

Usage:​
pip install cx_Freeze
cxfreeze your_script.py --target-dir dist

○​ Creates executables in the dist directory.

3. py2exe

●​ Description:
○​ Windows-only tool for creating standalone executables.
●​ Features:
○​ Specifically designed for Windows environments.

Usage:​
pip install py2exe
python [Link] py2exe

○​ Requires a setup script.

4. py2app

●​ Description:
○​ A tool for freezing Python scripts into macOS applications.

Usage:​
pip install py2app
python [Link] py2app
Advantages of Frozen Binaries

1.​ Ease of Distribution:

○​ Users can run the program without installing Python or dependencies.
2.​ Cross-Platform:
○​ Tools like PyInstaller and cx_Freeze support multiple platforms.
3.​ Code Protection:
○​ Source code is not directly visible (though it can still be reverse-engineered).

Disadvantages of Frozen Binaries

1.​ File Size:

○​ The bundled executable can be large since it includes the Python interpreter and
libraries.
2.​ Limited Portability:
○​ Executables are platform-specific (e.g., a Windows executable won’t run on
macOS or Linux).
3.​ Dependency Updates:
○​ Updating dependencies in the executable requires recreating the binary.

Example: Creating a Frozen Binary with PyInstaller

Install PyInstaller:​
pip install pyinstaller
Create an Executable:​
pyinstaller --onefile your_script.py

Run the Executable: The output executable will be in the dist directory.
Use Cases for Frozen Binaries

●​ Commercial Software: Distributing Python applications to customers.

●​ Deployment: Deploying Python applications in environments without Python installed.
●​ Stand-Alone Tools: Creating portable utilities for personal or organizational use.

Frozen binaries are an effective way to share Python applications while simplifying the
deployment process for end-users.

10. Memory Management in Python

Memory management in Python is a crucial part of the language, as it ensures efficient

allocation and deallocation of memory, helping Python programs run smoothly without manual
memory management by the programmer.

Python uses a combination of automatic memory management techniques to handle memory

for objects and data structures. Here's an overview of the key components involved:

1. Memory Allocation in Python

When Python programs run, Python allocates memory to store objects such as integers, strings,
lists, and dictionaries. These objects are stored in a specific heap space managed by Python.

Object Creation:

●​ When an object is created, Python allocates memory for it on the heap.

●​ Each object in Python is stored as a Python Object and consists of a header and the
actual data.

Reference Counting:

●​ Python uses reference counting to keep track of how many references (or variables)
point to an object.
 ●​ Every object in Python has a reference count, which is incremented when a new reference
to the object is created and decremented when a reference is deleted.

Example:

a = [1, 2, 3]
b = a # Reference count for 'a' and 'b' increases
del a # Reference count for the object decreases, but 'b' still
refers to the object

2. Garbage Collection

Even though Python uses reference counting, garbage collection (GC) is required to clean up
objects that are no longer needed, especially to handle cyclic references (where two or more
objects reference each other).

Cyclic Garbage Collection:

●​ Cycles occur when two or more objects reference each other, but they are no longer
referenced by other parts of the program.
●​ Python's gc module is responsible for detecting these cycles and cleaning them up to
prevent memory leaks.

Garbage Collector:

●​ Python's garbage collector runs periodically to identify objects that are no longer
reachable and reclaim their memory.
●​ It works based on a generational garbage collection strategy, which divides objects into
three generations based on their age.

Generations:

●​ Generation 0: New objects are created here.

●​ Generation 1: Objects that survived one garbage collection cycle.
●​ Generation 2: Long-lived objects.
gc Module:

The gc module allows the programmer to interact with the garbage collector directly.

Enable/disable collection:​
import gc
[Link]() # Enable garbage collection
[Link]() # Disable garbage collection
Force a collection:​
[Link]() # Manually run garbage collection

3. Memory Pools and Blocks

Python uses a pools and blocks system to allocate and manage memory efficiently.

●​ Small Objects: For smaller objects (less than 512 bytes), Python uses a system of pools,
where a pool is a region of memory used for objects of the same size.
●​ Blocks: Each pool is divided into smaller blocks that are used to allocate memory for
objects.

This pooling system reduces memory fragmentation and improves memory allocation speed.

4. Memory Management for Containers (Lists, Dicts, etc.)

Python also optimizes memory usage for complex data structures like lists, dictionaries, and sets.

Dynamic Arrays (Lists):

●​ Lists in Python are implemented as dynamic arrays. When a list grows, it may allocate
more space than required to reduce the number of allocations and resizing operations.
●​ This extra space ensures that lists can grow efficiently without frequent reallocation.
Dictionaries:

●​ Python dictionaries are implemented using hash tables.

●​ When a dictionary grows, it will automatically resize itself, increasing the space allocated
to store keys and values.

5. Memory Usage and Monitoring

sys Module:

You can use the sys module to check memory-related information in Python programs.

●​ [Link]():
○​ Returns the size of an object in bytes.

import sys
x = [1, 2, 3]
print([Link](x)) # Output: size of the list in bytes

tracemalloc Module:

Python provides the tracemalloc module to track memory allocations.

●​ Helps you identify the source of memory consumption and leaks in your program.

Example:​
import tracemalloc
[Link]()
# Your code here
my_list = [i for i in range(1000)]
print(tracemalloc.get_traced_memory())
[Link]()
6. Optimizations

Python's memory management system is designed to balance ease of use and performance, but
you can optimize memory usage in your Python programs by:

1.​ Minimizing Cyclic References: Avoid creating circular references when possible.
2.​ Using Built-in Data Structures: Built-in structures like tuples (immutable) use less
memory compared to lists (mutable).
3.​ Weak References: Use the weakref module for situations where you don’t want an
object to prevent garbage collection by maintaining references to it.
4.​ Memory Profiling: Use tools like memory_profiler to identify parts of your code
consuming excess memory.

Summary

Memory management in Python involves:

●​ Reference counting: Tracks the number of references to an object.

●​ Garbage collection: Handles cyclic references and frees unused memory.
●​ Memory pools: Efficient memory allocation for small objects.
●​ Optimizations: Built-in structures and tools like gc, sys, and tracemalloc allow
monitoring and optimizing memory usage.

This approach makes Python memory management automatic and efficient, reducing the burden
on the programmer while ensuring the system runs efficiently.

11. Comparisons between C and Python

When comparing C and Python, two of the most popular programming languages, we observe
several differences in syntax, execution speed, memory management, and use cases. Here's a
detailed comparison between them:
1. Syntax and Ease of Use

●​ C:
○​ Low-level language: Offers more control over memory and hardware.
○​ Manual memory management: Developers must manage memory (e.g., using
malloc() and free()).
○​ Complex syntax: Requires explicit declaration of types and the use of pointers
for memory management.

Example:​
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int x = 10;
printf("%d", x);
return 0;
}

●​ Python:
○​ High-level language: Focuses on simplicity and readability.
○​ Automatic memory management: Uses garbage collection and dynamic typing.
○​ Simple syntax: Does not require explicit declaration of types or memory
management.

Example:​
x = 10
print(x)

2. Execution Speed

●​ C:
○​ Compiled language: C code is compiled into machine code, resulting in faster
execution compared to interpreted languages.
 ○​ Suitable for performance-critical applications (e.g., system software, embedded
systems).
○​ Faster execution: C provides low-level access to hardware, enabling highly
optimized and faster programs.
●​ Python:
○​ Interpreted language: Python code is executed line by line by the Python
interpreter, which makes it slower than compiled languages like C.
○​ Not ideal for performance-intensive applications without optimizations (e.g.,
using C extensions or PyPy).

3. Memory Management

●​ C:
○​ Manual memory management: Developers are responsible for allocating and
deallocating memory using functions like malloc() and free().
○​ This gives the programmer fine-grained control over memory usage but can lead
to memory leaks or segmentation faults if not managed properly.
●​ Python:
○​ Automatic memory management: Python uses reference counting and garbage
collection to handle memory allocation and deallocation automatically.
○​ The programmer doesn't need to explicitly manage memory, which reduces the
chances of memory leaks but sacrifices some control over performance.

4. Portability

●​ C:
○​ Highly portable: C programs can be compiled to run on any platform, as long as
the appropriate compiler is available.
○​ The compiled code is platform-dependent (i.e., a binary compiled for Windows
won’t work on Linux without recompilation).
 ●​ Python:
○​ Cross-platform: Python is interpreted, so the same code can run on multiple
platforms (Windows, macOS, Linux) as long as Python is installed.
○​ Python’s portability is limited by the need for the Python interpreter on the target
system.

5. Typing System

●​ C:
○​ Static typing: Variable types are explicitly defined at compile-time.
○​ Type checking happens at compile time, which helps catch errors early.
○​ Example: int x = 10;
●​ Python:
○​ Dynamic typing: Variable types are determined at runtime.
○​ This provides flexibility but can lead to runtime errors if the type of a variable is
incorrect.
○​ Example: x = 10 (no need to declare the type).

6. Error Handling

●​ C:
○​ Manual error handling: C uses error codes, errno, and setjmp/longjmp to
handle errors.
○​ No built-in exception handling mechanism like in Python, so error handling is
more cumbersome.
●​ Python:
○​ Automatic error handling: Python has an elegant try/except mechanism to
handle exceptions, making error handling more robust and easier to implement.

Example:​
try:
x = 10 / 0
except ZeroDivisionError:
print("Cannot divide by zero")

7. Standard Library and Built-in Features

●​ C:
○​ Minimal standard library: The standard library in C is small, focusing mostly
on low-level operations like input/output, string manipulation, and memory
management.
○​ Additional functionality typically requires third-party libraries or custom
implementations.
●​ Python:
○​ Extensive standard library: Python comes with a vast and powerful standard
library (e.g., for handling file I/O, regular expressions, networking, databases,
etc.).
○​ Also includes many third-party libraries for specific domains, making it highly
productive for rapid development.

8. Use Cases

●​ C:
○​ System-level programming: Ideal for operating systems, device drivers,
embedded systems, and performance-critical applications (e.g., games, simulation
software).
○​ Low-level programming: Provides direct access to memory and hardware,
making it suitable for real-time and hardware-dependent applications.
●​ Python:
○​ Rapid development: Widely used in web development, data science, automation,
scripting, and application development.
○​ High-level applications: Python is suitable for building applications quickly due
to its simplicity and extensive libraries.
 ○​ Data science and machine learning: Python is the most popular language in data
science, machine learning, and AI due to libraries like NumPy, Pandas, and
TensorFlow.

9. Learning Curve

●​ C:
○​ Steeper learning curve: C requires understanding low-level concepts like
memory management, pointers, and manual error handling.
○​ It can be challenging for beginners, especially when dealing with memory and
pointer manipulation.
●​ Python:
○​ Gentle learning curve: Python is often recommended for beginners due to its
clear syntax and readability.
○​ Allows new programmers to focus more on problem-solving rather than complex
syntax and memory management.

10. Performance vs. Productivity

●​ C:
○​ Better performance: Due to compiled code and low-level memory management,
C generally offers better performance and speed.
○​ Less productivity: Writing, testing, and maintaining C code requires more effort,
especially for large programs.
●​ Python:
○​ Better productivity: Python’s simplicity and extensive libraries allow for rapid
prototyping and development.
○​ Lower performance: Python’s interpreted nature and dynamic typing can lead to
slower execution speeds compared to C, but optimizations (like C extensions or
using PyPy) can help.
Summary Comparison

Feature C Python

Type system Static Dynamic

Syntax Complex, low-level Simple, high-level

Execution speed Faster (compiled) Slower (interpreted)

Memory Manual (malloc, free) Automatic (garbage collection)

management

Standard library Minimal Extensive and rich

Error handling Manual (error codes) Built-in exceptions (try/except)

Use cases Systems programming, Web development, data science,

embedded apps automation

Learning curve Steep Gentle

Portability Platform-specific binaries Cross-platform (requires

interpreter)

Conclusion

●​ C is ideal for low-level, performance-critical applications that require direct access to

system resources.
●​ Python is favored for high-level applications, rapid prototyping, and scripting due to its
ease of use and vast ecosystem of libraries.

Choosing between C and Python depends on the project requirements, with C being more
suitable for performance-sensitive applications and Python being excellent for productivity and
quick development cycles.
12. Comparisons between Java and Python

When comparing Java and Python, we find notable differences in their syntax, performance,
memory management, and use cases. Here's a detailed comparison between the two languages:

1. Syntax and Ease of Use

●​ Java:
○​ Strict syntax: Java has a more verbose and rigid syntax, requiring explicit
declarations for types and class structures.
○​ Object-Oriented: Everything in Java is part of a class, and it enforces
object-oriented principles such as inheritance, encapsulation, and polymorphism.

Example:​
public class HelloWorld {
public static void main(String[] args) {
[Link]("Hello, World!");
}
}

●​ Python:
○​ Concise and readable syntax: Python is designed with simplicity and readability
in mind. It uses indentation for defining blocks of code instead of braces {}.
○​ Supports multiple programming paradigms: While Python is primarily
object-oriented, it also supports functional and procedural programming.

Example:​
print("Hello, World!")
2. Typing System

●​ Java:
○​ Static typing: Java requires explicit declaration of variable types, which are
checked at compile-time. This helps in catching type-related errors early.

Example:​
int x = 10;
String name = "John";

●​ Python:
○​ Dynamic typing: Python variables are dynamically typed, meaning the type is
determined at runtime. This makes Python more flexible but can lead to runtime
errors if types are not handled properly.

Example:​
x = 10
name = "John"

3. Execution Speed

●​ Java:
○​ Compiled language: Java code is first compiled into bytecode, which is then
executed by the Java Virtual Machine (JVM). The compilation step provides
performance optimizations.
○​ Java generally has better performance than Python due to its compiled nature and
optimizations in the JVM.
○​ Faster execution: Java is typically faster than Python for most use cases due to its
compiled bytecode and Just-In-Time (JIT) compilation.
 ●​ Python:
○​ Interpreted language: Python code is executed line by line by the Python
interpreter, which generally results in slower execution speeds compared to
compiled languages like Java.
○​ Slower execution: Python’s interpreted nature and dynamic typing can make it
less performant for certain tasks compared to Java, although performance can be
improved using implementations like PyPy.

4. Memory Management

●​ Java:
○​ Automatic garbage collection: Java has automatic memory management through
garbage collection, where objects that are no longer referenced are automatically
cleaned up.
○​ Manual memory management: Developers do not directly manage memory, but
they can influence memory allocation through the use of data structures and
object pools.
●​ Python:
○​ Automatic garbage collection: Like Java, Python also uses automatic memory
management with garbage collection. It employs reference counting and cyclic
garbage collection to manage memory efficiently.
○​ Python's memory management is simpler, with fewer manual tuning options
available to the developer compared to Java.

5. Performance and Optimization

●​ Java:
○​ Better performance: Java is often faster due to the compilation of code to
bytecode and the use of JVM optimizations like JIT (Just-In-Time) compilation.
○​ Optimization tools: Java developers can fine-tune performance using tools like
JVM options, profiling tools, and optimizing memory usage.
 ●​ Python:
○​ Slower performance: Python is typically slower due to its interpreted nature,
though various tools and approaches, such as C extensions (e.g., Cython), PyPy (a
JIT compiler), or multithreading, can help improve its performance.

6. Use Cases

●​ Java:
○​ Enterprise-level applications: Java is widely used in large-scale, enterprise-level
applications, especially in banking, finance, and insurance sectors.
○​ Mobile development: Java is the primary language for Android app
development.
○​ Web development: Java-based frameworks (e.g., Spring, Hibernate) are popular
in web development.
●​ Python:
○​ Data science and machine learning: Python has become the go-to language for
data analysis, machine learning, AI, and scientific computing, thanks to libraries
like NumPy, Pandas, TensorFlow, and Scikit-learn.
○​ Web development: Python is widely used in web development with frameworks
like Django, Flask, and FastAPI.
○​ Automation and scripting: Python is popular for scripting, automation tasks, and
DevOps processes.

7. Multi-threading and Concurrency

●​ Java:
○​ Robust concurrency support: Java provides built-in support for multi-threading
and concurrency with tools like the Thread class, ExecutorService, and
ForkJoinPool. It has strong mechanisms for synchronization and inter-thread
communication.
○​ Efficient multi-threading: Java’s JVM handles multi-threading efficiently,
allowing for true parallelism on multi-core systems.
 ●​ Python:
○​ Global Interpreter Lock (GIL): Python’s standard CPython implementation has
a Global Interpreter Lock (GIL), which prevents multiple threads from executing
Python bytecode simultaneously. This means true multi-core parallelism is not
possible with Python threads (though multi-processing can achieve parallelism).
○​ Concurrency via AsyncIO and multiprocessing: Python supports concurrency
through asyncio for asynchronous programming and the multiprocessing
module for parallel processing.

8. Learning Curve

●​ Java:
○​ Steeper learning curve: Java requires a deeper understanding of object-oriented
principles, type declarations, and class structures. Its syntax is more verbose, and
beginners may take longer to get up to speed.
○​ More suitable for learners aiming to understand complex concepts like memory
management and system-level programming.
●​ Python:
○​ Gentle learning curve: Python is known for its simplicity and readability,
making it easier for beginners to pick up quickly.
○​ It’s often recommended as a first language due to its straightforward syntax and
ability to support various programming paradigms.

9. Libraries and Frameworks

●​ Java:
○​ Extensive libraries and frameworks: Java has a robust ecosystem with libraries
for networking, databases, GUI development, and more. Popular frameworks
include Spring, Hibernate, and JavaFX.
○​ Enterprise-level solutions: Java excels in enterprise-level development with
tools designed for large-scale systems.
 ●​ Python:
○​ Rich ecosystem: Python has an extensive collection of libraries for data science
(NumPy, Pandas), machine learning (TensorFlow, PyTorch), web development
(Django, Flask), and more.
○​ Third-party support: Python’s package manager, pip, provides easy access to a
wide range of third-party packages, making it highly adaptable to different
domains.

10. Community Support

●​ Java:
○​ Large and mature community: Java has a long history and a large community of
developers, offering extensive resources for learning and troubleshooting.
○​ Well-documented with lots of enterprise resources.
●​ Python:
○​ Active and growing community: Python's community is vibrant, especially in
fields like data science, AI, and web development. There is a wealth of tutorials,
forums, and third-party libraries available.
○​ Increasingly popular in research, academia, and industry.
Summary Comparison

Feature Java Python

Typing system Static (Explicit type Dynamic (Runtime type

declaration) determination)

Syntax Verbose, strict Simple, readable

Execution speed Fast (compiled bytecode, JIT) Slower (interpreted)

Memory management Automatic (Garbage Automatic (Garbage collection)

collection)

Performance High (optimized JIT) Moderate (slower interpreted)

Use cases Enterprise apps, Android, Data science, web dev,

backend automation

Concurrency Strong (multi-threading, Weak (GIL), can use

parallelism) multiprocessing

Learning curve Steep (complex syntax) Gentle (simple syntax)

Libraries and Extensive for enterprise Extensive for AI, web, data
frameworks science

Community Mature and large Growing and active

Conclusion

●​ Java is better suited for large-scale enterprise applications, mobile development

(Android), and performance-sensitive systems. It offers high performance and strong
support for concurrency and multi-threading.
●​ Python is ideal for rapid development, data science, machine learning, web
development, and automation. Its simplicity and readability make it a popular choice for
beginners and for projects that prioritize development speed.
Choosing between Java and Python depends on the specific project requirements, with Java
excelling in performance and large-scale applications and Python being favored for productivity
and flexibility in modern software development.

13. Working with Jupyter Notebook - IDE

Jupyter Notebook is an open-source, web-based interactive development environment (IDE)

primarily used for data science, machine learning, and academic research. It allows users to
create and share documents that include live code, equations, visualizations, and narrative text.

Key Features of Jupyter Notebook:

1.​ Interactive Interface: Allows you to run code, view outputs, and create visualizations in
the same document.
2.​ Supports Multiple Languages: While it is most commonly used with Python, Jupyter
can support other languages like R, Julia, and more via kernels.
3.​ Rich Text Support: You can use Markdown cells to add explanatory text, images, and
LaTeX-style equations to your notebooks.
4.​ Visualization Integration: Easily integrates with plotting libraries like matplotlib,
seaborn, and plotly to render graphs directly in the notebook.
5.​ Export Options: Notebooks can be exported to various formats, including HTML, PDF,
and slides.

Setting Up Jupyter Notebook:

Installing Jupyter Notebook: To install Jupyter Notebook, you can use pip (Python's package
manager). First, make sure you have Python installed. Then, open your terminal or command
prompt and run:​
pip install notebook
Launching Jupyter Notebook: Once installed, you can launch Jupyter Notebook by typing:​
jupyter notebook
 1.​ This will open a new tab in your web browser where you can start creating and editing
notebooks.
2.​ Creating a New Notebook:
○​ In the Jupyter dashboard (your browser window), click on the New button at the
top-right corner.
○​ Select Python 3 (or any other language kernel you have installed) to create a new
notebook.
3.​ Using Cells: Jupyter Notebooks are divided into cells. There are two main types of cells:
○​ Code cells: These are for writing and running code. You can execute them by
pressing Shift + Enter.
○​ Markdown cells: These are for adding explanations, titles, images, and LaTeX
equations. To create a markdown cell, select the cell type as Markdown from the
dropdown in the toolbar or use the keyboard shortcut M.
4.​ You can switch between them using the Cell menu or keyboard shortcuts:
○​ Y for code cell
○​ M for markdown cell
5.​ Running Code:
○​ Write Python code inside a code cell.
○​ Press Shift + Enter to run the code and view the output in the cell below.

Example:​
x = 5
y = 10
print(x + y)

6.​ Adding Markdown: In a markdown cell, you can write formatted text, add headers,
bullet points, and even display LaTeX mathematical equations. For example:
○​ Headers: # Header 1, ## Header 2, etc.

Lists:​
- Item 1
- Item 2
LaTeX Equations: Inline math: $\sum_{i=1}^{n} x_i$, or display math:​
$$ \sum_{i=1}^{n} x_i $$
Installing Jupyter Extensions: You can enhance the functionality of Jupyter Notebook with
extensions. For instance, you can install jupyter_contrib_nbextensions for added
features like code folding, table of contents, and more:​
pip install jupyter_contrib_nbextensions
jupyter contrib nbextension install --user

7.​ Running Cells in Sequence: You can run each cell individually, but it's common to run
all cells in a notebook at once. To do this:
○​ Click Cell > Run All
○​ Alternatively, use the keyboard shortcut Shift + Enter repeatedly to execute
the cells one by one.
8.​ Saving Notebooks: You can save your work by clicking on File > Save and Checkpoint
or pressing Ctrl + S. Jupyter also automatically saves the notebook periodically.
9.​ Exporting Notebooks:
●​ To export the notebook, go to File > Download as. You can choose from various formats
like HTML, PDF, or LaTeX.
●​ You can also share the notebook with others or convert it to slides for presentation.

Benefits of Using Jupyter Notebook:

●​ Interactive Learning: Jupyter provides an interactive environment where you can test
code and experiment with data while documenting your thought process.
●​ Easy Visualization: It integrates well with visualization libraries like matplotlib,
seaborn, and plotly, allowing you to plot graphs directly within the notebook.
●​ Reproducible Research: Notebooks allow you to combine code, output, and text,
making it easy for others to reproduce your work.
●​ Sharing and Collaboration: Jupyter Notebooks can be shared easily, allowing for
collaboration among data scientists and researchers.
Common Use Cases for Jupyter Notebooks:

●​ Data Exploration and Analysis: Perform data analysis with libraries like Pandas and
NumPy and visualize the results with matplotlib and seaborn.
●​ Machine Learning: Train machine learning models using libraries like
scikit-learn, TensorFlow, or PyTorch while documenting and visualizing
results.
●​ Scientific Research: Combine code with LaTeX for mathematical equations and generate
rich reports.
●​ Prototyping and Testing: Write small code snippets to quickly test ideas and explore
solutions before scaling to larger projects.

Example of Working with Jupyter Notebook:

Start by Importing Libraries:​
import numpy as np
import [Link] as plt
Write and Run Code:​
# Creating an array of 10 values from 0 to 1
x = [Link](0, 1, 10)
y = [Link](x)
# Plotting the values
[Link](x, y)
[Link]('Sine Wave')
[Link]('X Values')
[Link]('Y Values')
[Link]()
Document the Code in Markdown:​
## Sine Wave Visualization
This code generates a simple plot of a sine wave using NumPy and
Matplotlib. The x-values are linearly spaced between 0 and 1,
and the y-values are the sine of the x-values.

Conclusion:

Jupyter Notebook is an excellent tool for those who need an interactive environment for quick
testing, data analysis, and documentation. Its integration with Python and other programming
languages makes it versatile for a wide range of tasks in data science, machine learning, and
research.

Module 2 - Writing our first Python Program

1. Installing Python for Windows

To install Python on Windows, follow these steps:

Step 1: Download Python Installer

1.​ Visit the Official Python Website: Go to the official Python website:
[Link]
2.​ Download the Latest Version: On the homepage, you'll see a download button for the
latest version of Python for Windows. This will automatically download the latest stable
version suitable for your system.​
Alternatively, you can go to the Downloads section and manually choose the version you
need, such as:
○​ Python 3.x.x (recommended version for most users)
○​ Python 2.x.x (only if required for legacy purposes, though it is deprecated)

Step 2: Run the Installer

1.​ Launch the Installer: After downloading the installer .exe file, double-click it to run.
2.​ Select "Add Python to PATH": Before clicking on "Install Now", make sure to check
the box that says "Add Python to PATH". This step will automatically set the
environment variable, making Python accessible from any command prompt window.​
If you don't check this option, you'll have to manually add Python to the PATH later.
3.​ Choose Installation Options:
○​ Install Now: This is the easiest option and will install Python with default
settings, which should work for most users.
○​ Customize Installation: If you need to customize the installation (e.g., choose a
different install location or include optional features), click Customize
installation. However, for most users, the default settings are recommended.
4.​ Complete Installation: Click Install Now (or Install in the custom setup) and wait for
the installation process to finish. Once it's complete, you'll see a screen that says "Setup
was successful".

Step 3: Verify the Installation

 1.​ Open Command Prompt: Press Win + R, type cmd, and press Enter to open the
Command Prompt.

Check Python Version: To confirm that Python has been installed successfully, type the
following command:​
python --version

or​
python -V

2.​ This should display the installed version of Python.

Check PIP Version: Python comes with pip (Python's package manager). Verify that pip is
installed by running:​

pip --version

Step 4: Install IDE (Optional)

For a better development experience, you can install an Integrated Development Environment
(IDE) like Visual Studio Code, PyCharm, or IDLE (which comes with the Python installation).

●​ IDLE: Python installs IDLE by default. You can launch it by searching for IDLE in the
Start Menu.
●​ Visual Studio Code: If you prefer Visual Studio Code, install it from
[Link] and then add the Python extension from the Extensions
Marketplace in VS Code.

Step 5: Install Packages (Optional)

With Python and pip installed, you can install packages from the Python Package Index (PyPI).
For example, to install numpy:

pip install numpy

Troubleshooting

●​ Python Not Found: If you didn't add Python to the PATH during installation, you might
see an error saying that Python is not recognized. To fix this:
○​ Add Python manually to the system PATH by searching "Environment Variables"
in Windows settings, then editing the Path variable to include the directory
where Python is installed (usually C:\Python39 or similar).
●​ Python 2.x vs Python 3.x: Ensure you're using Python 3, as Python 2 is no longer
supported. If python points to Python 2.x, use python3 instead in your command
prompt.

2. Testing the Installation in Windows

To test the Python installation on Windows and ensure everything is working correctly, follow
these steps:

Step 1: Verify Python Installation

1.​ Open Command Prompt:

○​ Press Win + R to open the "Run" dialog box.
○​ Type cmd and press Enter to open the Command Prompt.

Check Python Version: In the Command Prompt, type the following command and press Enter:​
python --version

or​
python -V

You should see something like:​

Python 3.x.x
 2.​ where 3.x.x is the version of Python you installed.​
If you see an error or Python isn't recognized, it might indicate an issue with your PATH
setup. You can check the installation steps again and ensure you selected "Add Python to
PATH" during installation.

Step 2: Verify PIP Installation

pip is Python's package manager, and it should have been installed along with Python.

Check PIP Version: To verify pip is installed, type the following command:​
pip --version

This will display the installed version of pip, like:​

pip 23.x.x from C:\Python39\lib\site-packages\pip (python 3.x)

If pip isn't installed, you can install it using the following command:​
python -m ensurepip --upgrade

Step 3: Create a Simple Python Script

Open a Text Editor (like Notepad or Visual Studio Code) and create a Python script. Save it as
test_script.py in a directory of your choice. Write the following code in the file:​
print("Hello, Python!")

Run the Script: Go back to the Command Prompt, navigate to the directory where the script is
saved, and run it by typing:​
python test_script.py

You should see the output:​

Hello, Python!

Step 4: Test Python with an Interactive Shell

Launch the Python Interactive Shell: In the Command Prompt, simply type:​
python

This will open the Python interpreter, and you should see something like:​
Python 3.x.x (default, ...) [MSC [Link] 32/64 bit] on win32

Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more

information.

>>>

Run Python Code: You can now type Python code directly into the interactive shell. For
example, type:​
print("Python is working!")

This will output:​

Python is working!

1.​ To exit the interactive shell, type exit() or press Ctrl + Z and then press Enter.

Step 5: Test a Package Installation

To further verify that pip is working correctly, you can install and test a Python package.

Install a Package: For example, install numpy by typing:​

pip install numpy
Test the Package: After the installation completes, create a Python script or open the interactive
shell and try importing the package:​
import numpy as np

print(np.__version__)

1.​ If it prints the version number of numpy, the installation was successful.

Step 6: Check for Common Issues

●​ Python Not Found: If the command python is not recognized, ensure that you added
Python to the system PATH during installation. You can check this by:
○​ Right-clicking on This PC or Computer.
○​ Selecting Properties > Advanced system settings > Environment Variables.
○​ In the System Variables section, find the Path variable and make sure it includes
the path to your Python installation (e.g., C:\Python39\).
●​ Multiple Python Versions: If you installed multiple versions of Python, make sure
you're using the correct version by typing python3 --version or using python3
instead of just python.

3. Installing pycharm

To install PyCharm on Windows, follow these steps:

Step 1: Download PyCharm

 1.​ Visit the Official PyCharm Website: Go to the official PyCharm website:
[Link]
2.​ Choose the Version:
○​ There are two versions of PyCharm available:
■​ Community Edition (Free and Open-Source)
■​ Professional Edition (Paid, with a free trial available)
3.​ For most users, the Community Edition is sufficient, but you can choose the
Professional Edition if you need advanced features like web development support
(Django, Flask), database tools, and more.
4.​ Download: Click the Download button to download the installer for your system
(Windows). This will download an .exe installer file.

Step 2: Run the Installer

1.​ Launch the Installer: Once the installer is downloaded, double-click the .exe file to
begin the installation process.
2.​ Choose Installation Options: The PyCharm installer will present several installation
options:
○​ Select Installation Path: Choose where PyCharm should be installed, or leave
the default.
○​ Configure Desktop Shortcut: You can choose to create a desktop shortcut for
easy access.
○​ Add to PATH: Check the box to add PyCharm to the system PATH, which allows
you to launch it from the command prompt.
3.​ Click Install to begin the installation.
4.​ Wait for Installation: The installation will take a few minutes. Once it is completed, you
will see the option to run PyCharm immediately. You can leave this checked if you want
to launch PyCharm right after installation.
5.​ Finish Installation: Once installed, click Finish.

Step 3: Launch PyCharm

 1.​ Open PyCharm: After installation, you can launch PyCharm from the Start Menu or
from the desktop shortcut if you created one.
2.​ Initial Setup:
○​ Theme: The first time you open PyCharm, you'll be prompted to choose the
theme (Light or Dark).
○​ Plugins: You may be asked if you'd like to install additional plugins. You can
choose the default setup or install plugins as needed.

Step 4: Configure PyCharm

1.​ Create or Open a Project: Once PyCharm is open, you can either create a new project
or open an existing one. To create a new project:
○​ Click on New Project.
○​ Select the Python interpreter you want to use (PyCharm will automatically detect
Python installations on your system).
○​ Set the project location and other settings as needed.
2.​ Configure the Python Interpreter:
○​ PyCharm will try to auto-detect Python installations on your system. If it's not set
up correctly, you can manually configure it:
■​ Go to File > Settings (or PyCharm > Preferences on macOS).
■​ Navigate to Project: <project_name> > Python Interpreter.
■​ Choose the interpreter you want to use or add a new one if needed.

Step 5: Test the Installation

Create a Simple Python Script: To test if everything is working, create a new Python file
([Link]) and add the following code:​
print("Hello, PyCharm!")
Run the Script: Right-click on the script and select Run 'test' to see the output in the terminal at
the bottom of the PyCharm window:​
Hello, PyCharm!

Step 6: Optional Configurations

●​ Install Python Packages: PyCharm allows you to easily manage Python packages from
within the IDE. You can install packages via the Python Interpreter settings or directly
from the terminal using pip.
●​ Version Control Integration: If you're using Git, you can integrate version control with
PyCharm by going to VCS > Enable Version Control Integration and selecting Git.

With PyCharm installed and configured, you're ready to start coding in Python with an advanced
IDE that provides features like code completion, debugging, testing, and more!

4. Setting the Path to Python

Setting the Path to Python on Windows ensures that Python is recognized and accessible from
any command prompt window. This is particularly useful when you want to run Python
commands or scripts from the terminal without having to navigate to the directory where Python
is installed.

Step 1: Find the Python Installation Path

1.​ Locate Python Installation: By default, Python is installed in one of the following
locations:
○​ C:\Users\<YourUsername>\AppData\Local\Programs\Python\
Python3x (for Python 3.x)
○​ C:\Python3x (if you installed it to the C: drive manually)
2.​ If you're unsure where Python is installed, you can check:
Open the Command Prompt and type:​
where python

○​ This command will display the full path to the [Link] file.
3.​ Note the Path: After locating the Python installation, note down the path. For example, if
Python is installed at C:\Python39\, you will use this path in the following steps.

Step 2: Add Python to the System PATH

1.​ Open the Environment Variables Window:

○​ Press Win + X and select System.
○​ Click on Advanced system settings on the left.
○​ In the System Properties window, click on the Environment Variables button.
2.​ Edit the Path Variable:
○​ In the Environment Variables window, under the System Variables section,
scroll down and find the Path variable.
○​ Select Path, and click Edit.
3.​ Add Python to PATH: In the Edit Environment Variable window, click New and add
the following paths:
○​ Python Executable: Add the directory where [Link] is located (e.g.,
C:\Python39\).
○​ Scripts Directory: Python also installs a Scripts folder, which is used for pip
and other Python-related utilities. Add the following path as well:
■​ C:\Python39\Scripts\
4.​ For example, if Python is installed at C:\Python39\, you would add:
○​ C:\Python39\
○​ C:\Python39\Scripts\
5.​ Save Changes: After adding both paths, click OK to close all the windows and save your
changes.

Step 3: Verify the Python Path

 1.​ Restart Command Prompt: Close the Command Prompt window and open a new one
to ensure the changes take effect.

Check Python Version: Type the following command to verify that Python is now accessible
from any directory:​
python --version

or​
python -V

2.​ You should see the Python version number, confirming that Python is correctly added to
the PATH.

Check PIP Version (Optional): You can also verify pip by typing:​
pip --version

Step 4: Troubleshooting

If you encounter issues:

●​ Ensure that the correct Python path is added, and there are no typos.
●​ Make sure that you don’t have conflicting Python versions in your PATH. If you installed
multiple versions, ensure the correct version is prioritized.

By setting the Python path correctly, you can easily run Python from any directory in the
Command Prompt without needing to navigate to the Python installation folder each time.

5. Writing Our First Python Program

Writing your first Python program is a great way to start your journey into Python programming!
Let's go through the process step by step.

Step 1: Setting Up the Environment

Before you write your Python program, make sure that:

1.​ Python is installed on your system.

2.​ A text editor or IDE (such as PyCharm, VS Code, or even a simple text editor) is ready
to write Python code.

Step 2: Writing the Python Code

1.​ Open a Text Editor or IDE: Open your preferred Python editor (like PyCharm, VS
Code, or Notepad++).
2.​ Create a New Python File: Create a new file with a .py extension. For example, you
can name it hello_world.py.

Write Your First Program: The most common first program is the "Hello, World!" program. It
looks like this:​
print("Hello, World!")

3.​ Here's what each part does:

○​ print(): This is a built-in function in Python used to output data to the screen.
○​ "Hello, World!": This is a string (text) that is being passed to the print()
function.

Step 3: Running the Program

To run the Python program, follow these steps:

Option 1: Using Command Prompt (Windows)

 1.​ Save the Python File: Make sure your Python script (hello_world.py) is saved in a
folder.
2.​ Open Command Prompt:
○​ Press Win + R, type cmd, and press Enter.

Navigate to the File Directory: In the Command Prompt, navigate to the directory where you
saved your Python file. For example:​
cd C:\Users\YourUsername\Documents\Python

Run the Program: Type the following command to execute the script:​
python hello_world.py

After running the command, you should see the following output:​
Hello, World!

Option 2: Using an IDE (e.g., PyCharm or VS Code)

1.​ Open the IDE (like PyCharm or VS Code).

2.​ Open the Python File you created (e.g., hello_world.py).
3.​ Run the Script:
○​ In PyCharm, click the Run button (the green triangle) on the top-right of the
window.
○​ In VS Code, press Ctrl + F5 or use the Run option from the menu.

Step 4: Understanding the Output

When you run your program, you should see Hello, World! printed in the terminal or output
window. This confirms that your Python script was executed successfully.

Step 5: Modifying the Program (Optional)

Once you’ve written your first program, try modifying it:

Change the text to something else:​
print("Welcome to Python Programming!")

Add another print statement:​

print("Hello, World!")

print("Python is awesome!")

Step 6: What’s Next?

Now that you have written your first Python program, you can explore:

●​ Variables and how to store data.

●​ Control flow (using if statements, loops).
●​ Functions to organize code into reusable blocks.
●​ Lists and other data structures.

Starting with simple programs like "Hello, World!" is the foundation of learning Python. You can
gradually move on to more complex programs as you get familiar with the language.

6. Executing a Python Program

Executing a Python program is a simple process once you've written your code. Let's break down
how to execute Python programs on different platforms using various methods.

Step 1: Writing the Python Program

Before execution, ensure you've written a Python script. Here's an example program you can
start with:

# hello_world.py

print("Hello, World!")
Save this file with a .py extension, such as hello_world.py.

Step 2: Executing the Python Program

There are several ways to execute your Python script:

Method 1: Using Command Line (Windows, macOS, Linux)

1.​ Open Command Prompt (Windows) or Terminal (macOS/Linux):

○​ Windows: Press Win + R, type cmd, and hit Enter.
○​ macOS/Linux: Open Terminal from your Applications or use the shortcut Ctrl
+ Alt + T.
2.​ Navigate to the Directory Containing Your Script: Use the cd command to change to
the directory where your Python file is saved. For example, if your Python file is in the
Documents\Python folder:

Windows:​
cd C:\Users\YourUsername\Documents\Python

macOS/Linux:​
cd ~/Documents/Python

Execute the Python Script: Type the following command and press Enter:​
python hello_world.py

If you're using Python 3 and your system has both Python 2 and 3 installed, use:​

python3 hello_world.py

Expected Output:​
Hello, World!
Method 2: Using an IDE (e.g., PyCharm, VS Code)

1.​ Open Your IDE: Open PyCharm, VS Code, or any other Python IDE of your choice.
2.​ Create or Open a Python Script: Create a new Python file or open an existing one (e.g.,
hello_world.py).
3.​ Run the Python Script:
○​ In PyCharm, click the Run button (green triangle icon) on the top-right corner or
press Shift + F10.
○​ In VS Code, you can press Ctrl + F5 or click on the Run icon at the top.

Expected Output:​
Hello, World!

Method 3: Using Python Interactive Shell (REPL)

Python also provides an interactive mode where you can directly execute Python commands.

1.​ Open Command Prompt/Terminal.

Type python (or python3 if necessary) and press Enter. This will start the Python interactive
shell.​
python

You’ll see something like:​

Python 3.x.x (default, ... ) on win32

Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more

information.

>>>

Type your Python code directly into the shell:​

>>> print("Hello, World!")
Expected Output:​
Hello, World!

2.​ To exit the interactive shell, type exit() or press Ctrl + Z on Windows or Ctrl +
D on macOS/Linux.

Method 4: Using Jupyter Notebook

Jupyter Notebook allows you to run Python code in a more interactive and visual environment.

Install Jupyter Notebook (if you don't have it installed): If you don’t have it installed yet, you
can install it using pip:​
pip install notebook

Start Jupyter Notebook: Open your terminal or command prompt and type:​
jupyter notebook

1.​ This will launch a Jupyter Notebook interface in your default web browser.
2.​ Create a New Notebook:
○​ Click on New > Python 3 to create a new notebook.

Type the code in a cell:​

print("Hello, World!")

Run the Cell: Press Shift + Enter to execute the code.​

Expected Output:​
Hello, World!

Step 3: Debugging the Program (Optional)

If your program doesn't run as expected, here are some steps to help you debug:

●​ Check Syntax: Ensure that your code is free of syntax errors (missing parentheses,
colons, etc.).
 ●​ Error Messages: Python will display error messages in the terminal or IDE output. Read
these messages carefully to identify the issue.
●​ Use Print Statements: You can insert print() statements at different parts of your
program to track variable values and control flow.

Step 4: Next Steps

After successfully running your first Python program, you can explore more advanced topics:

●​ Variables and Data Types

●​ Loops and Conditional Statements
●​ Functions and Modules
●​ Error Handling
●​ Object-Oriented Programming (OOP)

By practicing and running different Python programs, you’ll gradually get more comfortable
with the language and its features.

7. Getting Help in Python

Getting help in Python is easy and there are several ways to access documentation, information
about functions, and troubleshooting resources. Below are some ways to get help when working
with Python:

1. Using Python's Built-in Help Function

Python provides a built-in help() function that allows you to get help on any module, function,
or object in Python.

Basic Usage:
To get help in Python, simply use the help() function followed by the object or module name.​
Example 1: Get Help on a Built-In Function​
help(print)

●​ This will display documentation about the print() function, including its usage,
parameters, and description.

Example 2: Get Help on a Module

To get help on a module like math:

import math

help(math)

Example 3: Interactive Help in Python Shell

You can also enter the interactive help mode by simply typing help() without any arguments.
This opens an interactive shell where you can explore different topics.

Example:

help()

This will launch an interactive help system where you can type topics to get help on, such as
print, math, str, etc.

2. Using the dir() Function

If you're unsure about what attributes or methods a specific object or module has, you can use
the dir() function. This returns a list of the object's attributes and methods.

Example: Get Methods of an Object

dir(str)

This will return a list of methods available for string objects in Python, such as upper(),
lower(), find(), etc.

3. Official Python Documentation

The official Python documentation is one of the most comprehensive resources to learn about
Python's built-in functions, libraries, and syntax.

●​ Python Documentation Website: [Link]

It includes detailed explanations, examples, and specifications for Python's standard library, and
is a go-to source for in-depth help.

4. Using pydoc for Help in the Command Line

pydoc is a command-line tool that provides documentation about Python modules, classes, and
functions.

Example: Get Help on a Module

To view documentation for a module or function in the terminal or command prompt:

pydoc print

This will display the documentation for the print() function.

Example: Get Help on a Module (e.g., math)

pydoc math

5. Using Online Resources and Communities

There are several online communities where you can ask questions or search for solutions:

●​ Stack Overflow: A popular platform where you can ask questions and search for answers
about Python. It’s great for troubleshooting issues or understanding Python concepts.
○​ Python tag on Stack Overflow
●​ Python Reddit Community: A community of Python enthusiasts where you can ask
questions and share knowledge.
○​ r/learnpython
○​ r/Python
●​ Python Official Mailing Lists: Python mailing lists like python-list, python-dev, etc., are
helpful for discussions with experts and the Python community.
○​ Python Mailing Lists

6. Using IDE Help Features

Modern IDEs like PyCharm, VS Code, and Jupyter Notebook provide built-in help and
autocomplete features:

●​ PyCharm: PyCharm provides tooltips and suggestions. You can also press Ctrl + Q
(Windows/Linux) or F1 (Mac) to view documentation for a function or class.
●​ VS Code: With Python extensions, VS Code offers IntelliSense (code suggestions) and
documentation inline. Hovering over a function or object will display its docstring.

Jupyter Notebook: In Jupyter, you can type ? after a function to get help, like:​
print?

●​ Or use Shift + Tab to view the documentation for a function while typing it in a cell.

7. Using help() with External Libraries

When working with third-party libraries installed via pip, you can still use help() to get
information about them. After importing a library, you can call help() on it.

Example: Using help() on a Third-Party Library (e.g., numpy)

import numpy as np

help(np)

This will display the documentation for the numpy library.

8. Python Tutorials and Courses

If you're new to Python or need structured learning, consider following tutorials or online
courses:

●​ Official Python Tutorial: Python Tutorial

●​ W3Schools Python Tutorial: W3Schools Python Tutorial
●​ Real Python: Real Python Tutorials
●​ Coursera, Udemy, and edX: Platforms that offer Python courses for various skill levels.

Summary of Ways to Get Help in Python:

1.​ help() function: For detailed information about Python objects, functions, and
modules.
2.​ dir() function: To inspect the available attributes of an object.
3.​ Official Python Documentation: Comprehensive and detailed documentation on
Python.
4.​ pydoc command-line tool: To view documentation for modules, classes, and functions
from the terminal.
5.​ Online Communities and Forums: Stack Overflow, Reddit, and Python mailing lists.
6.​ IDE Features: Most IDEs provide built-in documentation, tooltips, and autocompletion
features.
 7.​ External Library Documentation: Use help() with third-party libraries installed via
pip.

By leveraging these resources, you can quickly find answers to questions, understand Python
concepts, and troubleshoot any issues you encounter in your Python programming journey.

8. Getting Python Documentation Help

Getting Python documentation help is easy and can be done through several methods, whether
you are looking for information about built-in features, third-party libraries, or specific functions.
Here are the different ways to access Python documentation help:

1. Using the help() Function

The help() function in Python provides interactive access to documentation. You can use it to
get help on any Python object, module, or function.

Basic Usage

help(print)

This will display documentation about the print() function, including its parameters, usage,
and description.

Help on Modules

To get documentation on a specific module, first import the module, and then use help() on it:

import math

help(math)
This will display detailed information about the math module, including all available functions
and constants.

Interactive Help Mode

You can also enter the interactive help mode by typing help() with no arguments in the Python
shell:

help()

This will open a prompt where you can type any topic to get help on, such as:

●​ print
●​ math
●​ str

You can exit the interactive help mode by typing quit.

2. Using the dir() Function

If you want to see what attributes or methods an object has, use the dir() function. This can be
especially useful if you are unsure what methods are available for an object or module.

Example

dir(str)

This will list all the available methods and properties for the str class (such as upper(),
lower(), find(), etc.).

3. Accessing Official Python Documentation

The official Python documentation is a comprehensive and reliable source for detailed
information on all Python features, modules, and libraries. It covers Python syntax, libraries, and
best practices.
 ●​ Official Python Documentation: [Link]

Here you can explore:

●​ Python language reference

●​ Python standard library
●​ How-to guides
●​ Tutorials

4. Using the pydoc Command-Line Tool

pydoc is a command-line tool that provides documentation for modules, classes, and functions.
You can run it in the terminal or command prompt.

Example: Get Help on a Function

pydoc print

This will show the documentation for the print() function.

Example: Get Help on a Module (e.g., math)

pydoc math

This displays information about the math module.

You can also start a local server to view documentation in a browser by running:

pydoc -p 1234

This will start a web server at [Link] where you can search for
documentation on Python modules.
5. Accessing Documentation for External Libraries

For third-party libraries installed via pip, you can also use help() to get documentation if the
library includes docstrings.

Example: Using help() on an External Library (e.g., NumPy)

import numpy as np

help(np)

This will display the documentation for the numpy library.

6. IDE Documentation and Autocompletion

Many modern Python IDEs (like PyCharm, VS Code, and Jupyter Notebook) offer built-in
help and documentation tools, such as:

●​ Tooltips that show function signatures, docstrings, and documentation when you hover
over a function.
●​ Autocomplete that provides suggestions while typing, along with a short description of
the item.

Example in PyCharm

●​ Place the cursor on a function or module and press Ctrl + Q (Windows/Linux) or F1

(Mac) to view detailed documentation.

Example in VS Code

●​ Hover over a function or object to view documentation and parameter details.

7. Jupyter Notebook Documentation

In Jupyter Notebooks, you can get quick help by appending ? after an object or function name:
print?

This will display the documentation for the print function.

Alternatively, you can press Shift + Tab while typing a function to see a pop-up with its
documentation.

8. Python Tutorials and Other Resources

If you're new to Python or need structured help, the following resources can guide you:

●​ Official Python Tutorial: Python Tutorial

●​ W3Schools Python Tutorial: W3Schools Python Tutorial
●​ Real Python: Real Python Tutorials
●​ Python for Beginners: [Link] Beginner's Guide

9. Community Resources

If you're having trouble with a particular problem, don't hesitate to ask for help on online
communities:

●​ Stack Overflow: A great place for asking questions and finding solutions.
○​ Python tag on Stack Overflow
●​ Reddit Python Communities: Engage with other Python enthusiasts.
○​ r/learnpython
○​ r/Python

Summary of Ways to Get Help in Python:

1.​ help() function: For interactive documentation on modules, functions, and objects.
2.​ dir() function: To inspect the available methods and attributes of objects.
3.​ Official Python Documentation: Comprehensive reference for Python syntax, libraries,
and tutorials.
4.​ pydoc command: For command-line access to documentation on Python modules.
 5.​ IDE features: Autocompletion, tooltips, and documentation available in modern IDEs.
6.​ External libraries' documentation: Use help() to get documentation for third-party
libraries.
7.​ Jupyter Notebook: Use ? or Shift + Tab to get documentation within a notebook.
8.​ Community resources: Engage in forums like Stack Overflow, Reddit, etc.

By using these resources, you'll be able to find information on almost any aspect of Python and
its libraries, making your development process smoother and more efficient.

9. Reopening the Python Program in IDLE

Reopening a Python program in IDLE (Integrated Development and Learning Environment) is a

simple process. Here's how you can do it:

Steps to Reopen a Python Program in IDLE

1.​ Open IDLE:

○​ Launch IDLE by searching for "IDLE" in your Start menu or using the shortcut
you created during installation.
2.​ Open the Python Program:
○​ From the IDLE Shell: Once IDLE is open, go to the File menu at the top of the
window and select Open.... Then navigate to the location of your Python program
file (with a .py extension), select it, and click Open. The file will open in the
IDLE editor.
○​ From the File Explorer: Alternatively, you can open your Python program
directly from your file explorer. Navigate to the location of the .py file and
double-click it. If IDLE is set as the default Python editor, it will open the file in
IDLE automatically.
3.​ Make Changes and Run the Program:
○​ Once the program is open, you can make any changes to it in the editor window.
 ○​ To run the program, go to the Run menu in the top menu bar and select Run
Module (or press F5).
4.​ Reopen After Closing:
○​ If you've closed IDLE and want to reopen your program, you can repeat the steps
above to open your file again using the File > Open menu or by double-clicking
the .py file from your file explorer.

Tips for Working with Python Programs in IDLE:

●​ Save Regularly: Always remember to save your changes by going to File > Save or by
pressing Ctrl + S before running your program.
●​ Use the IDLE Shell: You can also test small snippets of Python code directly in the
IDLE Shell without needing to reopen or run the entire program.

By following these steps, you can easily reopen and continue working on your Python programs
in IDLE.

10. Reading User Input and outputting user input (input and different formats
of print statement)

In Python, you can read user input and output it in various formats. Here's how you can do it:

Reading User Input

Python provides a built-in function called input() to read user input from the command line.
This function returns the input as a string.

Example: Basic Input

# Read user input

name = input("Enter your name: ")

# Output the input

print("Hello, " + name)

In this example:

●​ The input() function prompts the user with the message "Enter your name: ".
●​ The entered name is stored in the variable name and then printed.

Outputting User Input

The print() function is used to output data in Python. There are different ways to format
output depending on the complexity.

1. Basic Print Statement

The most straightforward way to print data is using print():

print("Hello, World!")

2. Concatenating Strings

You can combine strings and variables using the + operator:

name = input("Enter your name: ")

print("Hello, " + name)

3. Using Comma in Print (Automatic Space Between Outputs)

You can use commas in the print() function to separate multiple variables or strings. Python
will insert a space between them:

name = input("Enter your name: ")

age = input("Enter your age: ")

print("Hello,", name, "you are", age, "years old.")

4. String Formatting (f-strings) - Python 3.6+

Python supports f-strings (formatted string literals) which provide a more readable and efficient
way to format strings:

name = input("Enter your name: ")

age = input("Enter your age: ")

print(f"Hello, {name}. You are {age} years old.")

This method directly embeds variables into the string by enclosing the variable names in curly
braces {}.

5. String Formatting Using .format() Method

Another way to format strings is by using the .format() method:

name = input("Enter your name: ")

age = input("Enter your age: ")

print("Hello, {}. You are {} years old.".format(name, age))

The curly braces {} act as placeholders, and the format() method substitutes values into
those placeholders in the given order.

6. Using % Operator (Old-Style String Formatting)

Though not recommended for new code, older Python versions often use the % operator for string
formatting:

name = input("Enter your name: ")

age = input("Enter your age: ")

print("Hello, %s. You are %s years old." % (name, age))

Advanced Examples of Input and Output

Reading Numeric Input

By default, the input() function returns a string. To read numeric values (like integers or
floats), you need to cast the input to the appropriate type.

Example: Reading Integer Input

age = int(input("Enter your age: "))

print("Your age is", age)

Example: Reading Float Input

height = float(input("Enter your height (in meters): "))

print(f"Your height is {height} meters.")

Formatted Output with Multiple Variables

If you have multiple variables and want a clean and formatted output, you can use f-strings or
.format() for clarity.

name = input("Enter your name: ")

age = int(input("Enter your age: "))

height = float(input("Enter your height: "))

print(f"Name: {name}, Age: {age}, Height: {height:.2f}")

In this example, {height:.2f} formats the height to 2 decimal places.

Summary of Output Formatting Methods:

1.​ Basic print(): Outputs simple strings.

2.​ Concatenation (+): Combines strings.
3.​ Comma-separated print(): Adds space between outputs automatically.
4.​ f-strings (recommended): Efficient and readable string formatting (Python 3.6+).
5.​ .format(): Another method for string formatting, flexible with placeholders.
6.​ % operator: An older way of formatting strings.

Using these methods, you can handle user input and output in a variety of formats to create
dynamic and interactive Python programs.

Difference between Python 2 and 3

Python 2 and Python 3 are two major versions of the Python programming language, with
Python 3 being the more recent and actively maintained version. Here are the key differences
between Python 2 and Python 3:

1. Print Statement

Python 2: The print statement is used without parentheses.​

print "Hello, World!" # Python 2

Python 3: print() is a function and requires parentheses.​

print("Hello, World!") # Python 3

2. Division of Integers

Python 2: Division of two integers performs integer division (floor division) by default.​
5 / 2 # Result: 2
 ●​ To get float division, you would need to explicitly cast the result or use from
__future__ import division.

Python 3: Division of two integers returns a float result by default.​

5 / 2 # Result: 2.5

To perform integer division in Python 3, you use the // operator.​

5 // 2 # Result: 2 (integer division)

3. Unicode Support

Python 2: Strings are ASCII by default. If you want to work with Unicode, you need to prefix
the string with a u.​
s = u"Hello, World!" # Unicode string

Python 3: Strings are Unicode by default, so there's no need to prefix them with u.​
s = "Hello, World!" # Unicode string by default

4. xrange() vs range()

Python 2: range() returns a list, while xrange() returns an iterator that generates numbers
on demand, which is more memory efficient for large ranges.​
range(5) # Returns a list: [0, 1, 2, 3, 4]

xrange(5) # Returns an iterator (more efficient for large

ranges)

Python 3: xrange() is removed, and range() now behaves like xrange() (returns an
iterator).​
range(5) # Returns an iterator
5. Input Function

Python 2: The input() function evaluates the input as Python code, which can be dangerous if
used incorrectly. To get a string input, you need to use raw_input().​
name = raw_input("Enter your name: ") # Python 2 (returns
string)

Python 3: The input() function always returns a string, and there is no raw_input() in
Python 3.​
name = input("Enter your name: ") # Python 3 (returns string)

6. Error Handling (Exceptions)

Python 2: The except block syntax uses as differently.​

try:

# Code that might raise an exception

except Exception, e:

print(e) # Syntax in Python 2

Python 3: The except block syntax has changed to use as.​

try:

# Code that might raise an exception

except Exception as e:

print(e) # Syntax in Python 3

7. Iterators and Generators

●​ Python 2: Functions like [Link](), [Link](), and [Link]()

return lists.

Python 3: These functions return view objects that behave like sets and are iterators, which
improves memory efficiency.​
d = {"a": 1, "b": 2}

print([Link]()) # In Python 3, this returns a dict_keys object

8. Integer Type Handling

●​ Python 2: int type has a fixed size depending on the platform (32-bit or 64-bit). The
long type is used for arbitrarily large integers.

Python 3: int type can represent arbitrarily large integers, and there is no long type.​
x = 1000000000000000000000 # Python 3 int can handle this

9. next() Function for Iterators

Python 2: You use [Link]() to get the next item from an iterator.​
it = iter([1, 2, 3])

[Link]() # Python 2

Python 3: You use the next() function to get the next item from an iterator.​

it = iter([1, 2, 3])

next(it) # Python 3
10. Function Annotations

Python 2: Function annotations (used for typing) are not natively supported.

Python 3: Function annotations are supported and can be used for type hinting.​
def add(x: int, y: int) -> int:

return x + y

11. Libraries and Support

●​ Python 2: Python 2 has reached the end of its official support (January 1, 2020). Many
modern libraries have stopped supporting Python 2, and it is no longer recommended for
new projects.
●​ Python 3: Python 3 is actively maintained and supports the latest features and libraries.

12. Syntax Changes

●​ Python 2: Allows some old-style syntax, such as print as a statement, older except
block syntax, etc.
●​ Python 3: Introduces new syntax for better readability and consistency, such as the
print() function, the as keyword for exceptions, and more consistent handling of
Unicode.
Feature Python 2 Python 3

Print Statement print "Hello" print("Hello")

Division Integer division by default (/ gives True division by default (/ gives

integer) float)

Unicode Strings Use u"string" for Unicode Strings are Unicode by default

xrange() Available Removed, range() behaves

like xrange()

input() input() evaluates code, input() always returns a string

raw_input() for strings

Exception except Exception, e: except Exception as e:

Handling

Iterators [Link]() returns a list [Link]() returns a view

object

Integer Handling long for large integers int handles arbitrarily large
integers

Function Not supported Supported (type hints)

Annotations

Library Support Deprecated (End of Life) Actively maintained

Conclusion

●​ Python 2 is no longer supported, and it's recommended to use Python 3 for all new
projects and to migrate existing Python 2 projects to Python 3. Python 3 introduces many
improvements, especially in terms of consistency, performance, and support for modern
development practices.

Python Basics and Execution

●​ Compiler vs Interpreter: Python is an interpreted language, meaning the code is

executed line-by-line by the interpreter.
●​ PIP: A package manager for Python, used to install and manage Python libraries.
●​ Features of Python: High-level, dynamic typing, interpreted, portable, simple syntax,
large standard library, etc.
●​ Execution of Python Program: Python code is executed by the Python interpreter,
which compiles it to bytecode and then to machine code.
●​ Viewing Byte Code: Use py_compile or compile() to view Python bytecode.
●​ Flavors of Python: Variants like CPython, Jython, IronPython, PyPy, and others,
depending on implementation.
●​ Python Virtual Machine (PVM): A runtime environment that interprets Python
bytecode and executes it on the hardware.
●​ Frozen Binaries: Python code can be converted to standalone executables using tools
like PyInstaller.
●​ Memory Management in Python: Automatic memory management via garbage
collection and reference counting.

Comparisons Between Languages

 ●​ C vs Python: Python is more dynamic, higher-level, and easier to use, while C is
lower-level, faster, and more efficient for system-level programming.
●​ Java vs Python: Python has simpler syntax, dynamic typing, and interpreted execution,
while Java is statically typed, compiled, and better for large-scale applications.

Python IDEs and Setup

●​ Working with Jupyter Notebook: Jupyter allows interactive development and is popular
for data science.
●​ Installing Python for Windows: Python can be installed via the official website or
package managers like Chocolatey.
●​ Testing Installation in Windows: Test by running python --version or python
in the command prompt.
●​ Installing PyCharm: PyCharm is a powerful Python IDE, available for download from
the JetBrains website.
●​ Setting Path to Python: Python’s installation path is added to the system’s PATH
variable for easy access.

Basic Python Program Execution

●​ Writing the First Python Program: Simple syntax to print messages using print().
●​ Executing Python Program: Execute using the command line or an IDE like PyCharm,
IDLE, or VSCode.
●​ Getting Help in Python: Use help() in Python to get help on modules, classes, and
functions.
●​ Getting Python Documentation Help: Python has extensive documentation available on
the official website.
●​ Reopening Python Program in IDLE: Open the .py file in IDLE via the File menu or
by double-clicking it.

User Input and Output

 ●​ Reading User Input: Use input() to get input from the user (returns a string).
●​ Outputting User Input: Use print() to output to the console. String concatenation
and formatting methods include +, .format(), and f-strings.

Python 2 vs Python 3

●​ Print Statement: Python 2 uses print without parentheses, while Python 3 requires
parentheses (print()).
●​ Division of Integers: Python 2 performs integer division by default, while Python 3
performs true division (float result).
●​ Unicode Support: Python 2 needs u"string" for Unicode, whereas Python 3 supports
Unicode by default.
●​ xrange() vs range(): Python 2 uses xrange() for memory-efficient iteration; in
Python 3, range() behaves like xrange().
●​ Input Function: Python 2 uses raw_input() for string input and input() for
evaluating input as code; Python 3 always uses input() for string input.
●​ Error Handling: The syntax for catching exceptions differs in both versions.
●​ Iterators: In Python 3, [Link](), [Link](), etc., return view objects, not
lists.
●​ Integer Handling: Python 2 uses long for large integers, while Python 3 uses int for
arbitrarily large integers.
●​ Function Annotations: Supported in Python 3 for type hints; not available in Python 2.
●​ Library Support: Python 3 is actively maintained, while Python 2 has reached its end of
life.

Summary of Differences

●​ Python 3 introduces many improvements like f-strings, true division, better Unicode
support, and more consistent syntax.
●​ Python 2 is deprecated, and it's recommended to use Python 3 for all new projects.
This summary encapsulates the topics discussed regarding Python programming, including setup,
key features, input/output handling, and the differences between Python 2 and Python 3.

Python is considered one of the most powerful programming languages due to its simplicity,
versatility, and extensive ecosystem. Here’s an overview of the power of Python:

1. Simplicity and Readability

●​ Easy to Learn: Python’s syntax is clear, concise, and readable, making it an ideal choice
for beginners. Its code structure emphasizes readability, making it easier to write and
maintain programs.
●​ Concise Code: Python allows developers to express ideas in fewer lines of code
compared to many other programming languages, which enhances productivity and
readability.

2. Versatility

●​ General-Purpose Language: Python is suitable for a wide range of applications, from

simple scripts to complex web applications, data analysis, machine learning, and even
embedded systems.
●​ Cross-Platform: Python is cross-platform, meaning the same code can run on multiple
operating systems (Windows, macOS, Linux), making it highly versatile in different
environments.

3. Extensive Standard Library

●​ Python comes with a rich standard library that supports a wide range of tasks, including:
○​ File I/O: Reading and writing files.
○​ Networking: Building client-server applications.
○​ Web Development: Frameworks like Django and Flask.
○​ Database Connectivity: Supports MySQL, PostgreSQL, SQLite, and more.
○​ Regular Expressions: For string matching and manipulation.
 ○​ Multithreading: Built-in support for concurrent programming.

4. Large Ecosystem of Libraries and Frameworks

●​ Third-Party Libraries: Python has a massive collection of third-party libraries and

frameworks for almost any task, from scientific computing to web development.
Examples include:
○​ NumPy, Pandas for data analysis and manipulation.
○​ TensorFlow, PyTorch for machine learning and artificial intelligence.
○​ Flask, Django for web development.
○​ Matplotlib, Seaborn for data visualization.
●​ Package Manager (PIP): Python’s package manager allows easy installation and
management of thousands of external libraries and tools.

5. Powerful for Data Science, Machine Learning, and AI

●​ Python is the dominant language in data science, machine learning, and artificial
intelligence. Libraries like NumPy, SciPy, TensorFlow, scikit-learn, and Keras make
Python the go-to language for building and deploying data models.
●​ Python's ease of use, combined with its ability to handle complex mathematical
computations, makes it ideal for tasks like data analysis, modeling, and predictive
analytics.

6. Web Development

●​ Python has powerful frameworks like Django, Flask, and FastAPI, which make it highly
efficient for building web applications and APIs.
●​ With its simplicity and the tools available, Python makes rapid development easy while
ensuring scalability and maintainability for complex applications.

7. Automation and Scripting

 ●​ Python excels at automation tasks, such as data scraping, file manipulation, system
administration, and automating repetitive tasks, saving time and increasing productivity.
●​ Python’s BeautifulSoup and Selenium make web scraping and browser automation
straightforward.

8. Strong Community and Support

●​ Python has a large, active, and supportive community. This means it’s easy to find
tutorials, forums, and documentation for almost anything. The Python community
continues to drive innovation and improvements in the language.
●​ Extensive Documentation: Python’s documentation is comprehensive and easy to
understand, helping developers troubleshoot problems and learn new techniques.

9. Integration Capabilities

●​ Python integrates well with other languages and technologies, including:

○​ C/C++: For performance optimization through Cython and ctypes.
○​ Java: Through libraries like Jython.
○​ .NET: With IronPython.
○​ JavaScript: With tools like Brython for running Python in the browser.

10. Rapid Prototyping and Development

●​ Python's speed of development and ease of use allows developers to quickly build
prototypes and proof-of-concept applications. This makes Python an excellent choice for
startups and agile development environments.

11. Scalability and Performance

●​ Despite being an interpreted language, Python can handle large-scale systems when
paired with tools like Cython or by using multithreading and multiprocessing.
●​ Python’s ability to scale, combined with frameworks and tools for optimization, makes it
suitable for both small applications and large, enterprise-grade systems.
12. Support for Object-Oriented and Functional Programming

●​ Python supports both object-oriented programming (OOP) and functional programming

paradigms. This allows developers to choose the best approach for their specific task,
enhancing flexibility and code organization.

13. Support for Cloud Computing and DevOps

●​ Python has libraries for cloud services like AWS, Google Cloud, and Azure, making it an
excellent choice for cloud-based applications and DevOps automation.
●​ Docker and Kubernetes integration with Python allow for containerization and
orchestration of applications.

14. Cross-Disciplinary Uses

●​ Python is used in various fields such as:

○​ Education: For teaching computer science and programming concepts.
○​ Finance: For financial modeling, quantitative analysis, and algorithmic trading.
○​ Bioinformatics: For genome analysis and other scientific applications.
○​ Robotics: Python is also used in the development of control systems for robots.

Conclusion:

Python’s power lies in its simplicity, versatility, and vast ecosystem. Whether you are building
web applications, doing data analysis, developing AI models, or automating processes, Python
provides a fast, efficient, and flexible solution. Its active community, rich libraries, and
cross-platform capabilities continue to make Python one of the most popular and powerful
programming languages today.