GEOG 117: INTRODUCTION

TO COMPUTERIZED
CARTOGRAPHY
 CONTENT
___________________
MODULE 1 INTRODUCTION
MODULE 2 TAXONOMY OF MAPS
MODULE 3 CARTOGRAPHIC PROCESS
 MODULE 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Definitions

• Cartography is Officially acknowledged as an independent science

by the United Nations.
• Defined by the International Cartographic Association as:

The discipline dealing with the conception, production, dissemination

and study of maps.

• Builds on the premise that reality can be modeled in ways that

communicate spatial information effectively.
• A cartographer - someone who designs and prepares a map for
distribution through the study of the philosophical and theoretical
basis of the rules for making maps.
• Traditionally, only cartographers
made maps, thus considered as
skilled workers that required many
years of apprenticeship and
practice to master the trade.
• To date, cartography has been
democratized and now many
different groups create maps
without relying on cartographers.
• Cartography is no longer an
exclusive profession because the
skill is also possessed by
geographers, GIS experts, land
surveyors, media,
environmentalists or anyone else
who wishes to create a map
1.2 Branches of Cartography
a) Theoretical/Scientific Cartography

THEORY - a formal statement of ideas that are

suggested to explain a fact or event, or how
something works or should work. Eg. ?
• The study of the scientific principles that guide the design,
analysis, and use of maps as communication tools and
models of geographic reality.
• Branch of cartography that emphasizes the principles,
concepts, and methods underlying map-making, focusing
less on practical map production and more on the scientific
study of maps as representations of spatial information.
• It deals with the "why" and "how" of mapping rather than
just the "what".
• In short, theoretical cartography is the “science behind the
art” of map-making, ensuring maps are reliable,
meaningful, and communicative
Key features…….

Conceptual Foundations
• Deals with the philosophy of mapping: What is a map? What
makes a map effective? How do humans perceive and interpret
maps?
Cartographic Communication Models
• Explains how spatial information flows from the real world →
cartographer → map → map user.
• Looks at map as a medium of communication.
Generalization and Abstraction
• Studies how reality is simplified (through scale, symbolization,
and selection) so it can be effectively represented
• Map Semiology
• The “language of maps”: signs, symbols, colors, and their
meanings.
• Based on semiotics (the study of signs and symbols).
• Projection and Geometry
• Theoretical basis for how the curved Earth is represented on
flat surfaces.
• Focus on mathematical models and their distortions.
• Cognitive and Perceptual Aspects
• Investigates how users perceive spatial information.
• Seeks to improve clarity, usability, and effectiveness of maps.
• Cartographic Ontology
• Studies the nature and categorization of spatial phenomena
(points, lines, areas, surfaces) for representation.
b) Applied Cartography

• Practical application of cartographic theories, principles,

and techniques to create maps that solve real-world
problems.
• Unlike theoretical cartography, which focuses on concepts
and scientific foundations, applied cartography deals with
the actual design, production, and use of maps.
• Focuses on actually making and using maps for real-world
purposes.
• Deals with the application cartographic methods in the
solution of many of the problems, e.g., It may, help
environmental planners to determine the extent to which a
river riparian reserve has been encroached on by
developers in an urban area.
Characteristics of Applied Cartography
• Practical Focus -Concerned with the actual making of
maps for specific purposes (navigation, urban planning,
environmental monitoring, tourism, defense, etc.).
• Use of Technology -Employs GIS, remote sensing, drones,
GPS, CAD software, and digital cartography tools to
produce interactive and digital maps
• Design & Visualization - Focuses on cartographic design
principles such as color choice, symbols, legends, scale,
orientation, and layout to ensure maps are easy to read
and interpret
• Application driven -Produces thematic maps, cadastral maps,
topographic maps, climate maps, and digital dashboards to
serve the needs of governments, researchers, businesses, and
communities.
• Problem solving role - Helps in disaster preparedness (e.g.,
flood risk maps), infrastructure development (transportation
maps), environmental conservation (land-use maps), and
governance (zoning maps).
• Dynamic & User-centered - With modern tools like web
mapping and interactive applications, applied cartography
ensures maps are tailored for decision-making,
communication, and public participation.
4. Feedback Collection
• From experts (cartographers, GIS specialists) →
technical accuracy.
• From end-users (students, planners, policymakers,
public) → practical usability.
• Incorporate feedback into improvements
Application of cartography in predicting land change in Kisii town from 20025 (left) to 2055
(right)
•Theoretical/Scientific Cartography =
the science of maps (why & how maps
represent the world).
•Applied Cartography = the practice of
making and using maps to solve real-world
problems.
Aspect Theoretical Cartography Applied Cartography Analytical Cartography
Principles, models, and Use of maps and spatial
Focus Practical production of maps
theories of map-making analysis to solve problems
Why and how do maps
Key Question How do we make maps? What can maps tell us?
work?
Developing concepts (map
communication, Designing, drawing, and Applying cartographic
Core Activities generalization, publishing maps (manual or methods in GIS, spatial
symbolization, projections, digital) modeling, decision-making
semiotics)
Analytical products:
Theories, standards, Printed/digital maps,
Outputs thematic maps, statistical
guidelines for cartography atlases, charts
surfaces, spatial models
Mathematics, semiotics,
Traditional drafting, GIS, GIS, spatial statistics,
Tools/Methods cognitive science,
CAD, remote sensing tools simulation models
philosophy of maps
Researchers, scholars, General public, planners, Planners, researchers,
Users
educators engineers, government decision-makers
Researching how map
Producing a road map, Using GIS maps to analyze
Example symbols affect user
topographic map, or atlas urban growth or flood risk
interpretation
c) Analytical Cartography
• --

• Analytical Cartography is the branch of cartography

that focuses on the mathematical, statistical, and
computational analysis of spatial data and map
processes.
• It lies between theoretical and applied cartography
— more technical than theory, but not just about
making maps.
Key Characteristics

• Quantitative Approach - Uses mathematics, statistics, and

algorithms to analyze spatial relationships. Deals with concepts
like distance, area, scale transformations, interpolation, and
spatial modelling.
• Focus on Accuracy - Examines how errors in projection,
generalization, or data collection affect maps. Improves precision
in representing geographic reality.
• Data Analysis Role - Studies and models spatial phenomena: e.g.,
terrain analysis, network analysis, population distribution. Lays
the foundation for Geographic Information Science
• Tools & Methods - Relies on computational methods, coordinate
geometry, algorithms, and simulation. Uses GIS, remote sensing,
computer models, and spatial statistics
 Theoretical /
Aspect Analytical Applied
Scientific
Principles and Quantitative and
Practical production
Focus philosophy of map- computational
and use of maps.
making. analysis of maps.
Technical,
Nature Abstract, conceptual. mathematical, Practical, hands-on.
problem-solving.
How to model,
How to make useful
Why and how maps measure, and
Main Concern maps for real-world
represent reality. improve map
needs.
accuracy.
Semiotics, Spatial statistics,
GIS, design,
projections, algorithms, error
Methods visualization,
communication modeling,
digital/web mapping.
theory. geocomputation.
Models, quantitative Map products
Theories, standards,
Outputs analysis, GIScience (topographic,
frameworks.
tools. thematic, digital).
Scientists, GIS Planners,
Academics,
Users analysts, technical governments,
researchers.
experts. businesses, public.
Example Applications of Analytical Cartography

• Terrain analysis (slope, aspect, watershed modeling).

• Calculating shortest paths and accessibility in
transportation planning.
• Error propagation studies in GPS and remote sensing
data.
• Spatial interpolation (e.g., rainfall or temperature
mapping).
• Modeling urban sprawl or land-use change
1.2 Requisite Skills for a cartographer
1. Technical & Geospatial Skills

• GIS Proficiency: Ability to use ArcGIS, QGIS, etc.

• Remote Sensing: Interpreting satellite imagery and
aerial photos.
• Surveying & GPS: Understanding field data collection
methods.
• Cartographic Design: Knowledge of projections,
scales, and map types.
• Geostatistics: Analyzing spatial data quantitative
2. Computer & Software Skills

• Geospatial Software: ArcGIS, QGIS, ERDAS

Imagine, AutoCAD, ENVI.
• Programming: (basic to intermediate) →
Python, R, SQL for spatial data analysis.
• Web Mapping: Using Leaflet, Mapbox, Google
Maps API.
• Database Management: Handling large
geospatial datasets (PostGIS, Oracle Spatial).
• Graphic Design Tools: Adobe Illustrator,
Photoshop, CorelDRAW for map aesthetics
3. Analytical & Problem-Solving Skills
• Spatial Analysis: Understanding patterns, trends, and
relationships.
• Critical Thinking: Deciding what information to
include/exclude.
• Accuracy & Precision: Ensuring correct coordinates,
symbols, and data representation.
• Error Detection: Identifying distortions in scale, projection,
or date
5. Soft Skills
• Attention to Detail - Small mistakes in scale or projection can
mislead.
• Creativity - Designing visually appealing and understandable
maps.
• Adaptability - Keeping up with evolving mapping technologies
(GIS, drones, AI).
• Project Management - Handling deadlines, teamwork, and
multiple projects.
• Ethical Awareness - Understanding data privacy, bias, and
responsible map us
Summary of skills

•Technical & Geospatial (9/10) → strongest foundation

(GIS, remote sensing, surveying).
•Computer & Software (8/10) → strong need for GIS tools,
coding, and web mapping.
•Analytical & Problem-Solving (8/10) → crucial for spatial
analysis and accuracy.
•Communication & Visualization (7/10) → needed for
storytelling with maps.
•Soft Skills (6/10) → creativity, ethics, and adaptability are
important but often undervalued
• Anno Domini (AD) is a Latin phrase meaning “in the year of the
Lord.”
• It refers to the years after the birth of Jesus Christ, as estimated by
early Christian scholars.
• AD 1 is the first year of this era.
• There is no year zero in this system — 1 BCE is immediately followed
by AD 1.
• 👉 Example:
• 500 AD = the year 500, about five centuries after the birth of Christ.
• 2025 AD = the year 2025 in the same calendar system.
• AD is paired with BC (Before Christ), which covers the years before
the birth of Jesus.
• Early Maps and Cartography
• The Greeks: The Producers of First Paper Maps
• Chinese Maps
• European Cartography
• Age of exploration
• The first map of Americas
• Modern cartography
 1.3 A Brief History of Cartography
1. Early Maps and Cartography
a) Prehistoric (c. 16,500 BCE – 3000 BCE)
 Some of the earliest known maps date
back to 16,500 BCE (before the common or
current era) and show the night sky rather
than the Earth.
 Cave paintings showing the night sky
rivers, mountains, and hunting areas
 Significance - First symbolic
representations of space; maps as tools of
survival and cosmic understanding
b) Ancient Civilizations (c. 3000 BCE – 500 CE)
 Ancient cave paintings and rock carvings
also depict landscape features like hills and
mountains.
 Archaeologists believe that these paintings
were used to navigate the areas they
showed and to portray the areas that
people visited.
 Maps were also created in ancient
Babylonia (mostly on clay tablets), and it is
believed that they were drawn with very
accurate surveying techniques.
 These maps showed topographical
features like hills and valleys but also
had labeled features.
 The Babylonian World Map, created
in 600 BCE, is considered to be the
earliest map of the world.
 It is unique because it is a symbolic
representation of the Earth
c) Medieval Cartography (500
CE – 1400 CE)
i) European T and O Maps
• Circular maps dividing the
world into Asia, Europe, and
Africa.
• Centered on Jerusalem;
symbolic and religious.
ii) Islamic Maps – al-Idrisi (1154)
• South is placed at the top
• Depiction of the known world at
the time: Europe, Asia, and
Africa.
• Shows the Mediterranean,
Indian Ocean, and parts of
China
• Africa is continuous and more
accurately shaped.
• One of the first maps to depict
the Indian Ocean as an open
body of water connecting to the
Pacific
iii) Portolan Charts
• Designed primarily for sailors to
navigate the Mediterranean and later
the Atlantic coasts.
• Networks of straight lines radiating from
compass roses, showing constant sailing
directions.
• Remarkably precise depictions of
shorelines, harbors, and ports
compared to earlier maps.
• Lack of Interior Detail
• Focused almost entirely on coastlines
and seas; inland areas were often blank
or minimally decorated.
Renaissance & Age of
Exploration (1400 CE – 1700
CE)
• Printing of maps
commenced by Abraham
Orteliu
• Compliled the first
modern atlas, marking
the start of printed
cartography for global
circulation
• Compiled maps of the
known world into a single,
bound volume rather than
as individual sheets.
d) Early Modern (1700
CE – 1800 C)
• Use of surveying
instruments such as
theodolites to make
maps
• Significance - Transition
to modern mapping
sciences.
2. The Greeks: The Producers of First Paper Maps

• Ancient Greeks created the earliest paper

maps that were used for navigation and to
depict certain areas of the Earth.
• Anaximander was the first of the ancient
Greeks to draw a map of the known world,
and, as such, he is considered to be one of
the first cartographers.
• The world was imagined as surrounded by
Oceanus (a river/ocean encircling
everything).
• Center: Greece (Miletus), with the
Mediterranean as the focal point.
• Continents: Europe, Asia, and Libya
(Africa) shown as landmasses.
• The ancient Greek maps are important to the history of
cartography because they often showed Greece as being at
the center of the world and surrounded by an ocean.
• Other early Greek maps show the world as divided into two
continents—Asia and Europe.
• Many Greek philosophers considered the Earth to be
spherical, and this knowledge influenced their
cartography.
• Ptolemy for instance, created maps by using a coordinate
system with parallels of latitude and meridians of
longitude to accurately show areas of the Earth as he knew
it.
• This system
became the
basis for
today’s maps,
and his atlas
"Geographia"
is considered
to be an early
example of
modern
cartography.
3. Chinese Maps

• These maps date to the fourth century

BCE and were drawn on wooden
blocks or produced on silk.
• Reflected the belief in a square Earth
and round heaven, focusing on
harmony between humans, land, and
cosmos.
• China was placed at the center, drawn
larger and in greater detail than
surrounding regions.
• Cartography continued to develop in
China throughout its various
dynasties, and in 605 CE an early
map using a grid system was
created by Pei Ju of the Sui
Dynasty.
• In 801 CE, the "Hai Nei Hua Yi Tu"
was created by the Tang Dynasty to
show China as well as its Central
Asian colonies.
• The map was 30 feet (9.1 meters)
by 33 feet (10 meters) and used a
grid system with a highly accurate
scale.
• In 1579, the Guang Yutu atlas was
produced. It contained over 40 maps
that used a grid system and showed
major landmarks like roads and
mountains as well as the borders of
different political areas.
• By the middle of the 20th century,
China developed an Institute of
Geography that was responsible for
official cartography. It emphasized
fieldwork in the production of maps
focused on physical and economic
geography.
4. European Cartography

• Beginning in the 13th century, the Majorcan Cartographic School in

spain was developed.
• This "school" was a collaboration of mostly Jewish cartographers,
cosmographers, navigators, and navigational instrument-makers.
• The Majorcan Cartographic School invented the Normal Portolan
Chart—a nautical mile chart that used gridded compass lines for
navigation.
Normal Portolan Chart used for navigation
5. Age of exploration

• Cartography developed further in Europe during the Age of

Exploration as cartographers, merchants, and explorers
created maps showing the new areas of the world that they
visited.
• The cartographers also developed detailed nautical charts and
maps that were used for navigation.
• In the 15th century, Nicholas Germanus invented the
Donis map projection with equidistant parallels and
meridians that converged toward the poles.
6. The first map of Americas

• In the early 1500s, the first maps of the Americas were

produced by the Spanish cartographer and explorer, Juan
de la Cosa, who sailed with Christopher Columbus.
• In addition to maps of the Americas, he created some of
the first maps that showed the Americas together with
Africa and Eurasia.
• In 1527, Diogo Ribeiro, a Portuguese cartographer,
designed the first scientific world map called the
Pádron Real.
• This map was important because it very accurately
showed the coasts of Central and South America
and showed the extent of the Pacific Ocean.
• In the 1569, Gerardus Mercator, a Flemish
cartographer, invented the Mercator map projection.
This projection was based on mathematics and was
one of the most accurate for worldwide navigation
that was available at the time.
• The Mercator projection eventually became the most
widely used map projection and was a standard
taught in cartography.
• For this, he is widely referred as the father of modern
map making.
7. Modern cartography

• Modern cartography began with the advent of a variety of

technological advancements.
• The invention of tools like the compass, telescope, and
printing press all allowed for maps to be made more
easily and accurately.
• New technologies also led to the development of different
map projections that more precisely showed the world.
• For example, in 1772, the Lambert conformal conic was
created, and in 1805, the Albers equal area-conic
projection was developed.
Lambert conformal conic projection – No pole convergence of meridians
The Albers equal area-conic projection – pole convergence of
meridians
8.Aerial Photographs and Satellite Images and modern
cartography

• Involves the use of aerial and, increasingly, satellite

photographs as a base for any desired map or chart.
• The procedures for translating photographic data into maps
are governed by the principles of photogrammetry and
yield a degree of accuracy previously unattainable.
• Improvements in satellite photography and availability of
the Internet of satellite images have made possible the
creation of Google Earth and other databases that are
widely available online.
• Satellite photography has also been used to create
highly detailed maps of features of the Moon and of
several planets in our solar system and their
satellites.
• In addition, the use of geographic information
systems (GIS) has been indispensable in expanding
the scope of cartographic subjects.
Definition of a map
It has two definitions:

• A graphic representation of the cultural and physical

environment. The keyword here is graphic representation, as all
maps are visual representations of the phenomenon to be
modeled.
• A reduced, selective, and symbolized
graphical representation of an environment.
This definition introduces three key terms
reduced, selective, and symbolized.
Reduced: Almost all maps are more useful than
when they are reproduced at a smaller scale than
the actual phenomenon being mapped.
Selective: means that maps should only include
items that are directly related to the message of the
map. For instance, a map designated to show where
all the hospitals are located within a city should not
include the location of every manhole cover in the
city on the map.
Symbolized: refers to the idea of extracting the
item being mapped by using a representative
symbol. Examples of representative symbols would
be a star with a circle around it that represents a
town
• Figure provided is an example of a general
reference map, a graphic representation of the
cultural and physical environment for Kenya.
• The cultural items on the map include the
roads, administrative boundaries and urban
areas/towns. The physical environment
represented are rivers, water masses and
national parks/game reserves.
• This map is therefore a reduced, selective, and
symbolized graphic representation of Kenya.
Consequently, it is:
 Reduced because it is physically smaller
than the size of Kenya.
 Selective because it only shows the
relevant information to the purpose of the
intended audience/users.
 Symbolized through the use of visual
variables such as color, texture, size, and
shape.
Uses of maps
1. Navigation and Orientation
• Help travelers, drivers, pilots, and sailors find routes.
• Show distances, directions, and landmarks.
• GPS-based maps (like Google Maps) guide real-time movement
2. Planning and Development
• Urban planners use maps for land use zoning, infrastructure
placement, and settlement planning.
• Environmental planners use them for conservation areas, parks,
and protected zones.
• Engineers use them in road, railway, and dam construction
3. Resource Management
• Maps show locations of natural resources (minerals, forests,
water, oil).
• Used in agriculture to analyze soil, irrigation, and crop
suitability.
• Aid in sustainable land use and resource allocation
4. Education and Research
• Teaching geography, history, and environmental studies.
• Visualizing data for research (e.g., population density maps,
climate change patterns).
• Archaeologists map excavation sites
5. Disaster Management
• Used in predicting, monitoring, and responding to disasters (floods,
earthquakes, fires, droughts).
• Show hazard zones and evacuation routes.
• Support humanitarian aid distribution
6. Military and Defense
• Strategic planning of troop movement, defense lines, and surveillance.
• Terrain maps help in combat and logistics.
• Modern GIS maps aid in drone and satellite operations
7. Communication of Information
• Maps summarize complex data (e.g., poverty levels, climate zones,
election results) in an easy-to-read format.
• Used in reports, media, and policy brief
8. Tourism and Recreation
• Guidebooks and tourist maps highlight attractions,
hotels, and cultural sites.
• Hikers use topographic maps to navigate trails.
• Cruise and safari maps enrich travel experience
9. Political and Administrative Uses
• Define boundaries (countries, counties, constituencies).
• Electoral maps guide voting districts.
• Cadastral maps record land ownership.
 MODULE 2

TAXONOMY OF MAPS
2.1 Mental Maps
• Created by a person to show where objects and places are
in relation to the person's position.
• Many people can create mental maps of the same places,
but with differences because everyone sees their
surroundings a little different from everyone else.
• You can also create mental maps for places that you have
never been to by using information that one know or think
that he know about a particular place.
• A mental map can help determine how a person sees an
area and how they interact with things inside that space.
2.2 Tangible - Virtual Maps:
a) Tangible

• A map that you can hold in hands such as a paper

map.
• Can be easily shared between users and there is
• No specialized hardware or software required to
use them.
• Portable, and can be stored for a long time
without any need for maintenance
• Not easy to update
b) Virtual
• Any map displayed on a computing device.
• Found on desktop computers, tablets, laptops,
phones, GPS receivers, and many other digital
devices.
• Advantage: Are easily updatable, can be dynamic,
show animation, can link to large amounts of
information such as documents, pictures, movies,
and sounds, and can be easily shared.
• Limitations: Require hardware and software to view,
may require maintenance in order for the map to
exist for a long time, may not be intuitive to many
users, and may require more training to develop
Types of Tangible - Virtual Maps:

a) General
Reference/Purpose
Maps
b) Thematic Maps
 a) General Reference/Purpose Maps
• Also called base maps or reference maps.
• They display natural and man-made features of general
interest, and are intended for widespread public use.
• Display objects, their location, and identifying
information.
• Are not specialized to any one particular use, but are
instead meant to be used for a wide variety of
activities.
• The next figure shows map of Kisii Town.
• On this map we can see several features such
as the stadium, schools, roads, hospitals and
bus stops.
• The map is meant to be objective abstractions
of reality that can be used for multiple
purposes
• General reference maps may be
categorized into charts and topographic
maps
i) Charts
• Maps that give prominence to water features of
the earth’s surface are called charts.
• Show the bathymetric details, water currents
and other aids to navigation.
• Bathymetry is the measurement of the depth of
water in oceans, rivers, or lakes.
• Charts resemble topographic maps, which use
lines to show the shape and elevation of land
features
• A bathymetric chart is a map that depicts the submerged
topography and physiographic features of ocean and sea
bottoms.
• Bathymetric maps look like topographic maps, which use
lines to show the shape and elevation of land features.
• They provide detailed depth contours of ocean topography
as well as provide the size, shape and distribution of
underwater features.
• Topographic maps display elevation
above ground and are complementary
to bathymetric charts.
• Charts use a series of lines and points
at equal intervals to showcase depth
or elevation.
ii) Topographic maps
Maps depicting in detail –
• Ground relief (landforms and terrain),
• Drainage (lakes and rivers),
• Forest cover,
• Administrative areas,
• Populated areas, transportation routes and facilities
(including roads and railways), and other man-made
features.
b) Thematic Maps
• Emphasizes attributes related to a single subject or
theme.
• Have a very specific purpose and wish to convey a
very specific message related to, typically, a single
subject.
• While most thematic maps focus on a single theme it
is important to note that thematic maps can also
display multiple related scenes at the same time.
• Advantage- they display patterns of the theme
across space.
• For example, Figure 1.22 shows the approved
development zones in Kisii town.
LAND USE ZONE MAP OF KISII TOWN – AN EXAMPLE OF
THEMATIC MAP
A thematic map can be -

1. Qualitative or
2. Quantitative
 Qualitative
• Show nominal data and its distribution throughout
space.
• A qualitative thematic map does not show any
quantities or numerical data
• Simply shows where each theme exists and their
names or labels
• No mathematical relationships can be drawn from
this map.

NOTE - Nominal data is “labeled” or “classified” data which can

be divided into various groups that do not overlap. E.g., county,
land use etc.
A qualitative thematic map
showing encroachment into the
zoned urban green spaces in Kisii
town
A qualitative thematic map
showing encroachment into the
zoned urban green spaces in Kisii
town
A qualitative thematic map
showing the master plan for
proposed Nyamira University
Quantitative
• Shows numerical data and its variation from place to
place.
• The numerical data is generalized to produce a better-
looking visual product.
• Figure hows spatial implications of areas covered by piped
water in Nairobi City.
A quantitative thematic map
showing % of households covered
by piped water in Nairobi city
A qualitative thematic map
showing % of poverty in Kenya
counties
A qualitative thematic map
communicating political issues in
Kenya
Thematic maps further divided
to:
1. Choropleth Map
2. Dot Density Map
3. Proportional Symbol Map
4. Flow Map
5. Cartogram Map
1. Choropleth Map

• A choropleth map is a map where colored or shaded

areas represent the magnitude of an attribute
• Each enumeration unit, such, is assigned a color that
represents either a single value, or range of values that
exist in that enumeration unit.
• The choropleth map in next Figure is displaying
quantitative information that is been aggregated to
depict the potential for solar radiation and rainfall
variations in Kenya
 Advantages

• Statistical data can be visualized quickly as they are generally

related to administrative areas.
• Excellent for comparing multiple choropleth maps with one
another to see how the spatial distribution of variable changes.
• Conveys an idea of geographic distribution with minimal effort
• Applicable to any scale, as long as the individual areas are not
getting too small.
• More visually pleasing and attract the eye, which is good for
decision making
• Most easily understood and read by many people
Limitations
• Not suitable for showing total values.
• Give a false impression of abrupt change at
the boundaries of shaded units.
• It can be difficult to distinguish between
different shades.
• Assume the whole region or area has the
same value but there could be variation
• May be inaccurate if incorrect or unverified
data is used
(ii) Dot Density Map
• A thematic map that uses a point symbol to
visualize the geographic distribution of a large
number of related phenomena
• Shows total values of quantitative information
represented by dots that are randomly placed
within an enumeration unit.
• In the next Figure, the dot density map shows
the distribution of population per county in
Kenya.
ADVANTAGES
• Can show the distribution and comparative densities
• It is easier to show variation in the distribution of a wide
variety of features if it is presented using different
colors.
• Are easy to read and interpret
• by counting the symbols it is possible to determine the
original data
• Best method for showing the absolute figures
• Work fine in black and white, when colour is not an
option
• Easy to construct compared to proportional circles
LIMITATIONS
•
Clustering may make it impossible to plot and
interpret
• It is time-consuming, especially when marking dots
on maps
• Large numbers of dots difficult to count and calculate
actual figures
• Areas with no dots may give a false sense of
emptiness
• Only useful for absolute figures only. relative figures
such as density of population, the proportion of
cultivated land to the total land can not be shown by
dot maps
• Construction of dot maps involves tedious
calculation, especially when determining the number
of dots
• Locating dots on a map is to a certain extent a
personal and subjective decision and two-dot maps
were done by two people using the same data will
rarely be identical
• When the scale is small many dots are drawn which
causes overcrowding and presents difficulties in
counting them to get the actual value
(iii) Proportional Symbol Map
• A thematic map that uses map symbols that vary
in size to represent a quantitative variable
throughout space.
• Appropriate data for a proportional symbol map is
either total values, percentage values, or rate values.
• Additionally, the data should occur at a point or the
data should be aggregated to an enumeration unit
• May also convey density of phenomena
• For example, circles may be used to show the
location of cities within the map, with the size of
each circle sized proportionally to the population of
the city.
Limitations
A common problem with proportional symbol
maps is that there can be overlap and congestion of
different symbols.
(iv) Flow Maps
• Flow maps are a type of thematic map that illustrate
the movement of people, goods, ideas, information, or
natural phenomena from one location to another.
• They combine aspects of maps and flow diagrams,
making them useful for showing both spatial patterns
and direction of movement.
• Key features flow maps:
1. Origins and Destinations – Show where movement starts
(origin) and where it ends (destination).
2. Flow Lines (Arrows or Curves) – Indicate the direction of
movement.
3. Line Thickness (or Width) – Proportional to the volume or
intensity of movement (e.g., thicker lines for larger flows).
4. Base Map – Provides geographic context (countries,
regions, cities, or routes)

Types of flow maps include -

a) Radial flow maps.
• A radial flow map is a type of flow map where all flows
radiate outward from or inward to a central point.
• It is often used when a phenomenon originates from one
location and spreads to multiple destinations, or when
multiple origins converge toward one destination.
• Characteristics of a Radial Flow Map:
Central Point – The hub (origin or dstination) of all flows.
Flow Lines (Arrows) – Extend radially (like spokes on a wheel)
showing direction of movement.
Line Thickness – Represents the magnitude or volume of the flow
(thicker = larger).
Geographic Base – A map showing the central location and
surrounding areas.
Common Uses of Radial Flow Maps
• Urban Planning – Showing commuting patterns into a city’s CBD.
• Migration Studies – Outmigration from a rural area to multiple
towns/cities.
• Transport Networks – Airline routes radiating from a hub airport.
• Trade and Distribution – Goods distributed from a
factory/warehouse to outlets.
• Telecommunications – Calls or internet traffic radiating from a
data center
📍 Example:
• A radial flow map of Nairobi could show daily
commuting flows from surrounding towns (Thika,
Kiambu, Machakos, Ngong, etc.) into the city center.
• Another could show export flows from Mombasa Port
to different global destinations
b) Distributive flow maps
• Are a special type of radial flow map in which flows branch
as they move from a single origin to many destinations or
vice versa.
• Shows how people, goods, or services are dispersed from one
or more sources to multiple destinations.
• Unlike the radial flow map (which emphasizes movement to or
from a single central point), distributive flow maps can illustrate
branching flows as they spread out across space.
Characteristics of Distributive Flow Maps
• Source Points – The starting locations of goods, people, or
services.
• Branching Flow Lines – Flows split and fan out to reach
various destinations.
• Line Thickness – Proportional to the volume or intensity of
the flow.
• Base Map – Provides spatial context (roads, rivers, cities, or
regions
Uses of Distributive Flow Maps
• Trade & Distribution – Showing how goods move from
factories/ports to regional markets.
• Energy Networks – Electricity or pipelines distributing
power/fuel to towns.
• Water Supply – Movement of water from dams/reservoirs to
multiple communities.
• Postal/Delivery Services – Distribution of parcels or letters
from a central depot.
• Humanitarian Aid – Food and relief supplies distributed from
a warehouse to different areas
📍 Example in Kenya:
• A distributive flow map could show maize distribution from
the National Cereals and Produce Board (NCPB) depots in
Eldoret to different counties.
• Another example: electricity distribution from Olkaria
geothermal plant in Naivasha to towns across Kenya

👉 So the key difference is:

• Radial flow maps → emphasize flows to/from a single
central hub.
• Distributive flow maps → emphasize flows branching and
spreading out to multiple destinations.
c) Network flow maps
• A network flow map is a type of flow map that
shows movement along interconnected
routes, emphasizing the structure of the
network (roads, railways, air routes, pipelines,
communication lines, etc.) rather than just
origins and destination.
Characteristics of Network Flow Maps
• Nodes – Key points in the network (cities, stations, airports,
ports, hubs).
• Links (Edges) – The connections (roads, flight routes,
shipping lanes, internet cables) along which movement
occurs.
• Flow Lines – Drawn along the existing network routes, not
in straight lines.
• Line Thickness/Color – Represents volume, frequency, or
intensity of the flow
Uses of Network Flow Maps
• Transport Systems – Showing passenger or freight flows along
roads, railways, or flight networks.
• Trade & Logistics – Cargo distribution along major shipping or
trucking routes.
• Telecommunications – Internet traffic or telephone call routing
through connected networks.
• Energy Systems – Oil, gas, or electricity transmission along
pipeline and grid networks.
• Urban Planning – Understanding traffic congestion or public
transport demand along corridor
📍 Example in Kenya:
• A network flow map of Kenya Railways could show freight
flows along the Standard Gauge Railway (SGR) between
Mombasa, Nairobi, and Naivasha.
• Another example: Kenya Airways flight network, showing
air passenger flows between Nairobi and other
African/global cities.
👉 Comparison:
• Radial flow map – from a single hub outward/inward.
• Distributive flow map – branching out from sources to
many destinations.
• Network flow map – flows along connected routes in a
structured system.
Feature Radial Flow Map Distributive Flow Map Network Flow Map
Shows flows spreading
Shows flows moving Shows flows moving
out (branching) from
Definition outward from or along interconnected
one or more sources to
inward to a central hub routes in a network
many destinations
Central origin or
Dispersion from source Structure of routes and
Key Focus destination (hub-and-
to multiple points connections
spoke)
Branch outward, Follow existing routes
Radiate directly
Flow Lines fanning to different (roads, railways,
from/to a central point
areas airways, pipelines)
Distribution of goods,
Commuting into CBD, Transport systems,
water supply,
Common Uses migration to/from a trade logistics,
electricity,
city, airline hub routes telecoms, energy grids
humanitarian aid
Maize distribution Freight flows along the
Daily commuting flows
Example in Kenya from Eldoret NCPB SGR from Mombasa to
into Nairobi city center
depot to counties Nairobi/Naivasha
(v) Cartogram Map

• Also called a value-area map or an anamorphic map

• A cartogram map is a thematic map in which the geometric shape
and size of regions are distorted to represent the value of a
particular variable, instead of their actual land area.
• In a cartogram the map is reshaped so that the size of each
region reflects data (like population, income, or resource use),
not physical geography.
• Key Characteristics
• Distorted Geometry – Shapes of countries, counties, or regions are
resized.
• Area Represents Data – Larger size = higher value of the mapped
variable.
• Base Geography – Maintains some recognizability of location (but
accuracy of area/shape is secondary to data)
Cartogram
Map–
Population
size of
African
countries
Types of Cartograms
a). Non-contiguous
• Regions are resized but separated, floating in space
• The geographic objects do not have to maintain
connectivity/topology with their adjacent objects.
• By freeing the objects from their adjacent objects, they
can grow or shrink in size and still maintain their shape.
• Features in non-contiguous cartograms don’t have to
stay connected.
• Objects can freely move from adjacent polygons and be
resized appropriately.
• Because of this free movement, the shape remains intact
for non-contiguous cartograms.
Overlapping –
• Maintained the object's centroid (center point.)
• Because the object's center is staying in the same place,
some of the objects will begin to overlap when the objects
grow or shrink depending on the attribute

Non Overlapping –
• The objects not only shrink or grow, but they also will move
one way or another to avoid overlapping with another object.
• By not allowing objects to overlap, the depicted sizes of the
objects are better seen, and can more easily be interpreted as
some attribute value.
C. Contiguous Cartograms

• Regions are distorted but still connected.

• Preserves adjacency (neighbors remain neighbors).
• Topology is sacrificed in order to preserve shape.
• The topology is maintained (the objects remain connected
with each other) but this causes great distortion in shape.
• This leads to the single most difficult, but intriguing problem
in creating cartograms.
• The cartographer must make the objects the appropriate
size to represent the attribute value, but he or she must
also maintain the shape of objects as best as possible, so
that the cartogram can be easily interpreted.
C. Dorling/graphical Cartograms

• A thematic map that uses sized circles and squares to

represent a quantity of interest per geographic region.
• Maintains neither shape, topology nor object centroids,
though it has proven to be a very effective cartogram
method.
• Instead of enlarging or shrinking the objects
themselves, the cartographer will replace the objects
with a uniform shape, usually a circle, of the
appropriate size.
• The shapes not overlap but rather be moved so that the
full area of each shape can be seen.
Uses of Cartogram Maps
• Population studies – e.g., resizing Kenyan counties
based on population instead of land area.
• Elections – showing counties proportional to votes cast.
• Health data – mapping spread of diseases (e.g., COVID-
19 cases by county).
• Economics – GDP contribution by country.
• Resource distribution – areas scaled by agricultural
output, water use, etc
📍 Example in Kenya: A population cartogram of Kenya
would show Nairobi and Kiambu counties much larger
than Turkana or Marsabit, even though those counties
cover more land area
(vi) Cartometric Maps
• A cartometric map is a map that allows for precise
measurement of distances, directions, areas, and
locations directly from the map.
• The term cartometric comes from carto- (map) and
metric (measurement).
• In other words, a cartometric map is one that is created
in such a way that it can be used for accurate
quantitative analysis, not just for visualization
• Cartometric maps focus on specific measurements such
as area or distance
• Examples include aeronautical and nautical navigational
charts—used for routing over land or sea.
Uses of Cartometric Maps
• Navigation & Transport Planning – Measuring distances for
routes (e.g., road maps, nautical charts).
• Urban & Regional Planning – Measuring plot sizes, land use
areas, buffer zones.
• Land Surveying & Cadastre – Property boundaries, parcel
sizes, official land records.
• Geographic Analysis – Spatial statistics, density analysis,
environmental impact studies.
• Military & Aviation – Accurate maps for movement,
targeting, and flight paths
Examples
• Topographic maps – allow measuring elevation, slope,
and distances.
• Cadastral maps – precise property boundaries for legal
and planning purposes.
• GIS-based maps – digital cartometric maps used for
spatial analysis and planning
i) Nautical Navigation Charts -
• A nautical chart is one of the most fundamental tools
available to the mariner.
• A map that depicts the configuration of the shoreline
and seafloor.
• Provides water depths, locations of dangers to
navigation, locations and characteristics of aids to
navigation, anchorages, and other features.
• Essential for safe navigation.
• Mariners use charts to plan voyages and navigate ships
safely and economically
• Numbers like 18, 21, 29 represent water depth in meters
• Lighter blue areas show shallower water; darker/whiter
areas show deeper water.
• Depth contours (isobaths) connect points of equal depth
• Navigation Aids (symbols in yellow/red/black triangles) -
Lighthouses, buoys, and beacons, Used by sailors to identify
positions at night.
• Contour Lines Offshore (gray curves with depth
labels):Represent seafloor shape (bathymetry).Help identify
underwater slopes, drop-offs, and safe passages
ii) Aeronautical chart
• A specialized map designed to assist pilots in navigation.
• It provides detailed information about the Earth’s surface,
airspace structure, and navigation aids necessary for safe
and efficient flight operations.
• Just like nautical charts guide ships at sea, aeronautical
charts guide aircraft in the sky.
• Purpose (a) Safe navigation – avoiding terrain, restricted
airspace, or obstacles. (b) Route planning – choosing the
most efficient airway. (c) Situational awareness –
understanding where the aircraft is relative to terrain,
airports, and airspace.(d) Emergency procedures – locating
alternate airports or safe landing zone
Key Features

• Topographic Information
• Terrain elevations, mountains, valleys, water bodies.
• Important landmarks visible from the air.
• Air Navigation Data
• Airports, runways, heliports.
• Radio navigation aids
• Airspace boundaries (controlled, restricted, danger zones).
• Obstructions
• Towers, buildings, wind turbines, or any structures hazardous to
aircraft.
• Usually shown with heights above sea level and above ground.
 MODULE 3

CARTOGRAPHIC PROCESS
Introduction
• Refers to the process followed from having
unmapped data up to the point when a map formed
form the data.
• Has six steps.

Step 1: Define Purpose and Meaning

Step 2: Choose Scale
Step 3: Format, Printing, and Economics
Step 4: Abstract and Generalize
Step 5: Design layout
Step 6: Evaluation and Revision
Step 1: Define Purpose and Meaning

• Means that interpreting the requirements of the

user when planning about the design of the
map.
• It answer two important questions –

1. “what needs to be communicated?” In order to answer

this question you need to make sure you have a thorough
understanding of what you want to convey to the map
user, who is the map user, and what you expect the map
user to gain from viewing your map.
Step 1: Define Purpose and Meaning
• This stage answers the “Why?” and “For whom?” behind a
map.
1. Clarify the Objective
• What is the main goal of the map?
• Exploration → showing new terrain or features.
• Navigation → guiding movement (e.g., road maps, nautical charts).
• Planning → assisting urban or regional development.
• Education → teaching geography or history.
• Decision-making → supporting policymakers with spatial evidence.
• Each purpose will shape what data is collected, how much
detail is included, and how the layout looks
2. Identify the Audience
• Who will use the map, and what is their level of expertise?
• General public → need simple, visually clear maps.
• Students → require thematic or explanatory maps.
• Planners/engineers → need technical precision with detailed
features.
• Policymakers → require simplified patterns that support decisions
quickly.
• Audience expectations influence design choices, such as
color use, labeling, and symbol complexity
3. Define the Message / Theme
• What should the map communicate?
• Distribution (e.g., population density, rainfall).
• Change (e.g., urban expansion over time).
• Relationships (e.g., transport networks, land use vs. soil type).
• Comparisons (e.g., rich vs. poor neighborhoods, rural vs. urban).
• The theme gives the map focus so it avoids becoming
cluttered or meaningless
4. Select Map Type
• Based on purpose and theme, decide the form:
• Topographic map → shows relief, terrain, and physical features.
• Thematic map → highlights a specific subject (climate, population,
land use).
• Reference map → general information for orientation.
• Special-purpose map → e.g., cadastral maps, hazard maps, election
maps.
5. Determine Spatial Extent
• Decide the geographic area to be covered:
• Local (village, town).
• Regional (county, province).
• National.
• Continental or global.
• This influences scale choice in Step 2.
CONFORMITY TO ZONED URBAN GREEN SPACES IN KISII TOWN
Summary

• Defining the purpose and meaning ensures the cartographer

knows why the map is being made, who it serves, what message
it carries, what type it will take, and the geographic extent it
should cover.
• This clarity prevents wasted effort and ensures the map is both
functional and meaningful Defining purpose and meaning is the
foundation of the cartographic process.
• The very first step in map-making is to clarify why the map is
being created and what message it should communicate.
• The cartographer decides why the map is being made
(navigation, education, research, planning, marketing, etc.) and
what message it should communicate.
• Audience matters here maps for school children look different
from scientific maps for planners.
• Example: A tourism map highlights attractions and hotels, while a
planning map emphasizes zoning
• Clarify the objective of the map (navigation, planning,
education, research, etc.).
• Identify the audience (policy makers, students, planners,
public).
• Decide the message/theme (e.g., population density,
transport networks, climate zones
Step 2: Choose Scale
• Map scale determines the ratio between distance on the
map and distance on the ground, and it directly influences
the level of detail, the type of data shown, and the way
features are generalized.
1. Understand Map Scale
• The following are the rules of thumb for determining which
category of scale a map should fall within.

a) Numerical (Representative Fraction): e.g., 1:50,000 → 1 m on map =

50 m on ground.
b) Verbal (Statement scale): e.g., “1 cm = 500 m.”
c) Graphical (Scale bar): visual scale that remains correct even when
the map is enlarged or reduced.
2. Large vs. Small Scale
a) A large' scale map (e.g., 1:2,500 – 1:50,000)
• A given part of the Earth is represented by a large area on
the map.
• Show more detail than small scale maps because at a
large scale there is more space on the map in which to
show features.
• Typically used to show site plans, local areas,
neighbourhoods, towns etc.
b) A medium scale map (e.g., 1:50,000 – 1:250,000)
• Balance between detail and coverage.
• Often used in regional planning and topographic series..
c) A 'small' scale map (e.g., 1:250,000 – 1:5,000,000)
• A given part of the Earth is represented by a small area
on the map.
Show large areas with little detail (countries, continents,
world).
Useful for regional planning, climate zones, global patterns
• Large scale maps typically show more detail than
small scale maps
• Smaller scale maps lacks enough room to show all
the available detail, so features such as streams
and roads often have to be represented as single
lines, and area features like cities, have to be
shown as points.
• This is called generalization
Step 3: Format, Printing, and Economics
• This stage deals with the practical aspects of map production — how
the map will be presented, what medium will be used, and the
resources available to make it. This step involves the following:
1. Format Selection
• Printed maps
• Atlas maps, wall maps, posters, folded topographic sheets.
• Advantages: tangible, portable, no power needed.
• Limitations: difficult to update, costly to reprint.
• Digital maps
• GIS maps, online interactive maps (Google Maps, ArcGIS Online),
mobile apps.
• Advantages: dynamic, easily updated, user interaction possible (zoom,
layers).
• Limitations: depend on technology and internet access.
• Hybrid (print + digital)
• Printable PDFs, digital atlases.
2. Printing Considerations
Paper size & orientation
• A4, A3, poster-size, landscape vs. portrait.
Color vs. black & white
• Color improves readability but raises printing costs.
Durability
• Laminated or plastic-coated maps for outdoor/field use.
Resolution
• Higher resolution for detailed maps, especially when symbols
and text are small
3. Economics of Map Production
Cost of data acquisition
• Purchasing satellite images, conducting surveys, or licensing GIS
datasets.
Production costs
• Software licenses (e.g., ArcGIS, Adobe Illustrator) or open-source
tools (QGIS).
• Printing and reproduction costs (ink, paper, specialized printing).
Distribution costs
• Logistics for printed maps (shipping, storage).
• Hosting and bandwidth for digital maps.
Scale of demand
• A map meant for wide public use (e.g., road atlas) can justify higher
production costs due to large print runs.
• Specialized technical maps may have small circulation, so costs must
be carefully manage
4. Audience and Accessibility
• For the general public, maps should be affordable, easy to
obtain, and in standard formats.
• For professionals, specialized maps may be justified even if
expensive, since accuracy is critical.
• For digital users, accessibility across devices (desktop, mobile,
tablets) is essential.
5. Sustainability and Updates
• Consider whether the map will need frequent updates (e.g.,
transport maps, political boundaries).
• Digital formats are usually cheaper to update than reprinting
paper map

Format, printing, and economics ensure the map is produced in

the most practical, affordable, and accessible way for its intended
purpose and audience. Poor choices here (e.g., costly large-format
printing for a small audience) can undermine even the best-
designed map
Step 4: Abstract and Generalize
• Real-world geography is too detailed to represent fully on
a map. This step involves simplifying, selecting, and
symbolizing features so that the map communicates
clearly without overwhelming the user.
a) Abstraction
• The process of transforming reality into a map is called
abstraction.
• A map should accurately representation of reality.
• Influenced by purpose, scale, and audience
• Involves making choices about how to represent features
• Failure to be explicit, consistent, and precise will return
incorrect, inconsistent, and error-prone maps.
b) Generalization
• The process of controlling the amount of detailed information
portrayed in a map.
• It simplify spatial data so it fits the chosen scale and
purpose:
• To be readable at a smaller scale, some objects are
removed; others are enlarged, aggregated and displaced one
to another, and all objects are simplified.
• The smaller the scale, the less information is given.
• The larger the scale, the more detailed is the area mapped
for the same map size.
• Techniques for generalization include -
Selection
•Choosing which features are shown.
•Example: On a world map, only major
cities appear, not every small town.
Simplification
•Reducing the complexity of shapes.
•Example: Smoothing winding rivers or
coastlines.
Classification
•Grouping similar features into
categories.
•Example: land use
Exaggeration
•Enlarging features to make them visible.
•Example: Roads or city points made
thicker/larger than their real scale size.
Displacement
•Shifting features slightly so they remain
clear and readable.
•Example: Moving road labels away from
the road itself to prevent overlap
Symbolization
•Using points, lines, colors, and patterns to
represent features.
•Describe how the features on a map are
visualized
•Example: Blue lines for rivers, red lines for
highways, green polygons for forests
 Simplification

Abstraction and
generalization make maps
usable by removing
unnecessary detail,
simplifying shapes, and
representing real-world
features symbolically. This
ensures the map
communicates its
intended message clearly
without overwhelming or
misleading the audience
 Selection

Application of selection in Map generalisation

3. Importance of Scale in Generalization
• At large scale (detailed maps):
• Most features can be shown accurately.
• At small scale (broad coverage maps):
• Features must be highly generalized, otherwise the map
becomes cluttered.
• Too little generalization → map becomes overcrowded
and unreadable.
• Too much generalization → map loses important details
and becomes misleading.
• The challenge is finding the right balance
Step 5: Design Layout
• Design layout ensures that all map components are well-
arranged, visually balanced, and clear, so the map’s
message is immediately understood.
• A poorly designed map, no matter how accurate the data,
will fail to communicate effectively
• Once one map is created, it elements should be
rearranged to see if there any other layouts that may
work better.
• Good design layout should observe the following -
EXAMPLE OF LAYOUT - LAND
USE IN KISII TOWN
1. Arrangement of Elements
A map is more than just the geographic body — it includes
several supporting elements:
• Map body → the main geographic content.
• Title → communicates the subject and purpose of the
map.
• Legend/Key → explains symbols, colors, and
classifications.
• Scale bar → shows the relationship between map and
ground distance.
• North arrow (orientation) → indicates direction.
These must be arranged so the reader’s eye flows
naturally from one element to another
2. Design Principles
Clarity → The map should not be cluttered; only
essential details included.
•Balance → Visual weight of map elements should be
evenly distributed.
•Contrast → Use of colors, line thickness, and shading
to highlight important features.
•Hierarchy → Important information (main map area)
stands out before supporting details (legend, notes).
•Simplicity → Avoid over-decoration; let the data
communicate.
3. Typography and Labeling
• Font choice: Clear, legible typefaces (sans serif for digital, serif for
print).
• Font size: Hierarchical — country names larger than city names.
• Placement rules: Labels follow the natural curves of features (e.g.,
rivers, roads).
• Avoid overlap: Labels should not obscure features or symbols
4. Color and Symbol Use
• Color harmony: Use universally accepted color schemes (e.g., blue
for water, green for vegetation).
5. Visual Hierarchy of Data
• Make the most important features stand out visually (e.g.,
highways thicker than secondary roads).
• Secondary information should support, not compete with, the
main theme.
Step 6: Evaluation and Revision
• A map is only useful if it communicates the intended
message clearly and accurately.
• Evaluation ensures quality, while revision keeps the map up
to date.
• Map evaluation should be guided by -
1. Accuracy Checks
• Data accuracy → Verify that all spatial features (boundaries,
roads, rivers) are correct.
• Attribute accuracy → Ensure labels, classifications, and
thematic data are correct (e.g., population numbers, land
use categories).
• Projection and scale checks → Confirm the chosen
projection does not distort the map’s purpose and that the
scale is appropriate
2. Usability Testing
Test the map with the intended audience:
• Can they easily read and interpret it?
• Do they understand the symbols, legend, and colors?
Ask: Does the map communicate the message quickly and
effectively?
Use “first impression tests”: a reader should grasp the main idea in
a few seconds
3. Design Evaluation
• Check readability (labels clear, no overlaps, symbols distinct).
• Check visual balance (main theme stands out, supporting details
don’t overpower).
• Ensure color choices are appropriate and accessible.