Alternating Current Study Guide
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mary jamesAlternating Current Study Guide
Uploaded by
mary jamesPhysics Study Guide: Alternating Current
Formulas, Laws, and Constants
FUNDAMENTAL CONSTANTS AND UNITS
RMS Voltage:
V = V_m/√2 = 0.707 V_m
Dimensions: [M L² T⁻³ A⁻¹]
RMS Current:
I = I_m/√2 = 0.707 I_m
Dimensions: [A]
Reactance Units:
Inductive (X_L) & Capacitive (X_C): Ohm (Ω)
Impedance (Z): Ohm (Ω)
Dimensions: [M L² T⁻³ A⁻²]
AC VOLTAGE AND CURRENT BASICS
Sinusoidal AC Voltage:
v = V_m sin(ωt)
V_m = peak/amplitude voltage
ω = angular frequency (rad/s)
Sinusoidal AC Current:
i = I_m sin(ωt + φ)
φ = phase difference between current and voltage
Power Relations:
P = VI cos φ (average power)
P = I²R (resistive power only)
cos φ = power factor
RESISTIVE CIRCUITS
Ohm's Law for AC:
I_m = V_m/R
V = IR (RMS values)
Current-Voltage Relationship:
Current and voltage in phase (φ = 0)
i = I_m sin(ωt), v = V_m sin(ωt)
Power in Resistor:
P = I²R = V²/R = VI
Power always positive (energy dissipated as heat)
INDUCTIVE CIRCUITS
Inductive Reactance:
X_L = ωL = 2πfL
Opposes current change
Increases with frequency and inductance
Current in Pure Inductor:
I_m = V_m/X_L
i = I_m sin(ωt - π/2)
Current lags voltage by π/2
Power in Pure Inductor:
P_avg = 0 (no energy dissipated)
Energy stored and returned each cycle
CAPACITIVE CIRCUITS
Capacitive Reactance:
X_C = 1/(ωC) = 1/(2πfC)
Opposes voltage change
Decreases with frequency and capacitance
Current in Pure Capacitor:
I_m = V_m/X_C
i = I_m sin(ωt + π/2)
Current leads voltage by π/2
Power in Pure Capacitor:
P_avg = 0 (no energy dissipated)
Energy stored and returned each cycle
SERIES LCR CIRCUIT
Impedance:
Z = √[R² + (X_L - X_C)²]
I_m = V_m/Z
Phase Relationship:
tan φ = (X_L - X_C)/R
φ > 0: Circuit predominantly inductive (current lags)
φ < 0: Circuit predominantly capacitive (current leads)
φ = 0: Resistive circuit or at resonance
Current Expression:
i = I_m sin(ωt + φ)
RESONANCE IN AC CIRCUITS
Resonant Frequency:
ω₀ = 1/√(LC)
f₀ = 1/(2π√(LC))
At Resonance:
X_L = X_C (reactances cancel)
Z = R (minimum impedance)
I_m = V_m/R (maximum current)
φ = 0 (current and voltage in phase)
P_max = V²/R = I²R
Quality Factor:
Q = ω₀L/R = 1/(ω₀CR)
Measures sharpness of resonance peak
POWER IN AC CIRCUITS
Average Power Formula:
P = VI cos φ
P = I²Z cos φ
P = I²R (only resistive component dissipates power)
Power Factor:
cos φ = R/Z
cos φ = 1: Purely resistive (maximum power transfer)
cos φ = 0: Purely reactive (no power dissipation)
Wattless Current:
Current in purely reactive circuits
No net energy transfer despite current flow
PHASOR REPRESENTATION
Phasor Concept:
Rotating vectors representing AC quantities
Magnitude = amplitude of AC quantity
Angular velocity = ω
Projection on vertical axis = instantaneous value
Phasor Relationships:
Resistor: V_R and I in phase
Inductor: V_L leads I by π/2
Capacitor: V_C lags I by π/2
Phasor Addition:
V = √[V_R² + (V_L - V_C)²]
Total voltage is vector sum of individual phasors
TRANSFORMERS
Ideal Transformer Relations:
V_s/V_p = N_s/N_p (voltage ratio)
I_s/I_p = N_p/N_s (current ratio)
V_s × I_s = V_p × I_p (power conservation)
Types:
Step-up: N_s > N_p (V_s > V_p, I_s < I_p)
Step-down: N_s < N_p (V_s < V_p, I_s > I_p)
Efficiency:
η = P_out/P_in × 100%
Ideal transformer: η = 100%
ENERGY LOSSES IN TRANSFORMERS
1. Flux Leakage: Incomplete flux linkage between coils
2. Resistance Losses: I²R heating in windings
3. Eddy Currents: Induced currents in iron core
4. Hysteresis: Energy loss due to magnetic reversal
IMPEDANCE DIAGRAM
Right Triangle Relationship:
Hypotenuse = Z (impedance)
Adjacent side = R (resistance)
Opposite side = |X_L - X_C| (net reactance)
Z² = R² + (X_L - X_C)²
IMPORTANT PHASE RELATIONSHIPS
Circuit Type Phase Relationship Power Factor
Pure R φ = 0° (in phase) cos φ = 1
Pure L φ = +90° (current lags) cos φ = 0
Pure C φ = -90° (current leads) cos φ = 0
Series RLC φ = tan ⁻¹[(X_L-X_C)/R] cos φ = R/Z
Resonance φ = 0° cos φ = 1
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS TABLE
Quantity Symbol Dimensions SI Unit
RMS Voltage V [M L² T⁻³ A⁻¹] V (volt)
RMS Current I [A] A (ampere)
Quantity Symbol Dimensions SI Unit
Inductive Reactance X_L [M L² T⁻³ A⁻²] Ω (ohm)
Capacitive Reactance X_C [M L² T⁻³ A⁻²] Ω (ohm)
Impedance Z [M L² T⁻³ A⁻²] Ω (ohm)
Resonant Frequency f₀ [T⁻¹] Hz (hertz)
Quality Factor Q Dimensionless -
Power Factor cos φ Dimensionless -
KEY DERIVATIONS AND CONCEPTS
RMS Value Derivation:
Based on equivalent DC value producing same heating effect
I_rms = √(⟨i²⟩) = I_m/√2
Uses trigonometric identity: ⟨sin² ωt⟩ = 1/2
Phasor Method:
Converts sinusoidal functions to vector problem
Simplifies AC circuit analysis
Phase relationships become geometric angles
Resonance Physics:
Energy oscillates between electric (capacitor) and magnetic (inductor) fields
At resonance: stored energies equal, reactances cancel
Maximum energy transfer to resistive component
Transformer Principle:
Based on mutual inductance
Changing flux in primary induces EMF in secondary
EMF ∝ rate of flux change ∝ number of turns
PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGIES
1. Identify circuit elements and their values
2. Calculate reactances X_L and X_C at given frequency
3. Find impedance using Z = √[R² + (X_L - X_C)²]
4. Determine phase angle φ = tan⁻¹[(X_L - X_C)/R]
5. Apply power relations with appropriate power factor
6. Use phasor diagrams for phase relationships
7. Check resonance condition if frequency varies
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
AC Power Distribution:
Transformers enable efficient long-distance transmission
High voltage reduces I²R losses in transmission lines
Step-down for safe consumer voltages
Resonant Circuits:
Radio/TV tuning circuits
Frequency selection and filtering
Metal detectors (resonance disruption)
Power Factor Correction:
Capacitors added to inductive loads
Reduces wattless current
Improves transmission efficiency
