Introduction

• Structural geology is the study of factors such as

origin, occurrence, classification, type and effects
of various secondary structures like folds, faults,
joints, rock cleavage and are different from those
primary structures such as bedding and vesicular
structure, which develop in rocks at the time of their
formation.

Outcrop
• Any Geological formation exposed on the
surface is called an outcrop.
 Strike and Dip
• Dip literally means slope or inclination. In
structural geology dip is expressed both as
direction and amount. The dip direction is the
direction along which the inclination of the
bedding plane occurs.

Strike and Dip

 Folds

Classification and Types of Folds

Usually, folds are classified on the basis of
• Symmetrical Character
• Upward or Downward Bend
• Occurrence of Plunge
• Uniformity of Bed Thickness
• Behavior of the Fold Pattern with Depth.
Anticline and Syncline

Anticline and Syncline

Classification and Types of Folds
Plunging and Non-Plunging Folds
• The plunge of a fold has already been described
as the inclination of the fold axis to the horizontal
plane. Based on this, i.e. whether the axis of a
fold is inclined or horizontal, the folds are
grouped as plunging folds or non-plunging
folds.
• In geological maps, when strike lines are drawn
for both the limbs, for a non-plunging fold, they
will be mutually parallel and for a plunging
fold they will be either converging or diverging
but not parallel.

Classification and Types of Folds

Classification and Types of Folds

Classification and Types of Folds

Similar and Parallel Folds
• Based on whether the shape of folds remain the
same or altered with depth, folds are grouped
as similar or parallel folds. In the case of similar
folds, the shape or pattern of folds remain the
same at depths also. But in the case of parallel
folds, the crest and trough become pointed or
angular
Classification and Types of Folds

Classification and Types of Folds

• Cheveron folds: Usually the crest and troughs
of beds are smoothly curved. But some folds
have sharply bent, angular crest and
troughs, such folds are known as “ Chevron
folds”.
Classification and Types of Folds

Classification and Types of Folds

Fan Folds
• Usually in simple anticlines, the limbs dip away
from one another and in simple synclines they dip
towards each other. But in the case of fan folds,
this trend is just the opposite, i.e. in anticlines of
fan folds, the limbs dip towards each other
with reference to their axial plane. In synclines
of this kind, the limbs dip away from each
other. As the term suggests, these folds are fan
shaped.
Domes and Basins

Domes
 Geanticlines and Geosynclines

Classification and Types of Folds

Drag Folds
• These are the minor asymmetrical folds within
major folds but confined only to incompetent
beds which are sandwiched between competent
formations. These develop because of the
shearing/ dragging effect.
Mechanisms of Folding

Mechanisms of Folding
 Causes and Effects of Folding

Causes and Effects of Folding

• When a folded area is affected by weathering and
erosion, interesting topographic features are
produced as follows, immediately after folding,
anticlines by virtue of their upward bending appear
as hills and synclines due to downward warping
appear as valley. During folding in the crest
portions, the geological formation are subjected to
tensional forces and hence numerous fractures
appear there. Because of these fractures, crest
portions are eroded quickly leading to conspicuous
degradations locally.
Faults

Faults
 Magnitude of Faults
• Like folds, faults also have considerable range in their
magnitude. Some occur for short distance, while
other can be traced for very long distances. In some
cases displacement may be less than a centimeter
while in other it may be many or even kilometers.
The magnitude of faulting obviously depend on the
intensity and the nature of shearing stresses involved.

Magnitude of Faults
 Recurrence of Faulting
• Faulting occurs when shearing resistance of the
geological formation is overcome by the tectonics
forces. Occurrence of faulting is often accompanied by
earthquakes and it is an indication of subsurface
instability of the region concerned.
• Thus, faulting may be treated as an attempt to reach
stability. Because of the hard, rigid and solid nature of
the rock masses involved, this stability is not achieved in
one stroke but by repetition of the process. Thus once if
a faulting occur in a place, it shall remain active for
some time, i.e. subsequent recurring faulting takes place
there only.

Recurrence of Faulting
• This is so because this fault plane offers the
least resistance for the readjustment of the
blocks concerned and for the release of
accumulated energy in the rock. Once the
stability is attained, faulting may not recur
or, even if faulting takes place, it would be of
mild intensity. Such faults which have not
been affected in the known histgory are called
dead faults.
 Parts of a Fault
Foot Wall and Hanging Wall
• When the fault plane is inclined, the faulted
block which lies below the fault plane is called
the “foot wall” and the other block which rests
above the fault plane is called “hanging wall”.
In this case of vertical faults, naturally the
faulted blocks cannot be described as foot wall
or hanging wall.

Foot Wall and Hanging Wall

 Heave and Throw

Classification and Types of Faults

• Like folds, faults also have been classified on
the basis of different principles as
• Types of displacement along the plane.
• Relative movement of foot wall and hanging
wall.
• Types of slip involved.
• Mode of occurrence of faults
Classification and Types of Faults

Classification and Types of Faults

• If the kind of displacement of the hanging wall is
opposite to this, the fault is called Reverse faults
or thrust fault. These terms also are appropriate
because in such fault plane and, therefore the type
of displacement is the reverse of the normally
expected downward movement of the hanging
wall under such a condition.
• If the relative displacement of the hanging wall is
neither upwards nor downwards with reference to
the inclined fault plane, but sidewards, then such
faults are described as Sinstral Faults.
Strike Slip Fault

Oblique Slip Fault

Classification and Types of Faults

Classification and Types of Faults

Miscellaneous
Step Faults
• When a set of parallel normal faults occur at a
regular interval, they give a step-like
appearance and are called step faults.
Parallel Faults
• As the name indicates, these are a set of
parallel normal faults with the same strike and
dip. They are like step faults but may or may
not have a regular interval.
 Parallel Faults

Classification and Types of Faults

 Effects of Faulting
• The faulting phenomenon produces dislocation in
lithology and topography. Hence, they offer evidences
to recognize faults in the field. Proper geological
investigation followed by geological mapping
enables one to detect the occurrence of faults in any
area.
• Slickness, fault drags, brecciation, mineralization
zones, repetition and omission of strata and offsets of
beds are some of the lithological evidences of Faulting.
• Topographical evidences include various surface
features like, offset ridges, parallel deflection of
valley, reversal of drainage, straight reverse courses,
and a straight and steep coastal lines.

Effects of Faulting
 Joints

Joints
Effects of Joints
• From the civil engineering point of view, joints
are important because they split the rocks into
a number of pieces which, in turn, reduce
the competence of rock mass, increase the
porosity and permeability and make them
susceptible to quick decay and weathering.
• Joints But a few advantages that accompany
joints are; their occurrence increases the
ground water potential in any place.
 Joints
Parts of a Joint
• Joints like faults, refer to the fracture in rocks.
Hence, like faults, inclined and vertical joints
also can be described by their attitude.
• However, in joints the fracturing blocks are not
named as footwall or hanging wall.

Joints
Classification of Joints
• Classification based on the relative attitude of
joints
• When the joints are parallel to the strike and
dip of adjacent beds, they are called Strike
Joints or Dip Joints, respectively.
• If the strike direction of joints is parallel neither
to the strike nor dip direction of adjacent
beds, then such joints are called Oblique
Joints.
• If the strike direction, dip direction and dip
amount) coincides completely with the attitude of
adjacent beds, they are called bedding joints.
 Unconformities
• Unconformity is one of the common
geological structure found in rocks. It is
somewhat different from other structures like
folds, faults and joints in which the rock are
distorted, deformed or dislocated at a
particular place. Still, unconformity is a
product of diastorphism and involve
tectonic activity in the form of upliftment
and subsidence of land mass.

Unconformities
 Unconformity

Unconformity
Hiatus
• An unconformity which represent a long
geological period during which break in
sedimentation had occurred) is known as a
“hiatus”.
 Types of an Unconformity

Types of an Unconformity
Angular Unconformity
• When the younger bed and older set of
strata are not mutually parallel, then the
unconformity is called “angular
unconformity”. In such a case, beds of one set
occur with a greater tilt or folding.
 Types of an Unconformity

Types of an Unconformity
Regional and Local Unconformities
• When an unconformity extends over a larger
or over a greater area, it if called regional
unconformity. On the otherhand, if an
unconformity occur over a relatively small
area it is called local unconformity.
 References

• Engineering and General Geology : By Parbin Singh

• Textbook of Engineering Geology : N.Chenna
Kesavullu
• http://geology.com/

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Brittle Deformation