2.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Sexual reproduction in flowering plants
Sexual reproduction is a characteristic of all flowering plants
Flowers are the organs of sexual reproduction; The flower is a highly
specialized reproductive shoot; Each typical flower consists of four distinct whoris one above the
other on the top of a long or short stalk; The lower two whorls are called accessory whorls and
the upper two essential or reproductive whoris because only these are directlyconcerned in
reproduction ; the latter consist of two kinds of sporophylls which are microsporophylls or
stamens and mepasporophylis or carpels.
Sexual reproduction involves:
(a) Formation of gametes
(b) Fusion of gametes to form zygote
(c) Zygote develops into an embryo within the seed
(d) Formation of a new plant from the embryo, when the seed germinates.
Structure of flower

ETAL

CARFEL IGA
(GYNOEUMM)STYE
LoVAAY
A
(COROUA)
STAMEN
FILÀMENTANDROCUM

SEPAL CALOO
THALAMUS
academ
For Positive leaching
Aflower is unisexual when it possesses either androeium or gynoecium
Aflower is bisexual (hermaphrodite) when it possesses both the reproductive organs.
A plant with unisexual flowers may be monoecious as in cucurbits and coconuts or dioecious as
papaya, mulberry and date palm.
In monoecious plant, the male and female (staminate and pistillate respectively) flowers are four
on the same plant
In dioecious, the male and female flowers are found on different plants.
Development of Pollen grains, Pollination and male gametophyte formation
Androecium is the male reproductive part of the flower which is made of stamens.
Each stamen has afilament and bilobed anther. The proximal end of the filament is attached to
thalamus or petal of the flower.
Each anther lobe has two longitudinally running pollen chambers (dithecous) or microsporangia
containing numerous pollen grains or microspores
The four micro sporangia or pollen sacs are covered by acommon epidermis on the outside.
The microsporangial wallwhich is protective in function consists of
a) epidermis
b) Endotheicium (Fibrous) and (hygroscopic). The fibers are made up of cellulose.
13
 the partition
between two microsporangia are thin
endothelium opposite through 1which
The cells of breaks here polen grains s walled
stonmium. The anther wall
constitute the are and
from the anther
lobes.
dlscharged
c) 1-3 middle layers
Secretory Tapetum
d) Glandular or cells become e prominent and pass out
angiosperms the tapetal
In some
sporogenous cellsfor their
growth; This type is
referred to as sglandular or
secretory
breakdown early, and the contents of these cells
substtapetum.
anCes over the
tapetal cells in certain
angiosperms
providing a more efficient way of nourishing them. This type extrude The between
the young pollen grains, of
amoeboid or invasive
tapetum. tapetumis
help in dehiscence of anther
The endothecium and epidermis
tapetum are consumed by the developing pollen grains;
The contents of middle layers and
cells enlarge and become multinucleate
in a mature anther. the tapetum
The tapetum has the following functions
a) Nourishes the pollen mother cells and pollen grains.
b) Production of ubisch granules for exine formation
c) Secretion of pollen kit (pollen kit is an yellowish sticky substance helps to stick
body) in entomophilous flowers. <to the insect's
d) Secretion of special proteins for the microspores to recognize compatibilihy

Microsporogenesisis the process of formation of microspores or pollen grains from

cells or pollen mother cells (PMC) through melosis microspore mother
The microspore mother cells are derived from sporogenous tissue of the anther.
The development of microsporangia is eusporangiate type; (ie
hypodermal origin)
development from group of cellk af
Each MMC undergoes meiosis to produce four
microspores called microspore tetrad enclosed
bya wall. The four microspore tetrad are held
together due to presence of callose. In the caseof
members of cyperaceal, only only one microspore survives
cell. after division of microspore mother
As the anthers mature the microspores dissociate and
are liberated through the slits on the
anther wall(stomium). This is called Anthesis.
In Calotropis and orchids, the pollen grains of a
Pollinium. pollen sac remain united in a single mass called
Usually iin an anther lobe onlyone type microspores are
allthe five types of microspores are present. But in the case of Aristolochla
found in the same anther.

14
 a)

MicrosporogeesiA, Sueee
Sieultasruus
p in Monocety ledanss jnta, 3.
tye in Dieutyledonsu plata

Corpusculum
Caudicie

Polliniun.

lemy
TITRAHrDHALs8GaTLATgRAL DtCussATE LINEAt

Dilleret Lypes of nicrospore tetrads. Pair oflotinia

in Calotropis e leaching
Pollen grain: (PG) are haploid and represent the first cellof the male gametophyte.
The wallof PG is made of outer exine which is tough cuticularised and made up of
sporopollenin.
Insect pollinated pollen grains, the exine is covered with a yellowish víscous and sticky substance
called pollen kit, which enable the pollen grain to stick to the body of insects and thus help in
pollination.
Due to the presence of highly resistant sporopollenin (resist high temperature, strong acids and
alkalies and enzyme action) the pollen grains are commonly preserved structures even becoming
fossilised.
The exine also possesses proteins for enzymatic and compatibility reactions.
At certain places the exine is very thin or absent and these regions are called germ pores.
There are 3 germ pores in dicots (Unicolpate) and one in monocots (multicolpate) The pollen
tube emerges through these (unicolpate) germ pores during pollen germination.
The Inner wallof PG 0s Intine which is thin, made of Pectinand Cellulose (Pectocelluse)
At the time of pollen germination the intine emerges only through the germ pore and grows into
a slender pollen tube.
The nucleus of the mature pollen grain divide mitotically to produce two cells.
A mature pollen grain contain two cells.
 generative cell
vegetative cell and (b) the reserve with
a) The with abundant food alarge
The vegetative cell is bigger
irregularly
and floats in the cytoplasm
percent ofcell
60generative
InThe
spindle shaped of the
is small, pollen grains are shed at this two celled stage.
angiosperms, shaped nNuceur
remaining species the generative cell
divide mitotically to produce two vegetatve cell
In the celled stage. male
grains are shed at 3-
Pollen pollen
hence viability depends on the prevailing temperature and humidity. gametes,
Wheat lose their viability within 30 minutes of
Pollen grains of Rice and (their shedding
anther.
members of family Rosacease, Leguminosae and
from
Pollen grains of some
viable for many months.
Solanaceae remains
liquidI nitrogen
Pollen grains can be stored for years in (-196°C) as pollen
breeding programmes.
banks for future
croo
Pollen grains of carrot grass (Parthenium weed) cause severe allergies, asthma
Pollen grains are rich in nutrients, the pollen products in the form of tablets andand bronchi
as food supplement in western countries. They are given to racehorses and syrups
improving their performance. athletes are used
for

WInt ademy
Ostve lcaching"
a) Transverse section of a young anthers; b) Enlargedview of one
layers; c) Amature dehisced anther microsporangium showing wa

16
 Microspore Miarospore Cel
Nudeus
Nudeus
Exine Indne

D
C Generatve
A
Cell

G
Generatve FDMdng
Generatve Celt
Male
Gametes
Cell

Pollen Tube

A-D Structurs of pollen graln

and
-IGeralation of poilen graln
growth of pollen tube

Structure of mature Pollen grain

Exdne

W
Germ Pore

Intine
lemy
Surface view Sectional view

transfer of pollen grains from anther and

their deposition on to
b) Pollination refers to the process of
the stigmatic surface of the flower. male and temate
requisite for ensuring seed set and perpetuation of plants As the
Pollination is a pre pollination
pollen tube and embryosac respectively;
gametes are non- motile, which are produced in
together for fertilization.
ensures that the gametes are brought

17
 Types of Polination

Cross Pollination
Autugamy
Selt pollination or Xenogamy or Allogamy
fro the
analer of pollen
Hower] a Pea
stigne afsane

n bexal foweers Geitonogamy

Transfer of pollen from Transfer of pollen from
asther of a flower to the anther of a flower to
stigma of another flower stigma of another on
plant. another
from the same plant

Pollination through

Abiotie agencies Biotic agencies

[roophily]

Wind Water
(Anemophily) (Hydrophily)

Ants nsects Birds Bats Snalls

Myrmecophity) (Extomophily) (Ornithophily) (Chiropterophily) (Malacophily)

Contrivances for self polination

a) Homogamy: Both sex organs mature at the same time.
eg Mirabilis, Potato, Sunflower
The sex organs are brought together by the growth,
organs.
bending or folding of either of the sex
(b) Cleistogamy: The bisexual flowers do not
open (Cleistogamous), hence self pollination
and assured seed set ocCurs. is assured
e.g.Oxails, Commelina and Viola (Pansy). These plants also produce
which are of normal type. Chasmogamous flower,
(c) Bud Pollination: Pollination
occur in
Geitonogamy is functionally cross pollination the bud stage itself eg. Pea, Rice,
but genetically a kind of self Wheat
make up of the progeny does pollination as the gametic
not vary from the parent.
Merits of self pollinations
1) Maintanance of
2) Need to purity of the race
produce
3) Flowers need few pollen grains only
not possess
4) Seed set is attractive devices such as
assured even in the
absence of pollinatingodour, nectar to attract pollinators.
Demerits: agents.
1) Decreases
2) No new the immunity to diseases
3) Decreasescharacters could be observed
4) Loss of the adaptability to the in the
progeny
vigour and vitality changed
of the
progeny environment
Allogamy or Xenogamy - Agents of pollination

a) Anemophily - wind pollination

(1) Flowers are small, inconspicuous odourless, nectarless unisexual or bisexual with versatile
anthers and feathery stigma
(2) Copious production of pollen grains which are light, smooth and unwettable
e.g Coconut Palm, Date palm, Maize, sugarcane, Cereals, Millets

b) Hydrophily - Water pollination

() Hypohydrophily: Pollination under the water; pollinating agent - Water
Eg: Zostera marina, Ceretophyllum
(i1) Epihydrophily -Pollination at the level of water - eg. Vallisneria

c) Entomophily: Pollination by insects - Pollinating agents are bees, butterflies, moths, wasps etc
The flowers produce copious nectar and pollen grains which form food for the polinator
The flowers are colourful, emit pleasant odour to attract pollinators
Pollen grains are rough with sticky surface due to pollen kit
Summary of typical differences between wind-pollinated and insect-pollinated fiowers
Typical wind- pollinated flower Typical insect-pollinated flower
Small petals not brightly coloured (usually Large coloured petals; flwers therefore
green) or petals absent; flowers therefore conspicuous. If flowers relatively
inconspicuous inconspicuous they may be gathered
together in inflorescences
Not scented
Scented
Nectaries absent
Nectaries present
Large branched and feathery stigma hanging Small stigma, sticky to hold pollen and
outside flower to trap pollen enclosed within flower
Stamens hanging outside flower to release Stamens enclosed within flower
pollen
Anthers attached only at midpoints to tip
filament so that they swing freely in air of Less pollen produced
Currents
Large quantities of pollen owing to
high Pollen grains relatively heavy and large. Spiny
wastage
walls and stickiness help attachment to
Pollen grains relatively light and insect body
often smooth walled. small; dry Pollen grains relatively heavy and large.
walls and stickiness help attachment to Spiny
Flower structure relatively insect body
simple Complex structural modifications for
Flowers borne well above particular insects often occur
foliage on long
stalks (eg. Grasses) or appear Position and time of appearance
before leaves variable in
relation to foliage, though often borne
it for increased above
conspicuousness
 Controlled polination:(Artificial hybridization)-It is atype of cross pollination done by r plant breeter
programmes.
improvement

for crop
in such programmes, desired pollen grains are transferred to the stigma and the latter is protected
from contamination
emasculation and bagging
invoved are
The techniques

bisexual flowers
by reemoval of anthers before it
Rrains. The stigma
Emasculation
out ony in
is of the emaStulated flowers are dusted
carried sheds
with desired pollen grains from the
the male
polen
grotected by covening it with
a suitable polythene bag (bagging)
parent and breeding devices:
pollination or out
Contrivances for eres are
the adaptations observed
cress polination
To ensure (unisexuality):Polination of unisexual flowers
a) Diciny :
the bisexual flower mature at different
b) Dichogamy: Anthers and stigma of
Protandry-Anthers mature before stigma and shed pollen grains
Salvia
Eg Cotton, suntiower,
Protogyy: Stigma mature,
earlier
Eg: Goricse, Mirabilis
c) Pollen Pregctency: Quicker germination of pollen grains on the stigma from another flower eg
Pear Accie
d Setf sterility: Falure of germination or incomplete development of pollen tube of pollen when t
fals on stEmEof same flower.
Eg Patato, Mustard
e Heterosty: Style and stamens differ in their lengths to ensure cross pollination.
Eamgie-Primrose
f Herkogamy: Mechanical devices in the flower preventing self pollination
Eg Aristolochia, have pit fall. Protogynous flowers trap flies and the files could come out only
when the anthers mature and shed pollen grains on these flies.VeieCNH
in Pansy anthers are exposed, while stigma is enclosed in a flap

Cared Ste
Stimga
Anthers

Anthers

Aathar

Ather
Lobes Pollen grains
Corols Sticking To Hslr
Tube
Sele
Sepal

bct
Onde
 stamens, B, in flower
tuberOsum the stigma bent over the
Modes of self Pollination. In Solanum tOS8-sinensis the
the anthers bent over the stigrma: C Din the flowers of Hibiscus
Mirabilis jalapa Heiianthes annus the
against the anther lobes to receive pollen :E G, in flower of
stigmabrushes stigmatic surface and
etiomatic lobes curl backward to receive
thepollen sticking to hair on the outer
the style.

Flmen

pollination in Salvia by insects

Entomophily, An interesting type of cross-
(Lever Mechanism)

An

WIE ademy
stvelechim
Corolla

by fong beaked birds (ornithophily)

Zoophily. Many flowers are pollinated

21
 Male Pistillate
Flower Flowers

Water
Level

Stamínate
Flowers

Hydrophily, Pollination by water in Vallisneria

Chasmogamous flowers

Cleistogamous flower
(under-ground)
Homogamy- Cleistogamy in Commelina benghalensis
Importance of cross pollination
(0) Overcomes self sterility and pollen prepotency
cadem
For Positive Teachn
(i) Yield is always high
(ii) Results in variation due to genetic recombination
(iv) Offsprings show hybrid vigour or heterosis
(v) The offsprings have increased resistance to pathogens and adverse
environmental conditons
Pollen Pistl interaction
Germination of pollen grains on the stigma is connected with compatibility -
reaction between the proteins present on the pollen wall Incompatibility
Only compatible pollen germinates and the and stigmatic surtace.
Self incompatibility is controlled by the pollen tube grows through the style.
(S- allele, S,, S,Ss, S;). 'S gene with multiple alleles
The pollen carrying S or S,
Self incompatibility is allele is compatible on the stigma with S or S; allele
of two types
1. Sporophytic incompatibility
2. (due to
Gametophytic incompatibility (due togenotype of sporophytictissues)
genotype of polen)

22
 gametophyte
Development of the female
megaporogenesis and megagametogensis)
(Structure of ovule, made of Carpels.
reproductive structure is Gynoecium which is disc called
The female (stalk) and terminal receptive
typical Carpel/Pistil has basal swollen ovary, style
A
Stigma.
megasporangiaare found inside the ovary
The ovules or funículus.
body and stalk called
Each ovule consists of a parenchymatous nucellus with one or two
integuments.
has a central
The body of the ovule micropyle region.
integuments surround the nucellus all around except at the
The integuments arise.
ovule from where the
Chalaza is the basal region of the

Types of Ovules
Types of Megnsporangla/Ovule
Micropyle
Mioropyle Chalezs
Integumernts
Nucellus
Secondar.
Chaluza
Funldlpy or Fusion Embryosac
Hlum Nucleus Antípodal
A Chalara Enbryosc
cells

raalaza
Mloropyle HIum Chalaza
Hilum
anstropous -Funcile
Types of ovules. A orthotropousy B.
Chemttropous D. mphltropous

V.S. ovule showing its structure just before

CL
fertilization.

For Positive Teaching

emy
Carpels

Hilua

Punicle
Stigma -Micropyle
Mieropylar pole
Outer ntepiment
Inner integument
Nicellus
Embryyo at

-chaloza
michalla-apocarpores anatropores ovule
Papaver
syncarpores ovary ovary Section

23
 fhom the placenta in thelocule of the ovary
o e arses
as
aprimorium

grews oUt
and differentiates into nucellus
The
arise which Srow and surround the
smeristematic

primcerdum
nteguments
The nuceus
fronthe
ase of
miciogye

e g a s a o r a g e n e s s
erentate from sporogenous cell.
mthe megaspore tetrad
Megzsooe troeenear

Theiemst
esmmgasethe
etly chalazal end)inthe: tetrad differentiates into the female
MMC

Polygonum type
lonesoicor
ceveicon
The

Fenale gamepyte AFdevelopment of the embryo sac.

erae gamtpytel cf normal type (Polygonum type)
academ
P Matesxan (1951) dlassified the female gametophyte into (a) monosporic b) bisporic c
tarapric type bzsed on the number of megaspores involved in the development

8Pohygonum
Monospoc
type
Oenctiera

ARm

Blsporic
type
8Endymicon

Tetrasportk
bpe

24
 (fermale gaetophyte)
Different types of development of Embeyo sac
A-C-megasporogenesis
D-E-mega gametogenesis

Megagametogenesis:

af the female gametophyte

The functional megaspare is the frst cell form an8 nucieate
by three suceessive mitotic dvisions to
The nucleus of the megaspore divides
emoryo sc. and tWo
the micropylat end as egz apparatus (one eg
Ofthe eight nuclei, three get organized at
lateral synergids).
becomes antipodals.
Three nuclei at the chalazal region
remain as polar nuclei
Two nuclei at the centre fertilization) is 8
hence a mature embryo sac{at the time of
The embryo sac is called central cell,
nuclei and 7 celled structure.
diploid secondary nucleus
The polar nuclei eventually fuse to form a

Fertilization nutrients such as

surface in the presence of moisture and
Pollen grains germinate on the stigmatic
-inositol complex
sugars, organic acids, calcium, boron
emerges from the polen, grows through the style,
Ashort cytoplasmicoutgrowth, the germ tube called Siphencxamy
chemotropically to reach the ovary the phenomenon is
Germinating
Pollen

Syie
Plien Tube
Atipoctal
Cels
cademy
Positne leachang
Secondary
Nucleus

(9 gamete)

Syeergjids

Fertilization. Porogamy as seen in V.S. of carpel

The content of the pollen grain move into the pollen tube.
the generativecell{or two male
The vegetative nucleus moves to the tip of the tube followed by
gametes if already formed). The male gametes are retained at the tip
of pollen tube due to
development of callose plugs.
(Porogamy), Chalaza (Chalazogamy)
Ihe pollen tube enters the ovule either through the micropyle
gametes nucle.
or the integuments(Mesogamy) and discharges the male
2ygote. The fusion of male an female
One of the male gametes fuses with the egg to produce 2n
25
 this process was
fertilization;
first
bydiscovers STRASBURGER
ametesis caled secondary nucleus.
The second male
amete fuses with 2n producing triploid (3n)(1884)in
also referred as vegetative fertilization
Endesem Nucleus)
(trole fusion). This is PEN plants
angisms trple usion
and double
fertilization is observed,
the whole Thus (onyin
Prirnary
fertization invoing
formation
fature of angierms This was
of zygote and PEN
tirst observed by
is called
NAWASCHIN
double fertilization.
(1898)
phenomenon
Which of
in FRITILLARIA isa
Nomalogus el=Megasporophyll
uniOue
and LlLlM
ule =Negaporangium
Embnyost=female gametophyte
E= female gamete
Stamen =Microsporophyll
Anther [pollensac) = Microsporangium.
Poen=Microsoore

Chaast ketpoc
Fusng Saary Antipodaie
NLeus ad Second
Secaay Gàmae

Primary
F eG s Endospem
Nucieus SN)
Fusing Mae and
Female Garnates
(Syngamy) Zygote
(2N)

Cotyledons
integumenta

demy
Axitmbryso PuTe
EndosbemE
Youns
Hypocotyie
Radica
Enyyc
hsitive Teaching"
Remainct
Suspensor

Fertilization and post- fertilization changes. A, two male

syngamy anddouble fertilization: C, formation of zygote gametes discharged in the embryo sac, B,
post fertilization changes. (2n) and primary endosperm nucleus (3n); D-t

Post Fertilization Events

After fertilization, sepals and petals,
Persistent calyx in tomato, brinjal,stamens, style and stigma fal oft.
Nucellus, if persistent in mature Physalis.
(n) Zygote develops into an seed is called perisperm, e.g black pepper, beet
(i) PEN develops into embryo.
(iv) endosperm.
Ovule and integuments
(v) Ovary develops into a fruitbecome its seed and seed coats respectively (Test a and Tegmen)
(vi) Ovary wall forms the fruit
(vii) Synergids and antipodals wall-Pericarp
degenerate.
 development
begins just before the embryo It nourishes the
Endosperm formation PEN by repeated mitotic divisions.
develops from the
Endosperm is triploid future seedling
embryo; it is a store house of food for helobial
nuclear (B) cellular (C)
developing
endosperms are: (A)
Three types of

A. Nuclear type
repeated divisions
Nucleus undergoes
(i) towards the periphery.
Nuclei are arranged
(i) formed
(iii) Acentralvacuole is towards centre, making it
cellular at maturity.
begin from periphery
Cytokinesis may Wheat
(iv) endosperm) Maize, Rice,
Eg. Coconut, (Liquid

Vacuae

B. Cellular type cellular from the

nuclear division is followed by cytokinesis, hence
(i) Every
beginning
eg. Petunia, Balsam
hence
endosperm is consumed by the embryo,
In Pea, bean and sunflower the
seeds are exendospermous or
endosperm enlarges, becoming
exalbuminous. In cereals and
bigger than
coconut,
embryo, hence seeds are albuminous my
or endospermous. For Positive Ieaohmg

C. Helobial type
(0) First mitotic division is followed by cytokinesis.
(1) Two unequal cells are formed
Subsequent division are free nuclear and found only in
the larger cel.
(ii)
(iv) Subsequently it becomes cellular.

27
 Development of Embryo

Hautoa

Dermatoge
Suspenso

Cottedon

Development of dikot embrya

Ver

(Cerwatives)
Termunal

(Quadrart Stage)
Vecar Cet

Pumue
Cotyedon
Scutetn

Dtyelopment of Morngcut Embryo adem

tive Teaching
Development of Dicot Ermrbryo Development of Monocot
Embryo
Zygote divides transversely, forming (6) Zygote divides transversely
a) Hypobasal cell(basal cell) forming the terminal cell and
b) Epibasal cell (terrminal cel) basal cell
(i1) Reapeated transverse divisíon, in epibasal (ii) The basal cell enlarges, becomes
cell produce a row of 4-8 cells vesicular cell
(i1) The terrminal cell of the row becomes the
(ii) Terminal celldivides and produces the
Pro embryo
(iv) single cotyledon
The hypobasal cell and remaining cells
(iv) Cells derived from the basal cell
becorme the suspensor differentiate into plumule and radi cal
(v) The region of Proembryo near the whicn s
(v) Embryohas a single cotyledon
SUspensor differentiate ínto hypocotyls andlateral in
radicle position

28
 radicle and
axis has the
are
cotyledons (vi) The embryonal Coleorhiza
and two cap enclosed in
Epicotyl, plumule of the root
(vi) terminal portion
derived from the an
embryo has
Proembryo. Typical big
has short apex and
cotyledons
embryonal axis and two (vii) The epicotys
embryonal axis Coleophile
region of primordial enclosed in
(vi)
The epicotyl plumule or stem
típ
terminates with
end as
hyp0cotyl region at the lower
(vii)
The
radicle
root tip or tip.
cOvers the root
cap
(ix) Root

Development of Seed
fertilization
of
Seed is the
final producttransformed into the seed. and inner- Tegmen
The ovule is become the seed
coats (outer -Testa
(0) integuments
The outer and inner
(i) theembryo. seed.
that protects funiculus to the
of attachment of cotyledon or with two
Hilum is the region coats, and embryo with single
(i) 1 or 2 seed
Aseed consists of axis nourish the seedlings
(iv) cotyledons and
embryo
enough food reserve to
with
Endospermousseeds
have endosperm
of
(v) become
independent
perisperm whích is the remants
unitl they beet possess
seeds such as black pepper and
Some enter a
(vi) and the seeds may
persistent nucellus
metabolic activities slow down
matures, the
general
As the seeds period of viability
(vii) called dormancy
produce seedling, the
state of inactívity germinate to
ability of seed to hundreds of years
(vii) Seed viability is the plants seeds remaín alive for estimated
species in some
and flowered after an
differs in different germinated years
that of Lupinus arcticus, which retain viability for about 2000
The oldest is dactylifera
dormancy; Phoenix
of the confirmatory
test is
record of 10,000 years its respiration and germinations. TZ
Viability of seeds íis tested by
(ix) viability of seeds
test to determine the

Significance of Seed Formation agriculture.

(6) Seed is the basis of our
throughout the year
(ii) They are used as food be
crop in the next season recombined progeny can
(iiü) They help to raise new reproduction, hence new and
sexual
(iv) Seeds are the product of through
adapted for dispersal
obtained. habitats; they are
Seeds help the species
to colonize in new
() and birds-eg:
different agents.
of tinyseeds for easy dispersel by wind
large number
(vi) Some fruits bear a very orchids and Ficus.
plantslike
Orobanchaand striga and
Parasitic plants

29
 Satrtum

LStGstur sed Craiecptie

LS Dicot Emtyo

Epb

Radde
Co
Cokortura
LS Manat ond/trt
LS o Monocot Embrro

Fruit formation
The ovary becomes the fruit due to the stimulus of pollination and
The ovary wallbecomes the Pericarp ( in some it is edible). fertilization.
(True fruit).
Due to the stimulus even the thalamus in plants like apple andd
edible (false fruits). strawberry proliferate and
Fruit formation is stimulated due to auxin synthesis as the pollen tube become
discharges auxin along with the male gametes. grows through the
The fertilized ovule also produces various growth
style and
hormones to promote fruit formation
ESbe
Thalaus Ebie

lemy
Thoiaus

Rchene
(one

Endocarp
Seeded
frit)
e Teaching
Appie
Nesccarp + Epicarp
Srawbary
false fruits (edible portion is not
developed from ovary; It is the thalamus)
Parthenocarpy
Refers to production of fruits without
() Genetic seeds (Nitsch, 1965).3 types of
Parthenocarpy - due to genetic
eg. Novel orange, Banana,
parthenocarpY are
modification/ alteration caused
Pineapple, Grape. by mutation or hybridization
(ü) Environmental
Parthenocarpy: Induction of
Eg. Pea, Capsicum.
(in)
parthenocarpy due to low temperature, fog andfrost.
Chemically induced Parthenocarpy:
Cucurbits, Strawberry. Induction of parthenocarpy fruit by spraying eg Tomato,
 Anucr

Sugma
-Flament

Style
--Microspnrangun
Megaspore
mother cell

Ovary
Microspore
Megasporangiun
(ovulc)

SPOROPHYTIC GAMETOPHYTIC
Sporophyte (2n) (n)
GENERATION GENERATION

Mlcrospore
fpollen graln)
Enbryo

Male
gametophyte
Zyyote Egg Ganetes

LIfc cycle of an anglospern

Special modes of
Reproduction
0ners acaciem
Polyembryony] without the
[Apoximis, Partheno genesis, including seed formation by asexual methods
individuals
Apomixis is the formation of new apomicticseeds are genetically alike.
(clones):
gametes); the progeny of
fusion of gametes (no fusion of employed for formation of seeds without
fertilization.
Agamospermy the
is alternative term

Types of Apomixis: diploid cell of nucellus or

agamospernmy or sporophytic budding : In this type the
a) Adventive eg: Mango orange
integuments develop directly into an embryo: directly from
Apospory - the diploid egg is developed in the diploid embryo sac formed
b)
nucellular cell eg: Heiracium, Parthenium unreduced embryo sac
Diplospory:embryo develops from the unfertilized diploid egg cell of an
C)
developing directly from a megaspore mother cell
Eg: Apple, Rubus

31
 unfertilized egp
Parthenogenesis - development
Eg.
of embryo from an
Taraxacum, Erigeron
Parthenogenesis Sis a
rare
angiosperms.
phenomenon in

Parthenogenesis

Haploid Parthenogenesis Diploid Parthenogenesis

[embryo is formed Diploid egg from an
Haploid embryo is sterile
without fertilization due to
disintegration of embryosac developsunreduced
into an
tube into embryo
male nuclei, late arrival of pollen
the embryo sac, inability of the pollen
tube to discharge the contents
Polyembryony refers to the presence of more than one embryo in
the sepd
The embryos may arise due to
(0) presence of more than one embryo sac in an ovule (single polyembryonv)
(i) more than one egg in the embryo sac (all getting fertilized)
development of embryos from adjacent cells offtthe embryo sac
(ii) (adventives polyembryony)
eg. Citrus, Mango ie. from nucuellus,integuments, or due to entry of more than
tube (mixed polyembryony)which is very common in Conifers. one pollen
(iv) In Orchids cleavage Polyembryonyis observed ie. the splitting of one embryo into
more embryos. two or

winners Foracademy
Positive Teaching

32