Physical Layer (Layer 1) – Simplified Explanation
What it does:
● It’s the layer that actually sends and receives raw bits (0s and 1s) over a physical
medium like cables, fiber, or air.
● Think of it as the “plumbing” of a network — it doesn’t care about who the data is for,
it just moves the bits.
Key functions:
1. Transmitting bits – turns 0s and 1s into electrical, light, or radio signals.
2. Receiving bits – converts incoming signals back into 0s and 1s.
3. Encoding & modulation – decides how the 0s and 1s are represented physically.
4. Physical connections – defines cables, plugs, connectors, and sockets.
5. Timing & synchronization – ensures sender and receiver are “in sync” to read the bits
correctly.
Common physical media:
● Copper cables (UTP, twisted pair) – e.g., Ethernet cables.
● Coaxial cables – older networks and cable TV.
● Fiber optic cables – very fast, long-distance networks.
● Wireless (Wi-Fi, Bluetooth) – uses radio waves.
Example in real life:
When you plug your computer into a switch with an Ethernet cable:
1. Your computer converts the data into electrical signals.
2. The signals travel through the cable.
3. The switch receives the signals and converts them back to bits for Layer 2 to handle.
Data Link Layer (Layer 2) – Simplified Explanation
What it does:
● Layer 2 takes the raw bits from Layer 1 and organizes them into frames (chunks of data
with extra info).
● It ensures that data can move reliably from one device to another on the same
network.
● Think of it as “Layer 1 + addressing and error checking”.
Key functions
1. Framing – Breaks raw bits into frames so the receiver knows where data starts and
ends.
2. MAC addressing – Adds physical addresses (MAC addresses) so devices on the
same network can identify each other.
3. Error detection – Uses checksums or CRC to detect if a frame got corrupted.
4. Flow control – Prevents fast senders from overwhelming slow receivers.
5. Media access control – Decides who can send data and when on shared networks
(e.g., Ethernet using CSMA/CD).
Devices at this layer
● Switches – forward frames based on MAC addresses.
● Bridges – connect two networks and filter traffic based on MAC addresses.
● NICs – the MAC portion of your network card works here.
Example in real life
1. Your computer wants to send data to another device on the same LAN.
2. Layer 2 wraps the data in a frame with source and destination MAC addresses and a
CRC for error detection.
3. The frame is sent over Layer 1 (bits on the cable).
4. The switch receives the frame, checks the MAC address, and forwards it to the correct
port.
5. The receiving device checks the frame for errors before passing it to Layer 3.
Network Layer (Layer 3) – Simplified Explanation
What it does:
● Layer 3 decides how data moves from one device to another across different
networks.
● Think of it as the “postal system” of networks — it figures out the best route for your
data to reach its destination.
Key functions
1. Logical addressing – Adds IP addresses (or other logical addresses) to each packet
so devices on different networks can be identified.
2. Routing – Determines the best path for data to travel across networks (routers operate
here).
3. Packet forwarding – Moves packets from one network to another until they reach their
destination.
4. Fragmentation & reassembly – Breaks large packets into smaller pieces if the network
cannot handle big sizes, then reassembles them at the destination.
5. Error handling & diagnostics (optional) – Provides feedback like “destination
unreachable” (ICMP).
Devices at this layer
● Routers – forward packets between networks using IP addresses.
● Layer 3 switches – can also route packets based on IP.
Protocols
● IPv4 / IPv6 – main logical addressing protocols.
● ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) – for diagnostics (ping, traceroute).
● IGMP – for multicast traffic.
● Routing protocols – OSPF, RIP, BGP, EIGRP (help routers learn best paths).
Example in real life
1. Your computer wants to send data to a website across the Internet.
2. Layer 3 wraps the data in a packet, adding source and destination IP addresses.
3. Your packet goes to the router, which checks the destination IP and decides the next
hop.
4. The packet travels across multiple networks until it reaches the destination router.
5. The destination device receives the packet and hands it to Layer 4.
Transport Layer (Layer 4) – Simplified Explanation
What it does:
● Layer 4 makes sure that data is delivered reliably (or not, if you choose) from one
application on a device to an application on another device.
● Think of it as the “delivery service” for applications: it handles splitting data, delivering
it in order, and checking for errors.
Key functions
1. Segmentation & reassembly – Breaks large messages from applications into smaller
segments and reassembles them at the destination.
2. End-to-end communication – Connects a process (application) on one device to a
process on another device.
3. Flow control – Prevents the sender from overwhelming the receiver (slows down
transmission if needed).
4. Error detection & correction – Ensures data integrity; retransmits lost or corrupted
segments.
5. Multiplexing – Multiple applications can use the network at the same time (uses ports
to differentiate apps).
Devices at this layer
● Usually handled by host computers (not network devices).
● Routers do not operate at Layer 4; this is purely end-to-end.
Protocols
1. TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) –
○ Reliable, connection-oriented.
○ Guarantees delivery, ordering, and error correction.
○ Example: Web (HTTP/HTTPS), Email (SMTP/IMAP).
2. UDP (User Datagram Protocol) –
○ Unreliable, connectionless.
○ No guarantee of delivery or order.
○ Faster, used when speed is more important than reliability.
○ Example: Streaming, DNS, VoIP.
3. Other protocols: SCTP, DCCP (less common).
Port
● Transport Layer uses port numbers to know which application should receive data.
● Examples:
○ HTTP → TCP port 80
○ HTTPS → TCP port 443
○ DNS → UDP port 53
Example in real life
1. You open a website. Your browser wants to send a request.
2. Layer 4 (TCP) breaks your data into segments, adds source and destination port
numbers.
3. TCP ensures all segments arrive in order and retransmits if any are lost.
4. The server reassembles the segments and passes them to the web application.
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
What it does:
● TCP is reliable and connection-oriented.
● Before sending data, it establishes a connection between sender and receiver (like a
phone call).
● It ensures that data is delivered in order, without loss or duplication.
Key features:
1. Connection-oriented – needs a handshake (3-way handshake) before data transfer.
2. Reliable delivery – retransmits lost packets.
3. Ordered delivery – data arrives in the same sequence as sent.
4. Error detection – checks for corrupted segments.
5. Flow control – prevents sender from overwhelming receiver.
6. Congestion control – slows down if the network is busy.
Uses (when reliability is important):
● Web browsing (HTTP/HTTPS)
● Emails (SMTP, IMAP, POP3)
● File transfer (FTP, SFTP)
● Remote login (SSH, Telnet)
UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
What it does:
● UDP is faster but unreliable and connectionless.
● It just sends data without checking if the receiver got it (like sending a letter without
tracking).
● No guarantee of delivery, order, or duplication-free communication.
Key features:
1. Connectionless – no handshake, just send data.
2. Unreliable – if a packet is lost, it’s gone.
3. No ordering – packets may arrive out of order.
4. Lightweight – minimal overhead, very fast.
5. Uses ports to identify applications, like TCP.
Uses (when speed matters more than reliability):
● Live streaming (YouTube, Netflix)
● Online gaming
● Video calls (Zoom, Skype)
● DNS queries (fast lookup, small data)
Session Layer (Layer 5) – Simplified Explanation
What it does:
● The Session Layer manages connections between applications on different devices.
● Think of it as the “conversation manager” — it makes sure two apps can start,
maintain, and end a conversation properly.
Key functions
1. Session establishment – Sets up a connection (session) between two applications.
2. Session maintenance – Keeps the session alive, coordinates data exchange, handles
checkpoints.
3. Session termination – Properly ends the session so resources are released.
4. Synchronization / checkpoints – Allows resuming a session from a certain point if
something goes wrong.
Devices at this layer
● Handled mostly by software (applications, operating systems).
● Not typically a network device function like routers or switches.
Protocols / Examples
● NetBIOS – Network communication for Windows file sharing.
● RPC (Remote Procedure Call) – Lets one program call functions on another machine.
● SMPP, SAP, PPTP – session-related protocols for messaging or VPN.
● SSL/TLS (sometimes considered here) – establishes secure sessions for HTTPS.
Example in real life
1. You open a video call app. The app sets up a session with the other participant.
2. During the call, the session layer ensures data flows in order and the session stays
active.
3. If the call drops, session checkpoints may allow resuming instead of starting from
scratch.
4. When you hang up, the session is closed properly.
Presentation Layer (Layer 6) – Simplified Explanation
What it does:
● The Presentation Layer makes sure the data sent from one application can be
understood by another application, even if they use different formats.
● Think of it as the “translator and formatter” of the network.
Key functions
1. Data translation – Converts data from one format to another (e.g., ASCII ↔ EBCDIC,
little-endian ↔ big-endian).
2. Data encryption/decryption – Secures data for transmission (e.g., SSL/TLS
encryption).
3. Data compression/decompression – Reduces size of data for faster transmission.
4. Data serialization – Converts structured data (like objects or images) into a format that
can be transmitted over the network.
Devices at this layer
● Mainly handled by software on computers or applications.
● Not physical devices — it’s part of application and OS functionality.
Protocols / Examples
● SSL/TLS – encrypts web traffic (HTTPS).
● JPEG, GIF, PNG – image formats handled here for proper encoding/decoding.
● MPEG, MP3 – audio/video compression formats.
● ASCII / EBCDIC conversion – text encoding.
● MIME – email content formatting.
Example in real life
1. You send an image via email.
Presentation Layer converts the image into a standard format (e.g., JPEG →
MIME-encoded bytes).
2. If the email is encrypted, it encrypts the data for safe transmission.
3. On the receiver’s side, it decrypts and converts it back so the application can display it
correctly.
Application Layer (Layer 7) – Simplified Explanation
What it does:
● The Application Layer is the closest layer to the user. It allows applications to
communicate over the network.
● Think of it as the “interface between the user and the network” — this is where your
programs actually use the network.
Key functions
1. Network services to applications – Lets apps send/receive data over the network.
2. Resource sharing – Access files, emails, printers, or databases over the network.
3. Remote access & communication – Supports services like web browsing, email, chat,
and file transfer.
4. Data representation support – Works with lower layers to ensure data is formatted and
delivered properly.
Devices at this layer
● Mainly software applications on computers, servers, or mobile devices.
● Example: web browsers, email clients, chat apps, FTP clients.
Protocols / Examples
● HTTP / HTTPS – Web browsing
● FTP / SFTP – File transfer
● SMTP / IMAP / POP3 – Email
● DNS – Domain name resolution
● Telnet / SSH – Remote login
● SNMP – Network management
Example in real life
1. You open your browser and type a website URL.
2. Application Layer uses HTTP/HTTPS to request the page.
3. Data is passed down the layers, sent across the network, and comes back up.
4. The browser displays the webpage to you
1. Repeater
● Layer: Physical Layer (Layer 1).
● What it does:
○ Regenerates/boosts signals to extend the distance a network can cover.
○ Doesn’t look at addresses, just copies bits.
● Analogy: Like a microphone amplifier — it just makes the signal louder.
● Use case: Extending Ethernet or Wi-Fi range.
2. Hub
● Layer: Physical Layer (Layer 1).
● What it does:
○ A multi-port repeater.
○ Sends data from one port to all other ports, whether they need it or not.
○ No intelligence; causes network collisions.
● Analogy: Like shouting in a room — everyone hears, even if it was meant for one
person.
● Use case: Old networks (mostly replaced by switches).
3. Bridge
● Layer: Data Link Layer (Layer 2).
● What it does:
○ Connects two LAN segments.
○ Filters traffic by checking MAC addresses.
○ Reduces unnecessary traffic between network parts.
● Analogy: Like a security guard at a doorway — only lets the right people pass.
● Use case: To divide a large LAN into smaller parts.
4. Switch
● Layer: Data Link Layer (Layer 2) (some operate at Layer 3).
● What it does:
○ Forwards frames intelligently using MAC address table.
○ Sends data only to the device that needs it, not to everyone.
○ Reduces collisions → each port is its own collision domain.
● Analogy: Like a post office clerk — delivers mail only to the correct mailbox.
● Use case: Most common LAN device today.
5. Router
● Layer: Network Layer (Layer 3).
● What it does:
○ Forwards packets between different networks using IP addresses.
○ Decides the best route to reach a destination.
● Analogy: Like Google Maps — finds the best path for your data to travel.
● Use case: Connecting your home network to the internet.
6. Gateway
● Layer: Works on all layers (mostly Application Layer).
● What it does:
○ Connects two networks that use different protocols.
○ Performs protocol conversion (e.g., IP ↔ VoIP, Email ↔ SMS).
● Analogy: Like a translator between two people who speak different languages.
● Use case: Email gateway, VoIP gateway.
7. Modem (Modulator–Demodulator)
● Layer: Physical Layer (but works with higher layers too).
● What it does:
○ Converts digital signals from your computer into analog signals for telephone
lines, and vice versa.
● Analogy: Like converting text into Morse code and back.
● Use case: DSL, cable internet.
TCP/IP Model Layers
1. Application Layer
● What it does:
○ This is where user-level applications and protocols work.
○ Provides services like web browsing, email, file transfer, streaming, etc.
○ Includes everything from OSI’s Application + Presentation + Session layers.
● Data unit: Message
● Protocols:
○ HTTP/HTTPS → web browsing
○ SMTP, IMAP, POP3 → email
○ FTP, SFTP → file transfer
○ DNS → domain name lookup
○ SSH, Telnet → remote login
● Example: When you open www.google.com, your browser uses HTTP/HTTPS at this
layer to request the page.
2. Transport Layer
● What it does:
○ Ensures end-to-end communication between two applications.
○ Breaks big messages into smaller segments and reassembles them at
destination.
○ Manages reliability, error-checking, and flow control.
● Data unit: Segment (TCP) or Datagram (UDP)
● Protocols:
○ TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): Reliable, connection-oriented. Used for
web, email, file transfer.
○ UDP (User Datagram Protocol): Faster, connectionless. Used for streaming,
gaming, DNS.
● Example: When you open Google, TCP ensures your webpage data is delivered fully
and in order.
3. Internet Layer
● What it does:
○ Handles logical addressing (IP addresses).
○ Decides the best path (routing) for data packets.
○ Makes sure packets move across multiple networks.
● Data unit: Packet
● Protocols:
○ IP (Internet Protocol): Assigns source & destination IP addresses. (IPv4/IPv6)
○ ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol): Error messages (e.g., Ping).
○ ARP (Address Resolution Protocol): Converts IP → MAC address.
● Example: When your PC contacts Google, your packet has Source IP = your device
and Destination IP = Google’s server. Routers look at this to forward the packet.
4. Network Access Layer (a.k.a. Link Layer /
Host-to-Network)
● What it does:
○ Deals with physical delivery of data inside the local network.
○ Uses MAC addresses, frames, and actual media (cables, Wi-Fi, fiber).
○ Combines OSI’s Data Link + Physical layers.
● Data unit: Frame → Bits
● Protocols & technologies:
○ Ethernet (wired LAN)
○ Wi-Fi (802.11)
○ PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol)
○ Switching, ARP, MAC addressing
● Example: Your laptop sends data over Wi-Fi (802.11 protocol) to your router, which
then sends it out to the internet.
