FLUID MECHANICS

PHYS121: CHAPTER 4 – FLUID STATICS AND DYNAMICS

FLUID MECHANICS
 WHAT IS FLUID?
• Fluids undergo continuous deformation, i.e. Fluids always keep flowing.
• Fluid is a substance that does not possess a definite shape and easily
yields to external pressure.
• Fluid is any liquid or gas or any material that is unable to withstand a
shearing or tangential force, when at rest.
• When the said forces are applied to the fluid, it goes through a
continuous change in shape.
• Fluids are substances with zero shear modulus, i.e. they cannot resist the
shear force applied to them.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF FLUIDS
Liquids and gases are considered to be fluids because they yield to shearing
forces, whereas solids resist them.
 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
Density (Mass density) is defined as the mass per unit volume of a fluid.

• The SI unit of density is 𝑘𝑔/𝑚 .

• Density of water is 1000 𝑜𝑟 1 .

• Density is an important characteristic of substances. It is crucial, for example,
in determining whether an object sinks or floats in a fluid.
DENSITIES OF WATER
DENSITIES OF COMMON SUBSTANCES
 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
Specific Weight (Weight density) of a fluid is the ratio between the weight of a
fluid to its volume.

• Specific weight of water is 9.81 KN/𝑚 .

 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
Specific gravity (Relative density) is defined as the ratio of the weight density (or
density) of a fluid to the weight density (or density) of a standard fluid.
• It is a dimensionless quantity and is denoted by the symbol S.

𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑

𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 =
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝜌
𝑆𝑔 =
𝜌
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑔𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 =
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝜌
𝑆𝑔 =
𝜌
 EXAMPLE
• For instance, the density of aluminum is 2.7 in 𝑔/𝑐𝑚 (2700 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑔/𝑚 ), but its
specific gravity is 2.7, regardless of the unit of density.

.
/ . /
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 = /
= 2.7 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 = /
= 2.7

𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙
2.7 =
1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚
1000𝑘𝑔
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 2.7 = 2700 𝑘𝑔/𝑚
𝑚
 EXAMPLE 1
• Calculate the specific weight, density and specific gravity of one liter of a liquid
which weighs 7N.

𝛾 = 𝜌𝑔;
 EXAMPLE 2
• Calculate the density, specific weight and weight of one liter of a petrol od
specific gravity = 0.7.

𝜌
𝑆𝑔 =
𝜌

𝛾 = 𝜌𝑔;

𝑊
𝛾=
𝑉
1.Ideal Fluid:
Example: In reality, there is no such thing as an ideal fluid, but this concept is useful for certain
theoretical calculations.
2.Real Fluid:
Example: Water, air, and oil are common examples of real fluids.
3.Newtonian Fluid:
Example: Water is a Newtonian fluid because its viscosity remains constant under normal
conditions.
4.Non-Newtonian Fluid:
Example: Ketchup, toothpaste, and certain types of slurry are examples of non-Newtonian fluids.
5.Ideal Plastic Fluid:
Example: Silly Putty is often considered an ideal plastic fluid because it behaves like a solid until a
certain force is applied, at which point it flows.
 Two branches of Fluid Mechanics
1. Fluid statics - is the mechanism of fluids at rest or non-motion, and the
pressure in fluids exerted by fluids on anybody.
2. Fluid dynamics - It involves the study of the flow of fluids in motion.
FLUID STATICS
FLUID MECHANICS: LESSON 2
Fluid statics is a branch of fluid mechanics that deals
with the study of fluids at rest. In this scenario, the fluid is
not in motion, and all particles of the fluid are at rest or
moving with constant velocity.
Pressure is defined as the normal force F per unit area A over which
the force is applied
• The SI unit of pressure is .
 DIRECTION OF PRESSURE IN A FLUID
• Fluid pressure has no direction, being a scalar quantity, whereas the forces due
to pressure have well-defined directions: they are always exerted perpendicular
to any surface. The reason is that fluids cannot withstand or exert shearing forces.
Thus, in a static fluid enclosed in a tank, the force exerted on the walls of the
tank is exerted perpendicular to the inside surface.
Absolute pressure refers to the measurement of pressure at absolute
zero, whereas gauge pressure refers to the measurement of
pressure at atmospheric pressure.
 ABSOLUTE PRESSURE
• Absolute pressure is defined as the pressure measured against the zero pressure
of a vacuum.
• It is cited against perfect vacuum.
• Formula for absolute pressure
• Absolute pressure = gauge pressure + atmospheric pressure
𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑃𝑔 + 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚
• Absolute pressure cannot be negative.
• It is measured by using a manometer or barometer.
 GAUGE PRESSURE

• Gauge pressure is the pressure measured above atmospheric pressure at a

specific point in a fluid. It represents the difference between the absolute
pressure and atmospheric pressure at that location.
• Formula for gauge pressure
Gauge pressure = absolute pressure – atmospheric pressure
𝑃𝑔 = 𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 – 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚
• Gauge pressure is measured from atmospheric pressure level.
• Changes in atmospheric pressure affects gauge pressure.
• Gauge pressure can be positive or negative.
 VARIATION OF PRESSURE WITH DEPTH IN A FLUID OF
CONSTANT DENSITY
• Consider a fluid of constant density as
shown in Figure. The pressure at the
bottom of the container is due to the
pressure of the atmosphere plus the
pressure due to the weight of the fluid.

• The pressure due to the fluid is equal to

the weight of the fluid divided by the
area. The weight of the fluid is equal to its
mass times the acceleration due to
gravity.
 𝑚 𝑚
𝑃 =𝑃 +𝑃 𝜌= = ; 𝑚 = 𝜌𝐴ℎ
𝑉 𝐴ℎ

𝐹 𝑊 𝑚𝑔 𝜌𝐴ℎ 𝑔
𝑃 = = = = = 𝜌ℎ𝑔 𝑃 = 𝑃 + 𝜌ℎ𝑔
𝐴 𝐴 𝐴 𝐴
𝑃 = 𝜌ℎ𝑔
𝑃 = 101325 + 𝜌ℎ𝑔

Hydrostatic pressure refers to the pressure exerted by a fluid

at rest due to the weight of the fluid above it.
 PROBLEM SOLVING
• A scuba diver dives to a depth of 1.25 m below the surface of the sea. The sea
water has a density of 1025 𝑘𝑔/𝑚 . What pressure does the water exert on the
diver?

𝑘𝑔 𝑚 𝑁
𝑃 = 𝜌ℎ𝑔 = 𝑥𝑚𝑥 =
𝑚 𝑠 𝑚
𝑃 = 1025(1.25)(9.81)
1.25m 𝑃 = 12,556.25 𝑃𝑎
 PROBLEM SOLVING
• The pressure exerted by a liquid at a depth of 2.5 m is 36, 750 𝑃𝑎. What is the
density of the liquid?
𝑃 = 𝜌ℎ𝑔
36750 = 𝜌(2.5)(9.8)
𝜌 = 1500 𝑘𝑔/𝑚
 PROBLEM SOLVING
• A diver swims in water of density 1 015 𝑘𝑔/𝑚 , as shown in the diagram. What is
the difference between the water pressure at the diver’s head and at his feet?

𝑃 = 𝜌ℎ 𝑔 𝑃 = 𝜌ℎ 𝑔

𝑃 − 𝑃 = 𝜌ℎ 𝑔 − 𝜌ℎ 𝑔 ∆𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔 (ℎ − ℎ )

𝑃 − 𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔 (ℎ − ℎ ) ∆𝑃 = 1015 9.8 1.8 − 1.2 = 5968.2 𝑃𝑎

∆𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔 ∆ℎ
 MEASURING PRESSURE
• A host of devices are used for measuring pressure, ranging from tire gauges to
blood pressure monitors. Many other types of pressure gauges are commonly
used to test the pressure of fluids, such as mechanical pressure gauges.
 BAROMETER
• A barometer is a device that typically uses a
single column of mercury to measure
atmospheric pressure. The barometer, invented
by the Italian mathematician and physicist
Evangelista Torricelli (1608–1647) in 1643, is
constructed from a glass tube closed at one
end and filled with mercury. The tube is then
inverted and placed in a pool of mercury.

• This device measures atmospheric pressure,

rather than gauge pressure, because there is a
nearly pure vacuum above the mercury in the
tube. The height of the mercury is such
that ℎ𝜌𝑔 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚. When atmospheric pressure
varies, the mercury rises or falls.
MANOMETER
 𝑃 = 𝑃 + 𝜌ℎ𝑔

𝑃 = 𝑃 + 𝜌(∆ℎ)𝑔

𝑃 − 𝑃 = 𝜌∆ℎ𝑔

∆𝑃 = 𝜌∆ℎ𝑔

∆𝑃
∆ℎ = =ℎ −ℎ
𝜌𝑔
EXAMPLES
 PROBLEM SOLVING
• A liquid column manometer contains water, the density of
which we will take as 997 . The left side is connected to a gas
of unknown pressure, and the right side is open to the
atmosphere at sea level, which we will take as 101.3 𝑘𝑃𝑎. We
can also take gravity as 9.81 𝑚/𝑠 . Determine the unknown gas
pressure.
𝑃 =𝑃 + 𝜌(∆ℎ)𝑔
10
𝑃 = 101,300 + (997)( )(9.81)
100
𝑃 = 102278.06 𝑃𝑎 = 102.28 𝑘𝑃𝑎
 PROBLEM SOLVING
• The diagram shows a liquid column manometer connected
at opposite ends to two gas reservoirs. The pressures of the
gas reservoirs are 𝑃 = 123.3 𝑘𝑝𝑎 and 𝑃 = 110.1𝑘𝑝𝑎. The u-
shaped tube contains an oil with a density of 1 080 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3.
What is the vertical distance ℎ between the tops of the oil
columns?
𝑃 =𝑃 + 𝜌(∆ℎ)𝑔
10
𝑃 = 101,300 + (997)( )(9.81)
100
𝑃 = 102278.06 𝑃𝑎 = 102.28 𝑘𝑃𝑎

110.1−123.3 = 1080 ℎ
ℎ = 12.2𝑚
 PASCAL’S PRINCIPLE
• Pascal’s principle states that at a point
within a fluid, the pressure at that point is
equal in all directions.
• Two points within a fluid at the same height
that have no other forces acting on them
than the weight of the fluid above the
points are at equal pressures.
 APPLICATIONS OF PASCAL’S PRINCIPLE AND HYDRAULIC
SYSTEMS
• Hydraulic systems can increase or decrease the force applied to them. To make
the force larger, the pressure is applied to a larger area.
• The hydraulic jack is such a hydraulic system. A hydraulic jack is used to lift heavy
loads, such as the ones used by auto mechanics to raise an automobile. It consists
of an incompressible fluid in a u-tube fitted with a movable piston on each side.
One side of the u-tube is narrower than the other. A small force applied over a
small area can balance a much larger force on the other side over a larger area.
From pascal’s principle, it can be
shown that the force needed to
lift the car is less than the weight of
the car:
𝐴
𝐹 = 𝐹
𝐴

Where 𝐹 is the force applied to

lift the car, 𝐴 is the cross-
sectional area of the smaller
piston, 𝐴 is the cross sectional
area of the larger piston, and 𝐹 is
the weight of the car.

• The ratio of the areas of the ends of a hydraulic press is the mechanical advantage 𝜂 of
the hydraulic press.
 PROBLEM SOLVING
• A hydraulic pump has a thin shaft with an area of 0.15 m2 and a thick shaft with an area
of 1.2 m2, as shown in the diagram. At the tops of the shafts are pistons that can be
pushed. A force 𝐹 = 85 𝑁 is applied to the piston in the thin shaft and the pressure of the
hydraulic fluid applies a force 𝐹 to the piston in the thick shaft. Find the magnitude
of 𝐹 .

𝑃 =𝑃
𝐹 𝐹
=
𝐴 𝐴
85 𝐹
=
0.15 1.2
𝐹 = 680 N
 ARCHIMEDE’S PRINCIPLE
• The upward buoyant force that is exerted on a body immersed in a fluid, whether
partially or fully submerged, is equal to the weight of the fluid that the body displaces
and acts in the upward direction at the center of mass of the displaced fluid.
• The buoyant force is the upward force on any object in any fluid.

𝐹 =𝑊
𝐹 = 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔 = 𝜌𝑉 𝑔
𝐹 = 𝜌𝑉 𝑔
• The average density of an object is what ultimately determines whether it floats.
If an object’s average density is less than that of the surrounding fluid, it will float.
The reason is that the fluid, having a higher density, contains more mass and
hence more weight in the same volume. The buoyant force, which equals the
weight of the fluid displaced, is thus greater than the weight of the object.
Likewise, an object denser than the fluid will sink.
𝑉 𝑉
𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑑 = =
𝑉 𝑉
𝜌
𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑑 =
𝜌
 PROBLEM SOLVING
• Suppose a 60.0-kg woman floats in fresh water with 97.0% of her volume
submerged when her lungs are full of air. What is her average density?
𝜌
𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑑 =
𝜌
𝜌
0.97 =
1000
𝜌 = 970 𝑘𝑔/𝑚
 PROBLEM SOLVING
• A steel cable holds a 120-kg shark tank 3 meters below the surface of saltwater. If
the volume of water displaced by the shark tank is 0.1 𝑚 , what is the tension in
the cable? Assume the density of saltwater is 1025 𝑘𝑔/ 𝑚 .

𝐹 + 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑔
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑔 − 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑔 − 𝜌𝑉 𝑔
𝐹 = 120 9.8 − 1025 0.1 9.8
3m
𝐹 = 171.5 𝑁
FLUID DYNAMICS
CHAPTER 4: FLUID MECHANICS
 VISCOSITY
• An ideal fluid is a fluid with negligible viscosity. Viscosity is a measure of the
internal friction in a fluid;
 CHARACTERISTICS OF FLOW
Another method for representing fluid motion is a streamline. A streamline
represents the path of a small volume of fluid as it flows. The velocity is always
tangential to the streamline.
 FLOW RATE AND ITS RELATION TO VELOCITY
• The volume of fluid passing by a
given location through an area
during a period of time is called flow
rate Q, or more precisely, volume
flow rate. In symbols, this is written as
𝑑𝑉
𝑄=
𝑑𝑡
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑣
• The SI unit for flow rate is 𝑚 /𝑠
EQUATION OF CONTINUITY
 PROBLEM SOLVING
A nozzle with a diameter of 0.500 cm is attached to a garden hose with a radius of
0.900 cm. The flow rate through hose and nozzle is 0.500 L/s. Calculate the speed
of the water (a) in the hose and (b) in the nozzle.
a. 𝑄 = 𝐴𝑣
𝐿𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟 1𝑚 1𝑚
0.5 𝑥 = 𝜋 0.9𝑐𝑚 𝑥 𝑣
𝑠𝑒𝑐. 1000𝐿 100𝑐𝑚
𝑣 = 1.96 𝑚/𝑠
b. 𝑄 = 𝐴𝑣
𝐿𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟 1𝑚 1𝑚
0.5 𝑥 = 𝜋 0.25𝑐𝑚 𝑥 𝑣
𝑠𝑒𝑐. 1000𝐿 100𝑐𝑚
𝑣 = 25.46 𝑚/𝑠
 BERNOULLI’S EQUATION
• For an incompressible, frictionless fluid, the combination of pressure and the sum
of kinetic and potential energy densities is constant not only over time, but also
along a streamline:
1
𝑃 + 𝜌𝑣 + 𝜌𝑔𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
2
A special note must be made here of the fact that in a dynamic situation, the
pressures at the same height in different parts of the fluid may be different if they
have different speeds of flow.