MODULE IV

HEAT TRANSFER BY RADIATION

Lesson 1: Processes and Properties

Lesson 2: Radiation Exchange Between Surfaces

THELMA T. OBILLO, PME

FACULTY, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
MODULE IV
1ST SEMESTER SY 2020-2021

Module IV
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HEAT TRANSFER BY RADIATION

 INTRODUCTION

Thermal radiation is transmission of thermal energy without any physical

contact between the bodies involved. Unlike heat transfer by conduction and
convection, transport of thermal radiation does not necessarily affect the material
medium between the heat source and the receiver. An intervening medium is not
even necessary and the radiation can be affected through vacuum. A material
present between the heat source and the receiver would either reduce or eliminate
entirely the propagation of radiant energy. This module provides you with a general
overview of how heat is transmitted through radiation and how radiation heat
exchange between surfaces.

OBJECTIVES

After studying the module, you should be able to:

1. Describe how heat is transmitted through radiation.

2. Explain the different laws of radiation.
3. Describe radiation heat exchange between surfaces.
4. Explain the phenomenon of black body radiation

 DIRECTIONS/ MODULE ORGANIZER

There are two lessons in the module. Read each lesson carefully then answer
the exercises/activities to find out how much you have benefited from it. Work on
these exercises carefully and submit your output to your instructor.

In case you encounter difficulty, discuss this with your instructor during the
face-to-face meeting.

Good luck and happy reading!!!

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Lesson 1

 Processes and Properties

Energy released a radiating surface is not continuous but is in the form of

successive and separate (discrete) packets or quanta of energy called photons. The
photons are propagated through space as rays; the movement of swarm of photons
is described as the electromagnetic waves. The photons (as carriers of energy) travel
with unchanged frequency in straight paths and with speed equal to that of light.
For propagation in vacuum, speed of light, c=3 x 108 m/s. When the photons approach
the receiving surface, there occurs reconversion of wave motion into thermal energy
which is partly absorbed, reflected or transmitted through the receiving surface. The
magnitude of each fraction depends upon the nature of the surface that receives the
thermal radiation.

Salient Features and Characteristics of Radiation

Some of the salient features and characteristics of radiation are enumerated

below:

1. The electromagnetic waves are emitted as a result of vibrational and

rotational movement of the molecular, atomic or sub atomic particles
comprising the matter. The emission occurs when the body is excited by an
oscillating electrical signal, electronic or neutronic bombardment, chemical
reactions, etc. The emission of thermal radiations is associated with
thermally excited conditions which depend upon the nature of surface and
its absolute temperature.

2. The distinction between one form of radiation and another lies only in its
frequency and wavelength which are related by:

Speed of light = wave length x frequency

c = f

Consequently, longer wavelengths correspond to lower frequencies and

shorter wavelengths to higher frequencies. Again, a high temperature body
will have a high frequency quantum and so shorter wavelengths.

3. The general phenomenon of radiation covers the propagation of

electromagnetic waves of all the wavelengths, from short wavelength gamma
rays, X-rays and ultra-violet radiation to the long wavelength microwaves and
radio waves. Thermal radiation is limited to range of wavelength between
0.1 and 100 µm; it thus includes the entire visible and infrared, and a part of
the ultraviolet spectrum.

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Figure 4.1 Electromagnetic wave spectrum

The sun with an effective surface temperature of 5600 oC emits most of its
radiations at the extreme lower end of the spectrum 0.1 to 4 µm. The
radiations from a lamp filament are in the frequency range 1 to 10 µm. Most
solids and liquids have a continuous spectrum; they emit wavelength and
hence are called selective emitters. The emission of thermal radiation
depends upon the nature, temperature and state of emitting surface.
However, with gases the dependence is also upon the thickness of emitting
layer and the gas pressure.

4. Thermal radiations exhibit characteristics similar to those of visible light, and

follows optical laws. They can be reflected, refracted, and are subject to
scattering and absorption when they pass through a media. They get polarized
and weakened in strength with the inverse square of radial distance from the
radiating surface.

5. All matter emits radiant energy and bodies at high temperature emit at a
greater rate than bodies at low temperature. Normally a body radiating heat
is simultaneously receiving heat from other bodies as incident radiation. The
net exchange of heat between two radiating surfaces is due to the fact that
one at higher temperature radiates more and receives less energy for its
absorption. An isolated body which remains at constant temperature emits
just as much energy by radiation as it receives. The entire system is then in
a state of mobile thermal equilibrium.

6. Heat transfer by conduction and convection depends primarily on the

temperature difference gradient and is little affected by temperature level.
With other factors (k, h, and A) remaining constant, the heat transfer due to
conduction and convection from a hot source and the surroundings at 1000oC
to the surroundings take up the temperature difference, the heat exchange
by radiation gets enhanced at elevated temperature of the source and the
surroundings.

The most vivid evidence of radiation transfer is that represented by the solar
energy which passes through interstellar space (conditions close to that for
perfect vacuum) on its way to the earth surface. Solar radiation plays an
important part in the design of heating and ventilating systems. Heat transfer
by radiation is encountered in boiler furnaces, billet reheating furnaces and
other types of heat exchangers. The design and construction of engines, gas
turbines, nuclear reactors and solar collectors is also significantly influenced
by the radiation heat transfer.

Note: 1 µm = 10-6 m; 1 µm is called the micron.

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Note:
Radiation differs from the other two heat transfer mechanisms in that it does
not require the presence of a material medium to take place. In fact, energy
transfer by radiation is fastest (at the speed of light) in a vacuum. Also,
radiation transfer occurs in solids as well as liquids and gases. In most
practical applications, all three modes of heat transfer occur concurrently at
varying degrees. But heat transfer through an evacuated space can occur only
by radiation. For example, the energy of the sun reaches the earth by
radiation.

Figure 4.2 Radiation heat transfer from hot to cold body

Unlike conduction and convection, heat transfer by

radiation can occur between two bodies, even when they
are separated by a medium colder than both as shown in
Figure 4.2.

Module IV Heat Transfer by Radiation THELMA T. OBILLO, PME

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Lesson 2

 Radiation Exchange Between Surfaces

Absorptivity, Reflectivity and Transmissivity

The total radiant energy (Qo) impinging upon a body would be partially or
totally absorbed by it (Qa), reflected from its surface (Qr), or transmitted through it
(Qt) in accordance with the characteristics of the body. By the conservation of
energy principle, the total sum must be equal to the incident radiation. That is:

Qa + Qr + Qt = Qo

Dividing both sides of the equation by Qo, we have

Qa Qr Qt Qo
+ + =
Qo Qo Qo Qo

 +  +  = 1 ------------(Equation 4.1)

Figure 4.3 Reflection, absorption and transmitted energy

Where
 = absorptivity or fraction of total energy absorbed by the body
 = reflectivity or fraction of total energy reflected from thebody
 = transmissivity or fraction of total energy transmitted through the body

The factors, and are dimensionless and vary from 0 to 1.

A blackbody is defined as a perfect emitter and absorber of radiation. At a

specified temperature and wavelength, no surface can emit more energy than a
blackbody.

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A blackbody absorbs all incident radiation, regardless of wavelength and direction.

Also, a blackbody emits radiation energy uniformly in all directions per unit area
normal to direction of emission. For black body  = 1,  = 0 and  = 0.

In actual practice there does not exist a perfectly black body which will absorb all
incident radiations. Snow, with its absorptivity 0.985, is nearly black to the thermal
radiation.

The absorptivity of a surface depends upon the direction of incident radiation,

temperature of the surface, composition and structure of the irradiated surface and
the spectral distribution of incident radiation.

When a surface absorbs a certain fixed percentage of impinging radiations, the

surface is called gray body. A surface whose properties are independent of the
wavelength is known as a gray surface.

A gray body is defined such that the monochromatic emissivity E of the body is
independent of wavelength. For gray body   1

The condition of constant absorptivity too is not satisfied by the real materials and
as such even a gray body remains a hypothetical concept like the black body.

A body that reflects all the incident thermal radiations is called an absolutely
white body or specular body. For white body  = 1 and  = = 0 .

Regular (specular) reflection implies that angle between the reflected beam and
the normal to the surface equals the angle made by the incident radiation with the
same normal.

In a diffused radiation, incident beam is reflected in all directions.

Most of the engineering materials have rough surfaces, and these rough surfaces
give diffused reflections.

Figure 4.4 Specular and diffused radiation

A body that allows all the incident radiations to pass through it is called
transparent body or diathermanous. For such body  =1, and  = = 0.

Transmissivity varies with wave length of incident radiation. A material may be

non-transparent for a certain wavelength transparent for another. This type of
material is called selective transmitter.

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A thin glass plate transmits most of the thermal radiations from the sun, but
absorbs in equally great measure the thermal radiations emitted from the low
temperature interior of a building.

That’s the reason to use the glass in green house to trap the solar radiation in low
temperature space.

For opaque body,  =0, and  +  = 1. It means that good absorbers are bad
reflector or vice-versa.

The electrons, atoms, and molecules of all solids, liquids, and gases above
absolute zero temperature are constantly in motion, and thus radiation is constantly
emitted, as well as being absorbed or transmitted throughout the
entire volume of matter.

That is, radiation is a volumetric phenomenon.

Radiation in opaque solid is considered a surface phenomenon since the

radiation emitted only by the molecules at the surface can escape the solid
as shown in Figure 4.5.

Figure 4.5 Radiation in opaque solid

Black Body Concept

Consider a large cavity with small opening maintained at constant temperature as

shown in Figure 4.6.

The inner surface of the cavity is coated with the black lamp. A beam of thermal
radiation entering the hole strikes the inner surface. Since the inner surface has high
absorptivity, the major portion of the radiation is absorbed and only a small fraction
is reflected.

The weak reflected beam does not find any way out and again strikes the inner
surface. Here it is again partly absorbed and partly reflected.

Likewise, the reflected radiation is successively absorbed and finally when is

escapes out, it has only a negligible amount of energy associated with it.

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Figure 4.6 Black body concept

Although a blackbody would appear black to the eye, a distinction should be made
between the idealized blackbody and an ordinary black surface.

Any surface that absorbs light (the visible portion of radiation) would appear black
to the eye, and a surface that reflects it completely would appear white.

Considering that visible radiation occupies a very narrow band of the spectrum
from 0.4 to 0.76 _m, we cannot make any judgments about the blackness of a surface
on the basis of visual observations.

For example, snow and white paint reflect light and thus appear white. But they
are essentially black for infrared radiation since they strongly absorb long-
wavelength radiation. Surfaces coated with lampblack paint approach idealized
blackbody behavior.

Spectral and Spatial Energy Distribution

Spectral Energy Distribution: The radiation emitted by the body consists of

electromagnetic waves of various wavelengths. Distribution of radiation with wave
length is called spectral energy distribution as show in figure 4.7(a).

Figure 4.7 Spectral and spatial energy distribution

Module IV Heat Transfer by Radiation THELMA T. OBILLO, PME

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Spatial (Directional) Energy Distribution: A surface emits the radiation in all

directions. The intensity of radiation is different in different direction. The
distribution of radiation along the direction is called spatial distribution.

Wavelength Distribution of Black Body Radiation: Planck’s Law

The energy emitted by a black surface varies in accordance with wavelength,

temperature and surface characteristics of the body.

Spectral blackbody emissive power (monochromatic emissive power) ( Eb ) =

“amount of radiation energy emitted by a blackbody at an absolute temperature T
per unit time, per unit surface area, and per unit wavelength about the wavelength
 .”

Planck suggested the following law for the spectral distribution of emissive power:

Where,

h=Planck constant, 6.6236 x 10-34 Js

c=Velocity of light in vacuum, 2.998x108 m/s
k=Boltzman constant, 13.802x10-4 J/K
T=Absolute temperature of black body, K

The above expression is written as

Where

C1 = 2πC2h = 0.374 x 10-15 Jm2/s

C2 = ch/k = 1.4385 x 10-2 mK

The variation of distribution of the monochromatic emissive power with wavelength

is called spectral energy distribution, and this has been shown in Figure 4.8

The following important features can be noted from this plot:

i. The emitted radiation is a continuous function of wavelength. At any
specified temperature, it increases with wavelength, reaches a peak, and then
decreases with increasing wavelength.

ii. At any wavelength, the amount of emitted radiation increases with increasing
temperature.

iii. As temperature increases, the pick of the curves shifts to the left to the
shorter wavelength region. Consequently, a larger fraction of the radiation is
emitted at shorter wavelengths at higher temperatures.

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iv. The radiation emitted by the sun, which is considered to be a blackbody at

5780 K (or roughly at 5800 K), reaches its peak in the visible region of the
spectrum. Therefore, the sun is in tune with our eyes.

v. On the other hand, surfaces at T < 800 K emit almost entirely in the infrared
region and thus, are not visible to the eye unless they reflect light coming from
other sources.

Figure 4.8 Radiation of black body as a

function of wavelength and temperature

Total Emissive Power: Stefan-Boltzman Law

The total emissive power E of a surface is defined as the total radiant energy
emitted by the surface in all directions over the entire wavelength per unit surface
area per unit time.

The basic rate equation for radiation transfer is based on Stefan-Boltzman law
which states that the amount of radiant energy emitted per unit area of black surface
is proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature.

Eb =  b  T 4

−8
Where, is Stefan-Boltzmann constant, equal to 5.67 x10 W and T is the
m2 − K 4
absolute temperature in K.

The Stefan-Boltzmann law helps us to determine the amount of radiations emitted

in all the directions and over the entire wavelength spectrum from a simple
knowledge of the temperature of the black body.

Normally a body radiating heat is simultaneously receiving heat from other bodies
as radiation. Consider that surface 1 at temperature is completely enclosed by

Module IV Heat Transfer by Radiation THELMA T. OBILLO, PME

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another black surface at temperature T1. The net radiation heat flux is then given
by

Qnet =  b (T14 − T24 )

Heat exchange between two black surfaces: Shape Factor

Consider heat exchange between elementary areas dA1 and dA2 of two black
radiating bodies having areas A1 and A2, respectively.

The elementary areas are at a distance r apart and the normals to the areas
make angles θ1 and θ2 with the line joining them. The surface is at T1
temperature and the surface is at temperature T2.

Figure 4.9 Radiant heat exchange between two black surfaces

The solution of this equation is simplified by introducing a term called radiation

shape factor, geometrical factor, configuration factor or view factor. The shape
factor depends only on the specific geometry of the emitter and collection surfaces,
and is defined as:

The fraction of the radiative energy that is diffused from one surface element and
strikes the other surface directly with intervening reflections.

The radiation shape factor is represented by the symbol Fij which means the shape
factor from a surface i to another surface j. Thus, the radiation shape factor F12 of
surface A1 to surface A2 is

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The above result is known as a reciprocity theorem. It indicates that the net radiant
interchange may be evaluated by computing one-way configuration factor from
either surface to the other. Thus, net heat exchange between surfaces A1 and A2 is

The equation above applies only to black surfaces and must not be used for surfaces
having emissivities very different from unity.

Shape factor algebra and salient features of the shape factor

The salient features for complex geometries can be derived in terms of known
shape factors for other geometries. For that the complex shape is divided into
sections for which the shape factor is either known or can be readily evaluated.

The known configuration factor is worked out by adding and subtracting known
factors of related geometries. The method is based on the definition of shape factor,
the reciprocity principal and the energy conservation law.

The inter-relation between various shape factors is called factor algebra.

Salient features of shape factor:

Module IV Heat Transfer by Radiation THELMA T. OBILLO, PME

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The value of shape factor depends only on the geometry and orientation of surfaces
with respect to each other. Once the shape factor between two surfaces is known,
it can be used for calculating the radiant heat exchange between the surfaces at any
temperature.

The net heat exchange between surfaces A1A2 is

When the surfaces are thought to be black  1 =  2 =  b and are maintained at the
same temperature (T1 = T2 = T ) , there is no heat exchange and as such

Since and are non-zero quantities

This reciprocal relation is particular useful when one on the shape factor is unity.

All the radiation streaming out from an inner sphere (surface 1) is intercepted by
the enclosing outer sphere (surface 2). As such the shape factor of inner sphere
(surface 1) with respect to the enclosure F12 is unity and the shape factor of outer
sphere (surface 2) can be obtained by using reciprocal relation.

Figure 4.10 Two concentric spheres

The radiant energy emitted by one part of concave surface is intercepted by

another part of the same surface. Accordingly, a concave surface has a shape factor
with respect to itself. The shape factor with respect to itself is denoted by F11.

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For a flat or convex surface, the shape factor with respect to itself is zero.

Summation Rule

Any radiating surface will have finite area and therefore will be enclosed by
many surfaces.

For radiation heat transfer analysis, radiating surface is considered as a part of

the enclosure.

Even openings are treated as imaginary surfaces with radiation properties

equivalent to those of the opening.

The conservation of energy principle requires that the entire radiation leaving
any surface i of an enclosure be intercepted by the surfaces of the enclosure.

Therefore, the sum of the view factors from surface i of an enclosure to all surfaces
of the enclosure, including to itself, must equal unity. This is known as the
summation rule for an enclosure and is expressed as (Figure 4.11)

Fig. 4.11 Radiation leaving the surface i of an enclosure intercepted by completely

by the surface of enclosure

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Where, N is the number of surfaces of the enclosure.

Applying the summation rule to surface 1 of a three-surface enclosure,

The Superposition Rule

Figure 4.12 Superposition rule

Thus, if the transmitting surface is sub divided, the shape factor for that
surface with respect to the receiving surface is not equal to the sum of the
individual shape factors.

Apparently the shape factor from a radiating surface to a subdivided receiving

surface is simply the sum of the individual shape factors.
The Symmetry Rule
Identical surfaces that are oriented in an identical manner with respect to another
surface will intercept identical amounts of radiation leaving that surface.

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Faculty, Mechanical Engineering
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Figure 4.12 Symmetry rule

So, the symmetry rule can be expressed as two or more surfaces that posse symmetry
about a third surface will have identical view factors from that surface.

From the figure 4.12

F12 = F13

Problem 22:
A furnace emits radiation at 2000 K. treating it as a black body radiation calculate:
(i) Monochromatic radiant flux density at 1μm wave length. (ii) Wave length at
which emission is maximum and corresponding radiant flux density. (iii) Total
emissive power

Solution:

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
MODULE SUMMARY

Fundamental aspects of various definitions and laws governing radiation heat

transfer were discussed. The heat exchange between two or more surfaces were also
discussed. The two surfaces which are not in direct contact, exchanges the heat due
to radiation phenomena. The factors those determine the rate of heat exchange
between two bodies are the temperature of the individual surfaces, their
emissivities, as well as how well one surface can see the other surface. The last
factor is known as view factor, shape factor, angle factor or configuration factor.

Congratulations! You have just studied Module 4.

Now you are ready to evaluate how much you have benefited
from your reading by answering Learning Task 4. Good Luck!!!

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 LEARNING TASK 4

Name:_____________________________
Yr. & Section:_______________________

I. IDENTIFICATION: Identify the word or group of words asked in each of the

following items.
1. When a surface absorbs a certain fixed percentage of impinging
radiations.
2. A surface whose properties are independent of the wavelength.
3. Defined as a perfect emitter and absorber of radiation.
4. A body that allows all the incident radiations to pass through.
5. Also known as spectral blackbody emissive power.
6. A material may be non-transparent for a certain wavelength
transparent for another is called _________.
7. Total radiant energy emitted by the surface in all directions over the
entire wavelength per unit surface area per unit time.
8. Transmission of thermal energy without any physical contact between
the bodies involved.
9. Stefan-Boltzmann constant is equal to_________.
10. When incident beam is reflected in all directions.

II. Answer the following:

1. Describe the mechanism of heat transfer by radiation.
2. State Stefan Boltzmann’s law.
3. What is a black body? How does it differ from a gray body?
4. Describe radiation heat exchange between surfaces.
5. Discuss the phenomenon of black body radiation.

III. Problem Solving:

Determine net radiation heat transfer per m2 for two infinite parallel plates
held at temperature of 800 K and 500 K respectively. Emissivities of hot
and cold plates are 0.6 and 0.4 respectively. Now it is intended to reduce
the heat transfer to 40% of original value by placing a radiation shied
between the plates. Calculate the emissivity of the shield and its
equilibrium temperature.

Module IV Heat Transfer by Radiation THELMA T. OBILLO, PME

Faculty, Mechanical Engineering