MODULE I

OVERVIEW OF HEAT TRANSFER

Lesson 1: Introduction to Heat Transfer

Lesson 2: Modes of Heat Transfer

Lesson 3: Thermal Conductivities & Properties

of Heat Transfer Materials

Lesson 4: Modes of Heat Transfer Applied in

Heat Exchangers

THELMA T. OBILLO, PME

FACULTY, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
MODULE I
1ST SEMESTER SY 2021-2022

Module I
 2

OVERVIEW OF HEAT TRANSFER

 INTRODUCTION

Heat transfer is a subject of widespread interest. Heat is energy in transit.

The transfer of energy as heat occurs at the molecular level as a result of a
temperature difference. The literature on heat transfer generally recognizes three
distinct modes of heat transmission: conduction, convection, and radiation. These
three modes are similar in that a temperature differential must exist and the heat
exchange is in the direction of decreasing temperature. Each method has, however,
different physical picture and different controlling laws. This module discusses about
the different modes of heat transmission, thermal properties of insulating materials,
and the three modes of heat transfer as applied to heat exchangers.

OBJECTIVES

After studying the module, you should be able to:

1. State the fundamental difference between thermodynamics and heat

transfer.
2. Describe the modes of heat transfer.
3. Identify the different modes of heat transfer in a given system operation
4. Identify the different heat insulating materials and their important
properties.
5. Describe how the modes of heat transfer are used in heat exchangers
applications.
6. Solve problems involving one or more modes of heat transfer.

 DIRECTIONS/ MODULE ORGANIZER

There are four lessons in the module. Read each lesson carefully then answer
the exercises/activities to find out how much you have benefited from it. Work on
these exercises carefully and submit your output to your instructor.

In case you encounter difficulty, discuss this with your instructor during the
face-to-face meeting.

Good luck and happy reading!!!

Module I Overview of Heat Transfer THELMA T. OBILLO, PME

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Lesson 1

 Introduction to Heat Transfer

Heat Transfer vs. Thermodynamics

Heat transfer is the science that seeks to predict the energy transfer that
may take place between material bodies as a result of a temperature difference.
Thermodynamics teaches that this energy transfer is defined as heat. The science of
heat transfer seeks not merely to explain how heat energy may be transferred, but
also to predict the rate at which the exchange will take place under certain specified
conditions. The fact that a heat-transfer rate is the desired objective of an analysis
points out the difference between heat transfer and thermodynamics.
Thermodynamics deals with systems in equilibrium; it may be used to predict the
amount of energy required to change a system from one equilibrium state to another;
it may not be used to predict how fast a change will take place since the system is
not in equilibrium during the process. Heat transfer supplements the first and second
principles of thermodynamics by providing additional experimental rules that may
be used to establish energy-transfer rates. As in the science of thermodynamics, the
experimental rules used as a basis of the subject of heat transfer are rather simple
and easily expanded to encompass a variety of practical situations.

Thermal energy is related to the temperature of matter. For a given material

and mass, the higher the temperature, the greater its thermal energy. Heat transfer
is a study of the exchange of thermal energy through a body or between bodies which
occurs when there is a temperature difference. When two bodies are at different
temperatures, thermal energy transfers from the one with higher temperature to the
one with lower temperature. Heat always transfers from hot to cold.

Table 1 shows the common SI and English units and conversion factors used
for heat and heat transfer rates. Heat is typically given the symbol Q, and is
expressed in joules (J) in SI units. The rate of heat transfer is measured in watts (W),
equal to joules per second, and is denoted by q. The heat flux, or the rate of heat
transfer per unit area, is measured in watts per area (W/m2), and uses q" for the
symbol.

Table 1. Units and Conversion Factors for Heat Measurements

SI Units English Units

Thermal Energy (Q) 1J 9.4787 x10-4 Btu
Heat Transfer Rate (q) 1 J/s or 1 W 3.4123 Btu/h
Heat Flux (q") 1 W/m2 0.3171 Btu/h-ft2

In describing heat transfer problems, we often make the mistake of

interchangeably using the terms heat and temperature. Actually, there is a distinct
difference between the two. Temperature is a measure of the amount of energy
possessed by the molecules of a substance. It is a relative measure of how hot or
cold a substance is and can be used to predict the direction of heat transfer. The
symbol for temperature is T. The common scales for measuring temperature are the
Fahrenheit, Rankine, Celsius, and Kelvin temperature scales.

Module I Overview of Heat Transfer THELMA T. OBILLO, PME

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Heat is energy in transit. The transfer of energy as heat occurs at the

molecular level as a result of a temperature difference. Heat is capable of being
transmitted through solids and fluids by conduction, through fluids by convection,
and through empty space by radiation. The symbol for heat is Q. Common units for
measuring heat are the British thermal unit (Btu) in the English system of units and
the calorie in the SI system (International System of Units).

Distinction should be made between the energy terms heat and work. Both
represent energy in transition. Work is the transfer of energy resulting from a force
acting through a distance. Heat is energy transferred as the result of a temperature
difference. Neither heat nor works are thermodynamic properties of a system. Heat
can be transferred into or out of a system and work can be done on or by a system,
but a system cannot contain or store either heat or work. Heat into a system and
work out of a system are considered positive quantities.

Second Law of Thermodynamics

When a temperature difference exists across a boundary, the Second Law of

Thermodynamics indicates the natural flow of energy is from the hotter body to the
colder body. The Second Law of Thermodynamics denies the possibility of ever
completely converting into work all the heat supplied to a system operating in a
cycle. The Second Law of Thermodynamics, described by Max Planck in 1903, states
that:

“It is impossible to construct an engine that will work in a complete cycle

and produce no other effect except the raising of a weight and the cooling of a
reservoir.”

The second law says that if you draw heat from a reservoir to raise a weight,
lowering the weight will not generate enough heat to return the reservoir to its
original temperature, and eventually the cycle will stop. If two blocks of metal at
different temperatures are thermally insulated from their surroundings and are
brought into contact with each other the heat will flow from the hotter to the colder.
Eventually the two blocks will reach the same temperature, and heat transfer will
cease. Energy has not been lost, but instead some energy has been transferred from
one block to another.

Heat is always transferred when a temperature difference exists between two

bodies. There are three basic modes of heat transfer:

➢ Conduction involves the transfer of heat by the interactions of atoms

or molecules of a material through which the heat is being
transferred.
➢ Convection involves the transfer of heat by the mixing and motion of
macroscopic portions of a fluid.
➢ Radiation, or radiant heat transfer, involves the transfer of heat by
electromagnetic radiation that arises due to the temperature of a
body.

Module I Overview of Heat Transfer THELMA T. OBILLO, PME

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The subject of heat transfer seeks to provide answers to the questions such as
• Possibility of removal or addition of heat at a desired rate
• Temperature distribution existing within the system,
• Amount of heat to be transferred,
• Time taken (duration of heating and cooling) for a certain duty and surface
area required to accomplish that duty.

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Lesson 2

 Modes of Heat Transfer

There are three modes of heat transfer: conduction, convection, and

radiation. Any energy exchange between bodies occurs through one of these modes
or a combination of them. Conduction is the transfer of heat through solids or
stationery fluids. Convection uses the movement of fluids to transfer heat.
Radiation does not require a medium for transferring heat; this mode uses the
electromagnetic radiation emitted by an object for exchanging heat.

1. Conduction

Conduction is at transfer through solids or stationery fluids. When you touch

a hot object, the heat you feel is transferred through your skin by conduction. Two
mechanisms explain how heat is transferred by conduction: lattice vibration and
particle collision. Conduction through solids occurs by a combination of the two
mechanisms; heat is conducted through stationery fluids primarily by molecular
collisions.

In solids, atoms are bound to each other by a series of bonds, analogous to

springs as shown in Figure 1.1. When there is a temperature difference in the solid,
the hot side of the solid experiences more vigorous atomic movements. The
vibrations are transmitted through the springs to the cooler side of the solid.
Eventually, they reach an equilibrium, where all the atoms are vibrating with the
same energy.

Solids, especially metals, have free electrons, which are not bound to any
particular atom and can freely move about the solid. The electrons in the hot side
of the solid move faster than those on the cooler side. This scenario is shown in
Figure 1.2. As the electrons undergo a series of collisions, the faster electrons give
off some of their energy to the slower electrons. Eventually, through a series of
random collisions, an equilibrium is reached, where the electrons are moving at the
same average velocity. Conduction through electron collision is more effective than
through lattice vibration; this is why metals generally are better heat conductors
than ceramic materials, which do not have many free electrons.

Figure 1.1 Conduction by lattice vibration

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Faculty, Mechanical Engineering
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Figure 1.2 Conduction by particle collision

In fluids, conduction occurs through collisions between freely moving molecules. The
mechanism is identical to the electron collisions in metals.

The effectiveness by which heat is transferred through a material is measured

by the thermal conductivity, k. A good conductor, such as copper, has a high
conductivity; a poor conductor, or an insulator, has a low conductivity. Conductivity
is measured in watts per meter per Kelvin (W/m-K). The rate of heat transfer by
conduction is governed by Fourier’s law and is given by:

dt
q = −kA ---------------------(Equation 1.1)
dx
where A is the cross-sectional area through which the heat is conducting, T is the
temperature difference between the two surfaces separated by a distance Δx (see
Figure 1.3). In heat transfer, a positive q means that heat is flowing into the body,
and a negative q represents heat leaving the body. The negative sign in Equation 1.1
ensures that this convention is obeyed.

2. Convection

Convection uses the motion of fluids to transfer heat. In a typical convective heat
transfer, a hot surface heats the surrounding fluid, which is then carried away by
fluid movement such as wind. The warm fluid is replaced by cooler fluid, which can
draw more heat away from the surface. Since the heated fluid is constantly replaced
by cooler fluid, the rate of heat transfer is enhanced.

Natural convection (or free convection) refers to a case where the fluid movement
is created by the warm fluid itself. The density of fluid decrease as it is heated; thus,
hot fluids are lighter than cool fluids. Warm fluid surrounding a hot object rises, and
is replaced by cooler fluid. The result is a circulation of air above the warm surface,
as shown in Figure 1.4.

Module I Overview of Heat Transfer THELMA T. OBILLO, PME

Faculty, Mechanical Engineering
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Forced convection uses external means of producing fluid movement. Forced

convection is what makes a windy, winter day feel much colder than a calm day with
same temperature. The heat loss from your body is increased due to the constant
replenishment of cold air by the wind. Natural wind and fans are the two most
common sources of forced convection.

Convection coefficient, h, is the measure of how effectively a fluid transfers heat

by convection. It is measured in W/m2-K, and is determined by factors such as the
fluid density, viscosity, and velocity. To express the overall effect of convection, we
use Newton’s law of cooling:

qconvection = hA (Tsurface − T ) ---------------------(Equation 1.2)

where A is the surface area of the object, Tsurface is the surface temperature, and T∞
is the ambient or fluid temperature.

Factors affecting the rate of heat transfer by convection:

1. Density and gravity – the rate of change of density with change of
temperature is an important factor to consider when predicting the speed of
heat transfer by convection.

2. Coefficient of thermal expansion – a fluid, which has a high coefficient of

thermal expansion, will consequently have a high change of density with
change of temperature. This, in turn, will tend to speed up the formation and
movement of convection currents.

3. Viscosity – convection currents will move slowly within fluids of high viscosity
and quickly within fluids of low viscosity. Thus, the rate of heat transfer by
convection will depend upon the viscosity of the fluid being heated.

4. Thermal conductivity – most fluids have very low thermal conductivity

values. Accordingly, heat transfer by conduction is slow and far less important
than heat transfer by convection. The fluid would need to have an
uncharacteristically high thermal conductivity for this factor to be of any
importance.

5. Specific heat capacity – a fluid with a high specific heat capacity will carry
more heat with it, as it circulates, than one with a low value. Thus, the
specific heat capacity is an important factor to consider when evaluating heat
transfer by convection.

6. Vessel dimensions – the distance traveled by the convection currents and the
area of the vessel, which is heated will both affect the rate of heat transfer

Module I Overview of Heat Transfer THELMA T. OBILLO, PME

Faculty, Mechanical Engineering
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by convection. So the fluid in a tall narrow vessel may take longer to heat up
than the same mass of the same fluid in a shorter, wider vessel.

7. Temperature distribution – the rate of heat transfer will depend upon the
difference in temperature between the hottest and coldest parts of the
system. For a vessel, the hottest part will be at the base and the coldest part
near the surface of the fluid. As heating proceeds, this temperature
difference gets smaller. It reaches a minimum when the liquid begins to boil.

3. Radiation

Thermal radiation is the transmission of heat in the form of radiant energy or

wave motion from one body to another across an intervening space. Unlike heat
transfer by conduction and convection, transport of thermal radiation does not
necessarily affect the material medium between the heat source and the receiver.
An intervening medium is not even necessary and the radiation can be affected
through vacuum or a space devoid of any matter. Radiation exchange, in fact, occurs
most effectively in vacuum. A material present between the heat source and the
receiver would either reduce or eliminate entirely the propagation of radiation
energy.

The mechanism of the heat flow by radiation consists of three distinct phases:
a. Conversion of thermal energy of the hot source into electromagnetic
waves: all bodies above absolute zero temperature are capable of
emitting radiant energy. Energy released by a radiating surface is not
continuous but is in the form of successive and separate (discrete) packets
or quanta of energy called photons. The photons are propagated through
the space as rays; the movement of swarm of photos is described as the
electromagnetic waves.

b. Passage of wave motion through intervening space. The photons, as

carriers of energy, travel with unchanged frequency in straight paths with
speed equal to that of light.

c. Transformation of waves into heat: when the photons approach the

cold receiving surface, there occurs reconversion of wave motion into
thermal energy which is partly absorbed. Reflected or transmitted
through the receiving surface.

The most vivid evidence of radiation heat transfer is that represented by solar
energy which passes through inter-stellar space (conditions close to that for perfect
vacuum) on its way to the earth surface. Solar radiation plays an important part in
the design of heating and ventilating systems. Heat transfer by radiation is
encountered in boiler furnaces, billet reheating furnaces and other types of heat
exchange apparatus. The design and construction of engines, gas turbines, nuclear
reactors and solar collections is also significantly influenced by the radiation heat
transfer.

The basic rate equations for radiation heat transfer are based on Stefan-
Boltzman Law:

Module I Overview of Heat Transfer THELMA T. OBILLO, PME

Faculty, Mechanical Engineering
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Eb =  b AT 4 ---------------------(Equation 1.3)

where, Eb is the energy radiated per unit time, T is the absolute temperature of the
surface, and (symbol) is the Stefan-Boltzman constant

 b = 5.67 10−8 W
m2 − K 4

Equation 1.4 is essentially valid for an ideal radiator or a black body-suffix b

designates a black surface. The radiant energy emitted by a real surface is less than
that for an ideal emitter and is given by

E =  b AT 4 ---------------------(Equation 1.4)

where, 𝜀 is a radiative property of the surface and is called emissivity; its value
depends upon surface characteristics and temperature. It indicates how effectively
the surface emits radiations compared to an ideal or black surface 2 at temperature
T2. The net radiant heat transfer is

q =  b A1 (T14 − T24 ) -------------(Equation 1.5)

Likewise, the net rate of heat transfer between the real surface (called gray surface)
at temperature T1 to a surrounding black surface at temperature T2 is

q =  b A11 (T14 − T24 ) --------------(Equation 1.6)

The next exchange of heat between the two radiating surfaces is due to the fact that
one at the higher temperature radiates more and receives less energy for its
absorption. An isolated body which remains at constant temperature emits just as
must energy by radiation as it receives.

Steady and Unsteady Heat Transfer

Heat exchange between two systems may take place under steady (stable)
thermal conditions or under unsteady (unstable) thermal conditions. Steady state
implies that temperature at each point of the system remains constant in the course
of time, and it is a function only of space co-ordinates
dt
t = f ( x, y, z ) ; =0
d
Steady state results in a constant rate of heat exchange (heat influx equals
heat efflux), and there is no change in the internal energy of the system during such
a process. Typical examples of steady state heat transfer are:
• Cooling of an electric bulb by the surrounding atmosphere,
• Heat flow from the products of combustion to water in the tubes
of a boiler, from the hot to cold fluid in a heat exchanger, and
from a refrigerated space to cooling surface of the evaporator.

Under unsteady thermal conditions, temperature of the system changes

continuously with time. Temperature is obviously a function of space and time co-
ordinates.

Module I Overview of Heat Transfer THELMA T. OBILLO, PME

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dt
t = f ( x, y, z, ) ; 0
d

Unsteady state result in heat transfer rate which changes with time. Further,
a change in temperature indicates a change of internal energy of the system. Energy
storage is thus a part and parcel of unsteady heat flow. Typical examples of unsteady
heat transfer are:
• Warm-up periods of furnaces
• Boilers and turbines
• Cooling of castings in a foundry
• Heat treatment and stress relieving of metal castings

A special kind of unsteady process is the transient state wherein the system
is subjected to cyclic variations in the temperature of its environment. The
temperature at a particular point of the system returns periodically to the same
value; the rate of heat flow and energy storage also undergo periodic variations.
Examples are: heating or cooling of the water of an I.C. engine; heating or cooling
of the walls of a building during the 24-hours cycle of the day.

Further, the heat transfer in a system may be in one, two or more directions.
In a one-dimensional heat flow, there is a single predominant direction in which
temperature differential exist and obviously the heat flow takes place; heat flow in
the other two directions can be safely neglected. When the temperature is a function
of two co-ordinates, heat flow is two-dimensional. A three-dimensional heat flow
stipulates that temperature is a function of three co-ordinates, and consequently
heat flow occurs in all three directions.

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Faculty, Mechanical Engineering
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Lesson 3

 Thermal Conductivities and Properties

of Heat Transfer Materials

As discussed in Lesson 2, the effectiveness by which heat is transferred

through a material is measured by the heat conductivity or thermal conductivity,
k. A good conductor, such as copper, has a high conductivity; a poor conductor, or
an insulator, has a low conductivity. Conductivity is measured in watts per meter
per Kelvin (W/m-K). The rate of heat transfer by conduction is given by:

qconduction =−kAT Equation 1.1

x

where A is the cross-sectional area through which the heat is conducting, ∆T is the
temperature difference between the two surfaces separated by a distance Δx (see
Figure 1.3). In heat transfer, a positive q means that heat is flowing into the body,
and a negative q represents heat leaving the body. The negative sign in Equation 1.1
ensures that this convention is obeyed.

Equation (1.1) is the defining equation for thermal conductivity. On the basis
of this definition, experimental measurements may be made to determine the
thermal conductivity of different materials. Thermal conductivity is a property of
material and it depends essentially upon the material structure (chemical
composition, physical state and texture), moisture content and density of the
material, and operating conditions of pressure and temperature.

Following remarks apply to the thermal conductivity and its variation for
different conditions:
1. A material is considered to be comprised of (a) free electrons, and (b) atoms
which are bound in a periodic arrangement called lattice. Metals are best
conductors while liquids are generally poor conductors.
2. Thermal conductivity is always higher in the purest form of other impurities
cause an appreciable decrease in thermal conductivity.
3. Mechanical forming (i.e., forging, drawing and bending) or heat treatment of
metal cause considerable variation in thermal conductivity.
4. At elevated temperatures, thermal variation of the lattice becomes higher
and that retards the motion of free electrons.

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5. Heat transfer by conduction in gases occurs through transport of the kinetic

energy of molecular motion resulting from the random movement and
collisions of the molecules.
6. Thermal conductivity is only very weakly dependent on pressure for solids
and for liquids as well, and essentially independent of pressure for gases at
pressure near standard atmospheric.
7. For most materials, the dependence of thermal conductivity on temperature
is almost linear.
8. Nonmetallic solids do not conduct heat as efficiently as metals.
9. Majority of engineering materials are isotropic.
10. Based on experimental results, Wiedemann and Franz made the following
observations concerning thermal and electrical conductivities of a material.
“The ratio of the thermal and electrical conductivities is same for
all metals at the same temperature; and that the ratio is directly
proportional to the absolute temperature of the metal.”
11. Materials with large thermal conductivity are called thermal conductors, and
those with small thermal conductivity are called thermal insulators.
Insulating materials are used for obstructing the flow of heat between an
enclosure and its surroundings.
12. Pure metals possess the highest thermal conductivity, (k=10 to 400 W/m-
deg). Heat insulating and building materials have a comparatively low
thermal conductivity, (k=0.023 to 2.9 W/m-deg) and it ranges from 0.2 to 0.5
W/m-deg.
13. Thermal conductivity of different materials decreases in the following order:
a. Pure metals
b. Alloys
c. Nonmetallic crystalline and amorphous substances
d. Liquids and
e. Gases

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Faculty, Mechanical Engineering
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We noted that thermal conductivity has the units of watts per meter per
Celsius degree when the heat flow is expressed in watts. Note that a heat rate is
involved, and the numerical value of the thermal conductivity indicates how fast
heat will flow in a given material. How is the rate of energy transfer taken into
account in the molecular model discussed above? Clearly, the faster the molecules
move, the faster they will transport energy. Therefore, the thermal conductivity of
a gas should be dependent on temperature. A simplified analytical treatment shows
the thermal conductivity of a gas to vary with the square root of the absolute
temperature. (It may be recalled that the velocity of sound in a gas varies with the
square root of the absolute temperature; this velocity is approximately the mean
speed of the molecules.) Thermal conductivities of some typical gases are shown in
Figure 1-4. For most gases at moderate pressures the thermal conductivity is a
function of temperature alone.

In the English system of units, heat flow is expressed in British thermal units
per hour (Btu/h), area in square feet, and temperature in degrees Fahrenheit.
Thermal conductivity will then have units of Btu/h·ft·◦F. Thermal energy may be
conducted in solids by two modes: lattice vibration and trans-port by free
electrons. In good electrical conductors a rather large number of free electrons
move about in the lattice structure of the material. Just as these electrons may
transport electric charge, they may also carry thermal energy from a high-
temperature region to a low-temperature region, as in the case of gases. In fact,
these electrons are frequently referred to as the electron gas. Energy may also be
transmitted as vibrational energy in the lattice structure of the material. In general,
however, this latter mode of energy transfer is not as large as the electron transport,
and for this reason good electrical conductors are almost always good heat
conductors, namely, copper, aluminum, and silver, and electrical insulators are
usually good heat insulators. A notable exception is diamond, which is an electrical
insulator, but which can have a thermal conductivity five times as high as silver or
copper. It is this fact that enables a jeweler to distinguish between genuine diamonds
and fake stones. A small instrument is available that measures the response of the
stones to a thermal heat pulse. A true diamond will exhibit a far more rapid response
than the nongenuine stone.

Thermal conductivities of some typical solids are shown in Figure 1-6. Other
data are given in Appendix A (Heat Transfer by Holman, 10 th Edition).

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Faculty, Mechanical Engineering
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Lesson 4


Modes of Heat Transfer
Applied in Heat Exchangers

Applications of Heat Transfer

The discipline of the heat transfer encompasses a great many fascinating areas like:

1. Design of steam generators, condensers, and other heat exchange equipment

in power plant engineering; solar energy conversion for space heating and for
electric power production.

2. I.C. engines, refrigeration and airconditioning units, superheaters and

condensers and many other cooling and heating appliances in mechanical
engineering. The operation of refrigeration and airconditioning units depends
greatly on the effective transfer of heat in condensers and evaporators.

3. Design of cooling systems for electric motors, generators, and transformers

in electrical engineering so that the heat generated during the flow of current
through the windings of these machines can be effectively dissipated. This is
to avoid the conditions which will cause overheating and damage the
equipment.

4. Evaporation, condensation, heating and cooling of fluids in chemical

operations. Hardly any chemical operation can be identified that does not
involve heating or cooling of material at some stage or the other.

5. Construction of dams and other heavy structures, calculation of thermal

expansion of suspension bridges and railway tracks, minimization of building-
heat losses by means of improved insulation techniques.

6. Proper functioning of valves and other controls operated by temperature

changes, thermal control of space vehicles.

7. Heat treatment of metals where diffusion rate of carbon in steel is required

to be made to estimate the period for which the steel component must be
exposed to carburizing atmosphere.

8. Dispersion of atmospheric pollutants; problem of thermal pollution associated

with the discharge of large amounts of water heat from a power plant to
environment. Industrial exhaust gases laden with noxious pollutants are
discharged high enough. This is to ensure that by the time pollutants diffuse
downwards, their concentration falls below safe limits.

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Heat Exchanger Design Characteristics

All heat exchangers operate under the same basic principles. However, these
devices can be classified and categorized in several different ways based on their
design characteristics. The main characteristics by which heat exchangers can be
categorized include:

• Flow configuration
• Construction method
• Heat transfer mechanism

Flow Configuration

The flow configuration, also referred to as the flow arrangement, of a heat

exchanger refers to the direction of movement of the fluids within the heat
exchanger in relation to each other. There are four principal flow configurations
employed by heat exchangers:

• Parallel (Cocurrent) flow

• Countercurrent flow
• Crossflow
• Hybrid flow

Parallel (Cocurrent) Flow

Cocurrent flow heat exchangers, also referred to as parallel flow heat

exchangers, are heat exchanging devices in which the fluids move parallel to and in
the same direction as each other. Although this configuration typically results in
lower efficiencies than a counter flow arrangement, it also allows for the greatest
thermal uniformity across the walls of the heat exchanger.

Countercurrent Flow

Countercurrent flow heat exchangers, also known as counter flow heat

exchangers, are designed such that the fluids move antiparallel (i.e., parallel but in
opposite directions) to each other within the heat exchanger. The most commonly
employed of the flow configurations, a counter flow arrangement typically exhibits
the highest efficiencies as it allows for the greatest amount of heat transference
between fluids and, consequently, the greatest change in temperature.

Crossflow

In crossflow heat exchangers, fluids flow perpendicularly to one another. The

efficiencies of heat exchangers which employ this flow configuration fall between
that of countercurrent and cocurrent heat exchangers.

Hybrid Flow

Hybrid flow heat exchangers exhibit some combination of the characteristics

of the previously mentioned flow configurations. For example, heat exchanger
designs can employ multiple flow passes and arrangements (e.g., both counter flow
and crossflow arrangements) within a single heat exchanger. These types of heat

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Faculty, Mechanical Engineering
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exchangers are typically used to accommodate the limitations of an application, such

as space, budget costs, or temperature and pressure requirements.

Figure 1.5, below, illustrates the various flow configurations available,

including a cross/counter flow configuration, which is an example of a hybrid flow
configuration.

Figure 1.5 – Heat Exchanger Flow Configurations

Construction Method

While in the previous section, heat exchangers were categorized based on the type
of flow configuration employed, this section categorizes them based on their
construction. The construction characteristics by which these devices can be
classified include:

• Recuperative vs. regenerative

• Direct vs. indirect
• Static vs. dynamic
• Types of components and materials employed

Recuperative vs. Regenerative

Heat exchangers can be classified as recuperative heat exchangers and

regenerative heat exchangers.

The difference between recuperative and regenerative heat exchanger

systems is that in recuperative heat exchangers (commonly called recuperators),
each fluid simultaneously flows through its own channel within the heat exchanger.
On the other hand, regenerative heat exchangers, also referred to as capacitive heat
exchangers or regenerators, alternately allow warmer and cooler fluids to flow
through the same channel. Both recuperators and regenerators can be further
separated into different categories of exchangers, such as direct or indirect and
static or dynamic, respectively. Of the two types indicated, recuperative heat
exchangers are more commonly employed throughout industry.

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Direct vs. Indirect

Recuperative heat exchangers employ either direct contact or indirect

contact transfer processes to exchange heat between fluids.

In direct contact heat exchangers, the fluids are not separated within the
device and heat transfers from one fluid to another through direct contact. On the
other hand, in indirect heat exchangers, the fluids remain separated from one
another by thermally conductive components, such as tubes or plates, throughout
the heat transfer process. The components first receive heat from the warmer fluid
as it flows through the heat exchanger, and then transfer the heat to the cooler fluid
as it flows through. Some of the devices which employ direct contact transfer
processes include cooling towers and steam injectors, while devices that employ
indirect contact transfer processes include tubular or plate heat exchangers.

Static vs. Dynamic

There are two main types of regenerative heat exchangers—static heat

exchangers and dynamic heat exchangers. In static regenerators (also known as fixed
bed regenerators), the heat exchanger material and components remain stationary
as fluids flow through the device, while in dynamic regenerators the material and
components move throughout the heat transfer process. Both types are at risk of
cross-contamination between fluid streams, necessitating careful design
considerations during manufacturing.

In one example of the static type, warmer fluid is run through one channel
while cooler fluid runs through another for a fixed period of time at the end of which,
through the use of quick-operating valves, flow is reversed such that the two fluids
switch channels. An example of the dynamic type typically employs a rotating,
thermally conductive component (e.g., a drum) through which warmer and cooler
fluids continuously flow—albeit in separate, sealed-off sections. As the component
rotates, any given section alternately passes through the warmer steam and cooler
streams, allowing for the component to absorb heat from the warmer fluid and
transfer the heat to the cooler fluid as it passes through. Figure 1.6, below, depicts
the heat transfer process within a rotary-type regenerator with a countercurrent
flow configuration.

Figure 1.6 – Heat Transfer in a Rotary-Type Regenerator

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Heat Exchanger Components and Materials

There are several types of components which can be employed in heat

exchangers, as well as a wide range of materials used to construct them. The
components and materials used depend on the type of heat exchanger and its
intended application.

Some of the most common components used to construct heat exchangers

include shells, tubes, spiral tubes (coils), plates, fins, and adiabatic wheels. Further
detail on how these components function within a heat exchanger will be provided
in the next section (see Types of Heat Exchangers).

While metals are highly suitable—and commonly used—for constructing heat

exchangers due to their high thermal conductivity, as in the case of copper, titanium,
and stainless steel heat exchangers, other materials, such as graphite, ceramics,
composites, or plastics, may offer greater advantages depending on the
requirements of the heat transfer application.

Figure 1.7 – Heat Exchanger Classification by Construction

Heat Transfer Mechanism

There are two types of heat transfer mechanisms employed by heat

exchangers—single-phase or two-phase heat transfer.

In single-phase heat exchangers, the fluids do not undergo any phase change
throughout the heat transfer process, meaning that both the warmer and cooler
fluids remain in the same state of matter at which they entered the heat exchanger.
For example, in water-to-water heat transfer applications, the warmer water loses
heat which is then transferred to the cooler water and neither change to a gas or
solid.

On the other hand, in two-phase heat exchangers, fluids do experience a

phase change during the heat transfer process. The phase change can occur in either
or both of the fluids involved resulting in a change from a liquid to a gas or a gas to
a liquid. Typically, devices that employ a two-phase heat transfer mechanism require
more complex design considerations than ones that employ a single-phase heat

Module I Overview of Heat Transfer THELMA T. OBILLO, PME

Faculty, Mechanical Engineering
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transfer mechanism. Some of the types of two-phase heat exchangers available

include boilers, condensers, and evaporators.

Types of Heat Exchangers

Based on the design characteristics indicated above, there are several different
variants of heat exchangers available. Some of the more common variants employed
throughout industry include:

• Shell and tube heat exchangers

• Double pipe heat exchangers
• Plate heat exchangers
• Condensers, evaporators, and boilers

Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers

The most common type of heat exchangers, shell and tube heat exchangers are
constructed of a single tube or series of parallel tubes (i.e., tube bundle) enclosed
within a sealed, cylindrical pressure vessel (i.e., shell). The design of these devices
is such that one fluid flows through the smaller tube(s), and the other fluid flows
around its/their outside(s) and between it/them within the sealed shell. Other
design characteristics available for this type of heat exchanger include finned tubes,
single- or two-phase heat transfer, countercurrent flow, cocurrent flow, or crossflow
arrangements, and single, two, or multiple pass configurations.

Some of the types of shell and tube heat exchangers available include helical coil
heat exchangers and double pipe heat exchangers, and some of the applications
include preheating, oil cooling, and steam generation.

A close-up view of a heat exchanger tube bundle.

Image Credit: Anton Moskvitin/Shutterstock.com

Double Pipe Heat Exchangers

A form of shell and tube heat exchanger, double pipe heat exchangers employ
the simplest heat exchanger design and configuration which consists of two or more
concentric, cylindrical pipes or tubes (one larger tube and one or more smaller
tubes). As per the design of all shell and tube heat exchangers, one fluid flows
through the smaller tube(s), and the other fluid flows around the smaller tube(s)
within the larger tube.

Module I Overview of Heat Transfer THELMA T. OBILLO, PME

Faculty, Mechanical Engineering
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The design requirements of double pipe heat exchangers include

characteristics from the recuperative and indirect contact types mentioned
previously as the fluids remain separated and flow through their own channels
throughout the heat transfer process. However, there is some flexibility in the design
of double pipe heat exchangers, as they can be designed with cocurrent or
countercurrent flow arrangements and to be used modularly in series, parallel, or
series-parallel configurations within a system. For example, Figure 4, below, depicts
the transfer of heat within an isolated double pipe heat exchanger with a cocurrent
flow configuration.

Figure 1.8 – Heat Transfer in a Double Pipe Heat Exchanger

Plate Heat Exchangers

Also referred to as plate type heat exchangers, plate heat exchangers are
constructed of several thin, corrugated plates bundled together. Each pair of plates
creates a channel through which one fluid can flow, and the pairs are stacked and
attached—via bolting, brazing, or welding—such that a second passage is created
between pairs through which the other fluid can flow.

The standard plate design is also available with some variations, such as in
plate fin or pillow plate heat exchangers. Plate fin exchangers employ fins or spacers
between plates and allow for multiple flow configurations and more than two fluid
streams to pass through the device. Pillow plate exchangers apply pressure to the
plates to increase the heat transfer efficiency across the surface of the plate. Some
of the other types available include plate and frame, plate and shell, and spiral plate
heat exchangers.

A close-up view of a plate type heat exchanger.

Image Credit: withGod/Shutterstock.com

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Condensers, Evaporators, and Boilers

Boilers, condensers, and evaporators are heat exchangers which employ a

two-phase heat transfer mechanism. As mentioned previously, in two-phase heat
exchangers one or more fluids undergo a phase change during the heat transfer
process, either changing from a liquid to a gas or a gas to a liquid.

Condensers are heat exchanging devices that take heated gas or vapor and
cool it to the point of condensation, changing the gas or vapor into a liquid. On the
other hand, in evaporators and boilers, the heat transfer process changes the fluids
from liquid form to gas or vapor form.

Other Heat Exchanger Variants

Heat exchangers are employed in a variety of applications across a wide range

of industries. Consequently, there are several variants of heat exchangers available,
each suitable for the requirements and specifications of a particular application.
Beyond the variants mentioned above, other types available include air cooled heat
exchangers, fan cooled heat exchangers, and adiabatic wheel heat exchangers.

Heat Exchanger Selection Considerations

While there are a wide variety of heat exchangers available, the suitability
of each type (and its design) in transferring heat between fluids is dependent on the
specifications and requirements of the application. Those factors largely determine
the optimal design of the desired heat exchanger and influence the corresponding
rating and sizing calculations.

Some of the factors that industry professionals should keep in mind when designing
and choosing a heat exchanger include:

• The type of fluids, the fluid stream, and their properties

• The desired thermal outputs
• Size limitations
• Costs

Fluid Type, Stream, and Properties

The specific type of fluids—e.g., air, water, oil, etc.—involved and their
physical, chemical, and thermal properties—e.g., phase, temperature, acidity or
alkalinity, pressure and flow rate, etc.—help determine the flow configuration and
construction best suited for that particular heat transfer application.

For example, if corrosive, high temperature, or high-pressure fluids are

involved, the heat exchanger design must be able to withstand the high stress
conditions throughout the heating or cooling process. One method of fulfilling these
requirements is by choosing construction materials which hold the desired
properties: graphite heat exchangers exhibit high thermal conductivity and corrosion
resistance, ceramic heat exchangers can handle temperatures higher than many
commonly used metals’ melting points, and plastic heat exchangers offer a low-cost
alternative which maintains a moderate degree of corrosion resistance and thermal
conductivity. Another method is by choosing a design suited for the fluid properties:
plate heat exchangers are capable of handling low to medium pressure fluids but at

Module I Overview of Heat Transfer THELMA T. OBILLO, PME

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higher flow rates than other types of heat exchangers, and two-phase heat
exchangers are necessary when handling fluids which require a phase change
throughout the heat transfer process. Other fluid and fluid stream properties that
industry professionals may keep in mind when choosing a heat exchanger include
fluid viscosity, fouling characteristics, particulate matter content, and presence of
water-soluble compounds.

Thermal Outputs

The thermal output of a heat exchanger refers to the amount of heat

transferred between fluids and the corresponding temperature change at the end of
the heat transfer process. The transference of heat within the heat exchanger leads
to a change of temperature in both fluids, lowering the temperature of one fluid as
heat is removed and raising the temperature of the other fluid as heat is added. The
desired thermal output and rate of heat transfer help determine the optimal type
and design of heat exchanger as some heat exchanger designs offer greater heater
transfer rates and can handle higher temperatures than other designs, albeit at a
higher cost.

Design Optimization

Designing the optimal heat exchanger for a given application (with particular
specifications and requirements as indicated above) involves determining the
temperature change of the fluids, the heat transfer coefficient, and the construction
of the heat exchanger and relating them to the rate of heat transfer. The two main
problems which arise in pursuing this objective are calculating the device’s rating
and sizing.

The rating refers to the calculation of the thermal effectiveness (i.e.,

efficiency) of a heat exchanger of a given design and size, including the rate of heat
transfer, the amount of heat transferred between fluids and their corresponding
temperature change, and the total pressure drop across the device. The sizing refers
to the calculation of the required total dimensions of the heat exchanger (i.e., the
surface area available for use in the heat transfer process), including the length,
width, height, thickness, number of components, component geometries and
arrangements, etc., for an application with given process specifications and
requirements. The design characteristics of a heat exchanger—e.g., flow
configuration, material, construction components and geometry, etc.—affect both
the rating and sizing calculations. Ideally, the optimal heat exchanger design for an
application finds a balance (with factors optimized as specified by the designer)
between the rating and sizing which satisfies the process specifications and
requirements at the minimum necessary cost.

Module I Overview of Heat Transfer THELMA T. OBILLO, PME

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 MODULE SUMMARY

Thermodynamics helps to determine the quantity of work and heat

interactions when a system changes from one equilibrium state to another. Heat
transfer is concerned with the estimation of rate at which heat is transferred with
in a medium, across an interface or from one surface to another. It also deals with
temperature distribution in the medium, the duration of heating and cooling for a
certain heat duty and the surface area required to accomplish that duty.

The three basic modes of heat transfer are: Conduction is the transfer of
heat within a medium or between different mediums which are in direct physical
contact. Heat conduction occurs without appreciable displacement of the molecules
constituting the medium. Convection is the process of energy transport affected by
circulation or mixing of one portion of the fluid with another. Convection is possible
only in a fluid medium (gas, liquid or a powdery substance) and is directly linked
with the transport of medium itself. Radiation is the transmission of heat in the form
of radiant energy or wave motion without affecting the material medium between
the heat source and the receiver. Radiation exchange requires no intervening space
or medium, and, in fact, occurs most effectively in vacuum.

The basic laws that govern heat transmission are: Fourier’s Law of Heat
Conduction, Newton’s Law of Cooling, and Stefan-Boltzman Law for heat transfer
by conduction, convection, and radiation, respectively.

Thermal conductivity is a property of the material and it depends essentially

upon the material structure (chemical composition, physical state and texture),
moisture content and density of the material, and operating conditions of pressure
and temperature.

The discipline of heat encompasses a great many fascinating areas kike

thermal power plants, thermal control of chemical reactors, refrigeration, and
airconditioning systems, design of cooling systems, etc. An engineer utilizes his
knowledge of heat transfer to either transmit heat in the most effective or economic
way, or to protect his equipment against excessive heat gains or losses.

Module I Overview of Heat Transfer THELMA T. OBILLO, PME

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References:

1. Heat and Mass Transfer by D. S. Kumar, S K Kataria and Sons Publications. 2014
2. Heat and Mass Transfer by Mahesh M Rathore, McGraw-Hill Publication. 2014
3. Heat Transfer 10th Ed by Jack Philip Holman, McGraw-Hill Publication.2010

Prepared by: Recommending Approval: Approved:

THELMA T. OBILLO ROY N. LAQUIDAN LORENZO L. BACANI

Professor Program Chair Dean

Module I Overview of Heat Transfer THELMA T. OBILLO, PME

Faculty, Mechanical Engineering