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Urban Waste Management: Methods, Techniques and Strategies

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Urban Waste Management: Methods, Techniques

and Strategies
C. Kicheek
Department of Geography, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam, India

Abstract

The generation of urban waste is obvious due to the rapid increase in urbanization. The increase in consumption

led to a corresponding increase in waste generation as well. This study used already existing literature to identify

the various types of waste generated in urban settings. Besides, the study has also identified the various waste

management strategies and methods adopted across the globe to manage urban waste effectively. The outcome of

the study revealed that wastes are classified in terms of their physical state (solid, liquid, and gaseous states), bio-

degradability (bio-degradable waste and non-bio-degradable waste), and in terms of classification based on

effects on human health. These include hazardous waste and non-hazardous waste. The study found that among

the various waste management methods and strategies, landfilling, compositing, 3Rs (reduce, reuse, recycle),

incineration or combustion, and bioremediation are the most widely used waste management methods across the

globe.

Keywords: solid waste, liquid waste, hazardous waste, landfilling, recycling, incineration, bioremediation.

1.0 Introduction

Waste management problem in urban settings is a global phenomenon. According to Shukla, Shashi, and Jain

(2012), urban solid waste management is considered one of the most immediate and serious environmental

problem confronting municipal authorities in developing countries like India. Poor sanitary conditions are often

result to diseases transmission, atmospheric and water pollution, bad odor, and a liability to the public purse.

Inadequate sanitation costs India almost $54 billion per year. This is 6.8% of the 2006 GDP of India (World Bank

Report 2010). Collection of waste generated daily is very low in many cities in developing countries, of which

India is not an exception. According to Akolkar (2005), in the major cities of India, waste collection efficiency
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ranges from 50% to 90% of solid waste generated. Urban waste management problems have further exacerbated

the already existing problems of poorly planned urban cities. Solid waste can block drainage channels in poorly

planned cities in developing countries. According to the United Nations Environment Programme, the increasing

volume and complexity of waste associated with the modern economy is posing a serious risk to the ecosystem

and human health. Each year, an estimated 11.2 billion tonnes of solid waste is being generated. Of all the waste

streams, waste from electrical and electronic equipment containing hazardous substances presents the fastest-

growing waste challenge in developing countries. The impacts of seasonal changes in waste composition and

practice are still in their infancy in developing countries. Thus, waste management is not only a problem but

seemingly a major setback to economic growth in both developed and developing countries.

A rapidly growing population, urbanization, and changing consumption patterns are associated with an increase in

the volume of waste. The world population as at 2023 is estimated to be 8 billion (United Nations Population Fund,

2023).

Many countries have adopted waste management strategies which include: recycling, manufacturing of compost,

compaction, anaerobic digestion, etc. These have proven to be less than 100% efficient in dealing with the ever-

increasing waste generation in recent times due to the increase in the volume of waste produce per day. The

management strategies in the developed economies are quite efficient as compared to those in the less developed

countries. In spite of waste management strategies such as recycling, composting, and other methods of waste

management, waste management is still a major challenge in the 21st century in major urban areas. However, the

situation is worse in the developing countries, of which India is not an exception. The rural-urban drive and the

quest for industrialization in many developing countries in recent times have speeded up the amount of daily waste

generation. Metallic waste dumped to blend in with the earth’s crust again as ore will not happen because we are

dumping faster than nature can degrade and absorb it (Syed, 2006). Waste management should consider both the

short and long-term impacts on biodiversity and the overall ecosystem. Poor collection systems and management

of waste to a very large extent has proven to be inefficient in many towns and cities in third world countries since

they depend largely on burning of waste with its attendant problems, and the natural biodegradation of waste.

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Liquid waste management has also been a major challenge, as the pipes of liquid waste leak at times, thus polluting

natural water bodies such as rivers, lakes, etc.

India, a country with the world's second largest population after China, has been confronted with waste problems

for decades. Managing waste in the major cities like Mumbai, Delhi, Bangalore, Channai, etc. is quite challenging

and this call for concern for modern waste management techniques to be adopted to effectively manage waste in

this large population cities. The next decades may witness India becoming the world most populous country. As

such the government of India has to intensified more reliable and technical waste management strategies to combat

waste problems in the country.

The health implications associated with improper waste disposal and management are usually pervasive as diseases

such as cholera, typhoid dysentery, and intestinal worm infections, among others are associated with improper

waste disposal and management. Diarrhoea remains a major killer but is largely preventable if better sanitation

and waste management strategies are put in place. The World Health Organization in 2020 points out that better

water, sanitation, and hygiene could prevent the deaths of 297,000 children aged under 5 each year.

1.1 Waste Management Problems: Past and Present

The generation of waste materials by human dates back to centuries. The problems of waste management were

brought to much attention during the industrial revolution period in Europe. The industrial revolution did not only

increase production and consumption patterns but also led to rural-urban drift. The increase in consumption and

population explosion in the urban areas necessitate the adaptation of effective waste management strategies to

tackle the increasing waste generation. According to Syed (2006), man has always generated waste materials which

are either the bye-product of his activities, for which he cannot find any use, or products which have reached the

end of their useful life. During the ancient times, waste management wasn’t a problem as it is today. This is

because, nature itself is enough to get rid of waste through dispersion, dilution, and biodegradation at the time.

However, in modern times, the situation is different. Nature is not able to get rid of the waste problems engulfing

our universe. This is as a result of both the quantitative and qualitative nature of the waste that has been generated

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in recent times. Even though the natural treatment methods still operate, they are slower and can only take care of

a limited amount and specific types of waste.

Waste materials such as plastics and metals are difficult to degrade by nature as nature may take thousands of years

to be able to degrade them. Also, chemicals such as chlorofluorocarbons released into the atmosphere have the

propensity to stay in the atmosphere for a longer duration because nature isn’t able to disperse them easily. It’s not

surprising that climate change has become a common global phenomenon since nature has not been able to disperse

chlorofluorocarbons and other harmful gases released into the atmosphere. Similarly, the large amount and quality

of waste that has recently been deposited in the oceans makes it difficult to easily bend with the marine waterbody.

This situation is indifferent in rivers and other freshwater bodies. The large quantum of waste dumped into the

oceans and fresh water bodies poses a big threat to the lives of marine species and other aquatic life.

The past situation of waste management problems was different than it is today. This is because, waste generated

during the pre-industrial era was biodegradable by the atmosphere and also both marine and fresh water bodies

were able to absorb and dilute waste released inside them. The chemical composition of preindustrial waste wasn’t

a big deal for marine and freshwater aquatic life.

1.2 Objectives of the study

 To identify the various types of waste generated in an urban setting,

 To identify some waste management methods and strategies predominantly used to manage urban waste across

the globe.

1.3 The significance of the study

The rapid population explosion all over the world has led to a high quantity of waste generation. As a result,

pollution has become the order of the day with its attendant problems. Pollution by waste causes not only diseases,

but also economic losses to countries. Government of various countries spend billions of dollars in the health sector

for the treatment of diseases that could have been prevented by a good and healthy sanitary environment. As a

result, it is imperative for proper waste management strategies and methods to be adopted to save the lives of

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people from poor sanitary diseases. This will also reduce the various governments revenue spent on the health

sector to cure sanitary-borne diseases. The outcome of this study will be relevant today and in the future in terms

of waste management.

2.0 Methodology

This study relied on existing documents and literature to analyze and determine the various types of waste

generated in an urban setting, as well as the management strategies or methods used across the world to manage

and dispose of waste. According to Tamanja & Pajibo (2019), using document analysis technique is suitable where

there is enough available data, literature, and documents to aid the researcher achieve the intended objectives of

the study.

3.0 The Sources of waste

The various sources of urban waste can be classified into the following (Table 1):

The sources of waste Examples

Domestic wastes Garbage, household wastes water, food wastes,

rubbish, old cloths, old toys, old mattress etc.

Industrial wastes Ash, acid, chemicals, coals, plastics, textiles,

paper and pulp wastes, thermal power plant

emissions, metal scraps, abrasive, solvents,

plastics etc.

Municipal wastes Street sweeping, sewage treatment plant

wastes, waste from schools, waste from public

toilets, waste from market centers etc.

Construction wastes Wastes from demolition, waste from

excavations, road works waste, wastes

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emanating from bridges construction, cement

dust, concrete etc.

Biomedical wastes Hospital/clinic waste, waste from laboratories

etc.

Electronic/ E-wastes Discarded electronics e.g., TV, computers,

mobile phones, music systems, transistors,

tape recorders, batteries, chargers, cassettes

Healthcare wastes Needles, syringes, Pathological waste, sharp

wastes, chemical waste, pharmaceutical waste,

etc.

Agricultural wastes Crop residue, livestock yard waste, weedicide

remains, outdated weedicides and fertilizers,

slaughter waste, wastes from plastics and

containers, etc.

Mining wastes Rock wastes, mine water, waste from

explosives, chemicals, etc.

Radioactive wastes Nuclear explosions waste, nuclear testing, and

radioactive substances in medical and

scientific research, radioactive diagnostic

material waste etc.

Community wastes Wastes from markets, recreational centers,

educational and vocational training centers,

government offices waste, community

cleansing waste, etc.

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Commercial wastes Bulky wastes from shops, selling points,

offices, hostels, hotels, non-governmental

markets, stores, etc.

Table 1. Sources of waste generated in urban areas.

4.0 Types of waste

Basically, wastes are classified into three types. They are classified on the basis of their physical state, ability to

undergo biodegradation, and effect on human health (Fig.1). Classifying waste based on physical state include

solid, liquid, and gas. On the basis of bio-degradability, waste can be classified as bio-degradable (organic) and

non-biodegradable (metals, plastics, paper, and glasses). Based on the effects on human health, it can be classified

into hazardous and non-hazardous waste.

Fig 1. Classification and types of waste generated in urban settings.

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Classification base on Physical State

In this case, the waste is either in a solid state, a liquid state, or a gaseous state. Solid state waste includes sawdust,

fruit peels, scrap metals, waste tires, etc. Examples of liquid waste include household waste water, grease, human

and animal excreta etc., whereas gaseous waste includes carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), methane

(CH4), chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) etc.

4.1 Solid waste

Solid waste is that which arises from human and animal activities that are normally solid and are usually discarded

as useless or unwanted (Syed, 2006). The term is used broadly in this context, encompassing both the

heterogeneous mass of urban waste and the more homogeneous accumulations of agricultural, industrial, and

mineral wastes (Syed, 2006). They may also be viewed as any material that we discard that is not liquid or gas.

They could be domestically or industrially generated. Some of them are combustible, while others are

noncombustible. Typically, combustible material consists of paper, cardboard, plastic, leather, wood, furniture,

etc. On the other hand, noncombustible solid waste includes glass, crockery, tin cans, ferrous and non-ferrous

materials, among others.

4.2 Liquid waste

Liquid waste refers to fluid waste, consisting of sewage and domestic waste, unwanted liquid chemicals, and other

used liquids, produced through industrial activity. They are mostly hazardous and pose a health challenge to

humans and animal life. Liquid waste must be properly managed to avoid the discharge of pollutants into water

courses. According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), liquid waste is defined as any waste material

that passes the definition of "liquid." This means that the material must " pass through a 0.45-micron filter at a

pressure differential of 75 psi". In the EPA's provided definition of liquid waste, the main producers of liquid waste

are animals and human beings due to the natural excretion. According to Vema (2021), liquid waste poses a serious

threat to health and the environment because of its ability to enter watersheds, pollute ground and drinking water

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when improperly handled and disposed. Illegal and unethical reuse of untreated liquid waste can have detrimental

effects on diseases such as cholera, dysentery, and diarrhea, as well as gastro-intestinal disorders, among others.

4.3 Gaseous waste

Gaseous waste is mostly produced by chemical industries as a byproduct of the industrial process, vehicular

emissions, animals and organic waste. Among the commonly produced gaseous waste are carbon dioxide, carbon

monoxide, chlorofluorocarbons, methane, ethane, etc. The higher concentration of these gases in the atmosphere

can impact adversely on the lives of flora and fauna.

4.4 Biodegradable waste

Bio-degradable waste is essentially waste originating naturally from plant or animal sources (organic sources).

They can easily be degraded by microbes, bacteria, fungi, etc. Biodegradables are usually found in municipal solid

waste such as waste food, green waste, and paper waste, among others. These types of waste are environmentally

friendly since they can easily be degraded to blend in with the earth. Biodegradable waste isn’t solely

environmentally friendly but also serves the needs of society (Adetola et al., 2021) Biodegradable waste is

abundant in all parts of the world and, when put into proper processing and usage, can trigger the economic growth

of many countries across the world.

4.5 non-biodegradable waste

These types of waste cannot easily be degraded to blend with the earth. They can be defined as

It is a substance that cannot be decomposed or dissolved naturally and acts as a source of pollution. They remained

on the planet Earth for many centuries. Such waste includes plastics, plastic bottles, plastic bags, razors, etc. Heaps

of biodegradable waste not only pollute the natural environment but can also be a major destruction to pedestrians

and motorists. Many urban environments in recent years have been characterized by high levels of decay of non-

degradable plastics. This is because polythene and plastics are cheaper in the packaging of consumable goods for

consumers. In spite of the world's attention being drawn to the effects that plastics have on our planet earth, plastics

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and polyethene are still widely used in many parts of the world regardless of the adverse long-term effects this will

have on human life. Many urban settings are still engulfed by the problem of plastic waste, and this needs drastic

attention.

4.6 Hazardous waste

Hazardous wastes are dangerous to human health and have detrimental effects on the environment as well. They

are waste that is considered toxic. Hazardous waste can be generated from manufacturing industries, old batteries,

degreasers, old insulation, etc. Hazardous waste poses substantial or potential threats to public health and the

environment (Kanagamani et al., 2020). To reduce the environmental risk posed by hazardous waste, proper care

must be taken during storage, segregation, transportation, and disposal because hazardous waste cannot be

disposed of in the environment (Kanagamani et al., 2020). Due to the toxic nature of hazardous waste, it’s

important to handle and dispose of it with care.

4.7 Non-hazardous waste

Non-hazardous wastes are not toxic and, as such, do not pose harm to human health as compared to hazardous

waste. Some examples of hazardous waste include sugar, lactic acid, bromides, lactic acid, carbonates, among

others. Even though non-hazardous wastes do not pose much risk to lives in the environment, they should still be

disposed of properly. Where necessary and possible, non-hazardous wastes should be put to other uses. Non-

hazardous waste, if not properly managed, could get contaminated by bacteria and microbes if exposed to the

environment for a longer period of time. Non-hazardous wastes, on the other hand, do not pose a significant threat

to biodiversity but should be managed and disposed of properly.

4.8 Waste Management Techniques

Waste management refers to the strategy that an individual or organization uses to dispose, reduce, reuse, and

prevent waste. Waste management consists of a series of steps such as collection of the waste, segregating it on

the basis of its nature, transporting it carefully and labelling it, undergoing various types of treatments in order to

reduce its hazardous effects and disposing of it by burning, burying, and recycling methods etc. (Vijayalakshmi,
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2020). These steps are taken to prevent the spread of pollution, reduce its hazardous effects and keep the

environment clean. So, the environment has become a good habitat for living creatures (Vijayalakshmi, 2020).

The series of steps that are taken to manage waste according Vijayalakshmi, 2020 is depicted in Fig. 2 below.

Fig 2. Series of steps taken to dispose urban waste.

5.0 Methods of Waste Management and Disposal

The most popular waste management methods and techniques include the following:

5.1 Landfill

A landfill denotes the disposal of waste materials by burying them. It is the oldest and most common form of waste

disposal in which waste is buried on a daily basis. According to the English Oxford dictionary, landfill is a widely

used method of garbage disposal that consists of dumping garbage on waste land, such as a quarry, open-cast mine,

or swamp. According to Rugiraramanzi (2013), the use of landfill is one of the best methods of urban waste

disposal. This is because so many multi-criteria parameters are usually considered before a suitable site is selected

as a landfill. These factors usually include but are not limited to elevation, soil type, elevation or slope, distance

from settlements, distance from water bodies, and sacred grooves. These factors are usually taken into account in

order to reduce the impact on the lives of flora and fauna. Kludert (2000), also argues that landfill site selection

necessitates technicalities and multi-thematic criteria. In spite of the technicalities and multi-factors that must be

considered to select a suitable landfill site, the use of landfill is still one of the most preferred waste disposal

methods across the globe. Even though several factors must be considered to determine a site as a landfill

(determining factors and constraints), landfill is still one of the most preferred waste disposal methods across the

globe.

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5.2 Reduce, Reuse, Recycle (3 Rs)

The main idea behind the 3 Rs is to minimize waste. Waste minimization involves waste prevention and treatment

(Singh et al., 2014). Waste can be minimized through reducing packaging materials or their thickness, which

decreases their total weight (Williams, 2005). This can be done through government policies towards waste

management. For instance, in 2012, Germany started a resource efficiency programme (ProgRess); this included

a waste prevention programme, which focuses on preventing substances, materials, or products from becoming

waste (BMU, 2013b).

In addition, reuse of waste focuses on how products can be made reusable instead of being disposed of (USEPA,

2014b). For instance, the reuse of plastic bags and glass bottles (Williams, 2005). Reuse is considered as one form

of waste prevention, because it help to expand/increased the life span of the products being used (Singh et al.,

2014).

Lastly, recycling is the process of converting waste materials into new useful materials and objects. The

recyclability of a material depends on its ability to reacquire the properties it had in its original state. Organic

waste, for instance, can be recycled to produce compost, and inorganic waste

5.3 Incineration or combustion

This basically refers to the burning of waste at high temperatures. It thus involves the combustion of substances

contained in waste materials. Incineration, together with other high-temperature waste treatment systems, is known

as "thermal treatment". To avoid air pollution (caused by waste burning), proper filters are used. During the

incineration or combustion process, waste materials are often converted into heat, gas, and flue gas. For handling

sludge, the direct incineration method without anaerobic digestion was found to be the preferred and sustainable

approach (Hao et al., 2020). According to Ye et al. (2020), for fossil fuel conservation and waste disposal, the

technology of coal power plants, along with the incineration method, was considered a promising technology.

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5.4 Compositing

In this waste management method, organic wastes are separated from the rest of the waste and allowed to

decompose by microbes for a long period of time in a pit. Then this becomes nutrient-rich compost and is used as

manure. Through the use of compost, soil fertility will be enhanced, aiding plant growth and development.

Compositing reduces the adverse impacts of waste on the environment while enhancing the nutrient content of the

soil (Bhat et al. 2020). According to Kaur (2020), vermicomposting is the most effective process for sustainable

organic agriculture and also to maintain a balanced ecosystem. Vermicomposting of onion waste with cow manure

produces a valuable agricultural enriched nutrient cycle (Pallejero et al., 2020).

5.5 Bioremediation

In this type of waste management strategy, microbes and bacteria are used for the removal of impurities, pollutants,

and poisons from soil, water, and other environments. Energy power plants typically emit radioactive waste, which

has a significant impact on human health. To combat this type of waste, bio-mediation is often used.

Bioremediation rectifies pollution problems. Bioremediation is eco-friendly, inexpensive, and effective technology

which is suitable for the disposal of industrial waste water (Colhoe,2020)

6.0 Application of Remote Sensing and GIS in Waste Management

Remote sensing and GIS are an indispensable tool in the study of earth sciences. It is also a vital tool that can be

employed for urban waste management. Geospatial techniques such as GIS and remote sensing have been quite

useful in locating the appropriate site for solid waste dumping (Kontos et al., 2003). These techniques are

particularly helpful in preliminary studies because of their ability to handle huge quantities of spatial data.

According to Gurjar & Gaur (2022), remote sensing (RS) and geographic information systems (GIS) in

combination with various tools and techniques like multicriteria, data analysis, cluster analysis, and various

theorems can help solve the problem of determining appropriate waste disposal sites.

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Remote sensing and GIS have the capability to manage large volumes of spatial data at a time since hence, able to

consider several criteria at a time to select a suitable landfill site for waste disposal. Remote sensing provides an

avenue to quantify process level emissions from waste management facilities (Cusworth et al., 2020).

7.0 Conclusion

This study used existing literature on waste management to classify the various types of waste generated in an

urban setting. The study also identified some of various strategies and techniques employed across the globe to

manage urban waste. In terms the types of waste generated in urban settings, the study underscored that the waste

can be classified in terms of physical state (solid, liquid, and gas), biodegradability (bio-degradable and non-

biodegradable waste), and classification base on the effect on human health (hazardous and non-hazardous waste).

In terms of the various methods/techniques employed to manage urban waste across the globe, it revealed that

landfilling, 3Rs (reduce, reuse, and recycle), incineration or combustion, composting, and bioremediation are some

of the most widely used methods for managing urban waste.

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