SENSORS

INTRODUCTION
Measurement system comprises of sensors, transducers and signal processing devices. Sensors
and transducers are crucial in instrumenting an engineering system. Sensors in manufacturing
are basically employed to automatically carry out the production operations as well as process
monitoring activities. Sensor technology has the following important advantages in
transforming a conventional manufacturing unit into a modern one. Essentially, sensors are
needed to monitor and learn about the system. This knowledge will be useful in many types of
applications, including the following:

1. Process monitoring
2. Operating or controlling a system
3. Experimental modelling (i.e., model identification)
4. Product testing and qualification
5. Product quality assessment
6. Fault prediction, detection, and diagnosis
7. Alarm and warning generation
8. Surveillance
Specifically in a control system, sensing is used for such purposes as:

1. Measuring the system outputs for feedback control

2. Measuring some types of system inputs (unknown inputs, disturbances, etc.) for feedforward
control
3. Measuring output signals for system monitoring, parameter adaptation, self tuning, and
supervisory control
4. Measuring input and output signal pairs for experimental modelling of the plant (i.e., for
system identification)

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The terms sensor and transducer are often used interchangeably to mean the same thing.
However, strictly, a sensor senses the quantity that needs to be observed or measured (called
measurand) while the transducer converts into a form that can be observed or used in a
subsequent operation. Except, when necessary, we will use the terms sensor and transducer to
mean the same device.

What is a Sensor
It is defined as an element which produces signal relating to the quantity being. measured.
According to the Instrument Society of America, sensor can be defined as “A device which
provides a usable output in response to a specified measurand.” Here, the output is usually an
„electrical quantity‟ and measurand is a „physical quantity, property or condition which is to be
measured‟.
What is a Transducer
The term transducer is often used in relation to measurement systems. Transducers are defined
as an element that converts a change in some physical variable into a related change in some
other physical variable. It is generally used for an element that converts a change in some
physical variable into an electrical signal change. Thus sensors can be transducers. However, a
measurement system may use transducers, in addition to the sensor, in other parts of the
system to convert signals in one form to another form.
The sensor or the sensing element is the first element in a measuring system and takes
information about the variable being measured and transforms it into a more suitable form to
be measured. Fig.3.1 illustrates the difference between sensor and transducer.

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Sensor is sometimes called a primary measuring element, it can be found simply as a mercury
thermometer to measure the temperature. It may be embedded in the transducer to perform
its function. That means the transducer consists of a primary element (sensor) plus a secondary
element (signal conditioning circuit) that transforms the passive change or small voltage signal
into active signal range that can be easily used in other chains of the control loop

It is defined as an element when subjected to some physical change experiences a related

change or an element which converts a specified measured into a usable output by using a
transduction principle. It can also be defined as a device that converts a signal from one form of
energy to another form. A wire of Constantan alloy (copper nickel 55-45% alloy) can be called

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as a sensor because variation in mechanical displacement (tension or compression) can be
sensed as change in electric resistance. This wire becomes a transducer with appropriate
electrodes and input-output mechanism attached to it. Thus, we can say that „Sensors are
Transducers‟.

Signal processor

This element takes the output from the sensor and converts it into a form which is suitable for
display or onward transmission in some control system. In the case of the thermocouple this
may be an amplifier to make the e.m.f. big enough to register on a meter. The term signal
conditioner is used for an element which converts the output of a sensor into a suitable form
for further processing. Thus in the case of the resistance thermometer there might be a signal
conditioner, a Wheatstone4 bridge, which transforms the resistance change into a voltage
change, then an amplifier to make the voltage big enough for display

Performance Terminologies

1. Range: The range of a sensor indicates the limits between which the input can vary. For
example, a thermocouple for the measurement of temperature might have a range of 25- 225
°C.
2. Span: The span is difference between the maximum and minimum values of the input. Thus,
the above-mentioned thermocouple will have a span of 200 °C.

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3. Error: Error is the difference between the result of the measurement and the true value of
the quantity being measured. A sensor might give a displacement reading of 29.8 mm, when
the actual displacement had been 30 mm, then the error is –0.2mm.
4. Accuracy: The accuracy defines the closeness of the agreement between the actual
measurement result and a true value of the measurand. It is often expressed as a percentage of
the full range output or full–scale deflection. A piezoelectric transducer used to evaluate
dynamic pressure phenomena associated with explosions, pulsations, or dynamic pressure
conditions in motors, rocket engines, compressors, and other pressurized devices is capable to
detect pressures between 0.1 and 10,000 psig (0.7 KPa to 70 MPa). If it is specified with the
accuracy of about ±1% full scale, then the reading given can be expected to be within ± 0.7
MPa.
5. Precision: When a sensor performs several measurements of the same quantity under the
same conditions, the results obtained are not necessarily the same. This is due to the inevitable
presence of noise in the sensor and/or the electronic circuit that accompanies it. The precision
specification is used to express this fact quantitatively.
Figure 1

6. Sensitivity: Sensitivity of a sensor is defined as the ratio of change in output value of a sensor
to the per unit change in input value that causes the output change. For example, a general-
purpose thermocouple may have a sensitivity of 41μV/°C

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7. Nonlinearity: The nonlinearity indicates the maximum deviation of the actual measured
curve of a sensor from the ideal curve.
Figure 2

Figure 2 shows a somewhat exaggerated relationship between the ideal, or least squares fit,
line and the actual measured or calibration line. Linearity is often specified in terms of
percentage of nonlinearity, which is defined as:
𝑁𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 (%) = 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 /𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
The static nonlinearity defined by Equation is dependent upon environmental factors, including
temperature, vibration, acoustic noise level, and humidity. Therefore, it is important to know
under what conditions the specification is valid.
8. Hysteresis: The hysteresis is an error of a sensor, which is defined as the maximum
difference in output at any measurement value within the sensor's specified range when
approaching the point first with increasing and then with decreasing the input parameter.
Figure 3

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Figure 3 shows the hysteresis error might have occurred during measurement of temperature
using a thermocouple. The hysteresis error value is normally specified as a positive or negative
percentage of the specified input range.
9. Resolution: Resolution is the smallest detectable incremental change of input parameter that
can be detected in the output signal. Resolution can be expressed either as a proportion of the
full-scale reading or in absolute terms.
For example, if a LVDT sensor measures a displacement up to 20 mm and it provides an output
as a number between 1 and 100 then the resolution of the sensor device is 0.2mm.
[Link]: Stability is the ability of a sensor device to give same output when used to measure
a constant input over a period of time. The term „ drift ‟issued to indicate the change in output
that occurs over a period of time. It is expressed as the percentage of full range output.
[Link]/Dead zone/time: The dead band or dead space of a transducer is the range of
input values for which there is no output. The dead time of a sensor device is the time duration
from the application of an input until the output begins to respond or change.
Figure 4

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[Link]: It specifies the ability of a sensor to give same output for repeated
applications of same input value.
Figure 5

It is usually expressed as a percentage of the full range output:

𝑅𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 = ∆𝑥 =( (𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 – 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛)/ 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒) × 100
[Link] Time: Response time describes the speed of change in the output on a step-wise
change of the measurand. It is always specified with an indication of input step and the output
range for which the response time is defined.
[Link]: All sensors produce some noise along with the output signal. In some cases, the
sensor noise is lower than the noise of the electronic circuitry or the fluctuations of the
measured quantity. In such cases, the noise generated by the sensor assumes less importance.

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The noise is usually distributed along with different frequencies. Many noise sources produce a
“white” spectrum. This means that the noise is distributed equally between all frequencies,
such as, for example, with thermal noise in electrical resistances. The voltage noise is typically
expressed through its spectral density 𝑉/√𝐻𝑧. In the case of sensors, it is expressed in terms of
the unit of the measured quantity divided by √𝐻𝑧. In the case of photodiodes, for example, it is
expressed in 𝑊/√𝐻𝑧, where 𝑊 corresponds to the unit of radiative power and not to electrical
power of a circuit.
[Link]: No sensor is linear for infinite values of the measured quantity. At
some point, the output voltage ceases to follow a straight line, as shown in Figure 6. This
phenomenon is called saturation.
Figure 6

[Link] Function: The transfer function specifies the functional relationship between the
input quantity and the electrical output signal in the case of a sensor, or the opposite, in the
case of an actuator. This relationship is generally described by a graph, although it may also be
presented through a table or a mathematical equation.
[Link]: All sensors have a finite response time to an instantaneous change in the
quantity being measured. In terms of sinusoidal variations of this quantity, one can define the
limit of the frequency band as the frequency value of these variations that causes a decline to

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70.7% (-3 𝑑𝐵)1 of the output signal of the sensor in relation to its maximum value. In some
cases, the manufacturer provides a graph of the frequency response of the sensor, as seen in
Figure 7. The frequency response is specified in dB relative to the maximum value, which
usually happens at low frequency (systems are typically low pass).

Figure 7: Example of the frequency response specification of a sensor. It was obtained from the
datasheet of the accelerometer ADXL150 from Analog Devices

Digital and Analog Sensors

Digital sensor is a device that measures a physical quantity (such as temperature, pressure,
light, or humidity) and then quantizes that measurement into a digital form. In other words, it
takes analog physical data and converts it into discrete digital values, often in the form of
binary code (0s and 1s).

Here are some key characteristics of digital sensors:

1. Discrete Output

Digital sensors produce discrete, quantized output values. These values are typically
represented in binary code, making them suitable for processing by digital systems,
microcontrollers, and computers.

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 2. Accuracy and Precision

Digital sensors are known for their high accuracy and precision. They can provide highly reliable
and consistent measurements, which is crucial in applications where data integrity is
paramount.

3. Digital Signal Processing

Many digital sensors come equipped with built-in digital signal processing capabilities. This
means they can perform tasks such as calibration, filtering, and data compression, making them
versatile and adaptable to various applications.

4. Communication Interfaces

Digital sensors often feature communication interfaces like I2C, SPI, or UART, allowing them to
easily connect with other digital devices or microcontrollers. This facilitates data transfer and
integration into larger systems.

5. Compatibility with Microcontrollers

Digital sensors are well-suited for use with microcontrollers and digital systems. They can
directly interface with these devices, simplifying the integration process.

6. Enhanced Features

Digital sensors often offer additional features such as data logging, real-time clock functionality,
and compatibility with graphical user interfaces, making them ideal for complex applications.

Overall, digital sensors are favored for their precision, accuracy, and adaptability in a wide
range of applications, from industrial and scientific to consumer electronics. They have
revolutionized data acquisition by providing reliable, quantized data that can be easily
processed and analyzed in the digital realm.

What is an analog sensor?

An analog sensor is a type of sensor that measures a physical quantity or phenomenon and
provides an output signal that is directly proportional to the quantity being measured. In other

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words, analog sensors produce continuous and analog output signals that represent the precise
value of the measured parameter without any discretization or digital conversion.

Key characteristics of analog sensors include:

1. Continuous Output

Analog sensors provide an output signal that varies continuously with changes in the measured
parameter. For example, a temperature sensor might output a voltage or current signal that
varies smoothly as the temperature changes.

2. Voltage or Current Output

Analog sensors typically produce output signals in the form of voltage or current. The
magnitude of the signal corresponds to the magnitude of the measured parameter. The
accuracy of analog sensors can be influenced by factors such as noise and environmental
conditions.

3. Limited Precision

Analog sensors have limitations in precision and accuracy compared to their digital
counterparts. The accuracy of analog sensors can be influenced by factors such as noise and
environmental conditions.

4. Direct Connection

Analog sensors are often directly connected to analog measurement devices or analog-to-
digital converters (ADCs) if digital data is required. An ADC converts the analog signal into a
digital format for further processing and analysis.

5. Applications

Analog sensors are commonly used in applications where continuous and real-time monitoring
of physical quantities is required. Examples of analog sensors include thermocouples, strain
gauges, and pressure transducers.

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Analog sensors are valuable in scenarios where fine-grained, real-time data is needed, and the
inherent continuity of their output is essential. They are commonly used in fields such as
industrial automation, environmental monitoring, and scientific research.

In contrast to digital sensors, which quantize data into discrete values, analog sensors provide a
direct representation of the measured physical quantity. The choice between analog and digital
sensors depends on the specific application requirements, precision needs, and the ability to
process and analyze continuous data.

CLASSIFICATION OF SENSORS

a. Temperature

• Bimetallic Strips

• Resistance Temperature Detectors

• Thermistors

• Thermo-Diodes and Transistors

• Thermocouples

• Light Sensors

• Photodiodes

• Photoresistors

• Non-contact Temperature Sensors

b. Displacement, Position and Proximity

• Potentiometer

• Strain-Gauged Element

• Capacitive Element

• Differential Transformers

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• Eddy Current Proximity Sensors

• Inductive Proximity Switch

• Optical Encoders

• Pneumatic Sensors

• Proximity Switches (Magnetic)

• Hall Effect Sensors

c. Velocity and Motion

• Incremental Encoder

• Tacho Generator

• Pyro Electric Sensors

d. Force

• Strain Gauge Loadcell

e. Fluid Pressure

• Diaphragm Pressure Gauge

• Capsules, Bellows, Pressure Tubes

• Piezoelectric Sensors

• Tactile Sensor

f. Liquid Flow

• Orifice Plate

• Turbine Meter

g. Liquid Level

• Floats

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• Differential Pressure

1. TEMPERATURE SENSORS

i. Resistor Temperature Detectors

Resistive temperature detectors (RTD) use an element whose electrical resistance varies with
temperature. The most common material used in this type of sensor is platinum. The resistive
element may be a coiled platinum wire or a film deposited on a platinum substrate. In both
cases, the resistance/temperature relation is very linear, as one can see from Figure 5 with a
non-linearity in the –20°C to 120°C range of less than 0.25%

The most used standard for this kind of temperature sensors (IEC 751:1983) specifies a
resistance value of 100 Ω for a temperature of 0°C and a temperature coefficient of 0.385
Ω/Ω/°𝐶: 𝑅 = 100 + 0.385 ⋅ 𝑇
The non-linearity is very predictable and repeatable and is thus easily corrected. A second-order
polynomial is a function that best describes the relation resistance/temperature 𝑅 = 100 +
0.391 ⋅ 𝑇 - 5.56 ⋅ 105 ⋅ 𝑇2

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This type of temperature sensor is very accurate but expensive due to the use of platinum.
Another disadvantage of this sensor is self-heating. To obtain a voltage proportional to the
temperature, you must pass a current through the platinum resistance. This current will
artificially increase the temperature leading to a measurement error. For example, if a current
of 5 mA with a platinum RTD having a resistance of 100 Ω (Figure 6) is used, the power
dissipated is 2.5 𝑚𝑊. If the relationship between power dissipation and temperature is 1
𝑚𝑊/°𝐶, then the self heating causes an error of 2.5°C.

Yet another disadvantage is their low resistance which causes the resistance of the connecting
cables to have a great influence. In the example of Figure 6, if the resistance of each cable
connector is 1 𝑊 (𝑅𝑐), the temperature error, assuming a temperature coefficient of 0.385
Ω/Ω/°𝐶 is 5.195°𝐶:
One should therefore use low current and short cables with the lowest possible resistance.
Another solution is to use a 4-wire connection, as illustrated in Figure 7. The cables used to
connect the current source to the RTD are not the same ones used to connect the voltmeter. As
the current drawn by the voltmeter is usually very small, the voltage drop in the cables will be
minimal.

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On the Figure 8, we show a circuit consisting of a power source and four resistors connected in
a square. The resistors are connected to each other at nodes which are labeled 𝑎 through 𝑐. 𝐺
detects the voltage difference between nodes 𝑐 and 𝑏. If we consider each resistor separately,
each resistor has its own current (𝑖1, 𝑖2, 𝑖3, and 𝑖𝑥), resistance (𝑅1, 𝑅2, 𝑅3 , and 𝑅𝑥), and
voltage (𝑉1, 𝑉2, 𝑉3, and 𝑉𝑥), which are related to each other through Ohm's law.
Resistors 𝑅1 and 𝑅3 are connected in series through node 𝑏. Therefore, the same current flows
through 𝑅1 and 𝑅3.
𝑖1-3 = 𝑖1 = 𝑖3
and the value of 𝑖1-3 can be determined from Ohm's law:
𝑖1-3 = 𝑉/ (𝑅1 + 𝑅3)
Similarly, resistors 𝑅2 and 𝑅𝑥 are connected in series and the same current 𝑖2-4 flows through
these resistors. 𝑅 𝑥 = 𝑅 + ∆𝑅

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ii. Thermistor

A thermistor is a type of sensor used to measure the temperature and it’s made of a metal
oxide semiconductor (manganese, nickel, cobalt, iron, copper, titanium, etc.) and is
encapsulated in glass or epoxy.

A thermistor with a resistance of 2252 𝑊 has a sensitivity of -100 𝑊/°𝐶 at room temperature.
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There are two types of thermistors:

• NTC (negative temperature coefficient)-Thermistors with a negative

temperature coefficient.

• PTC (positive temperature coefficient)-Thermistors with a positive

temperature coefficient.

The NTCs are the ones used more often. Sensors of this type have the advantage of having high
impedance, and therefore it will not be necessary to use a 4-wire connection, as in the case of
RTD. Another advantage is that its resistance varies a lot with temperature, which allows it to
be a very sensitive sensor.

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The main advantages and disadvantages of the thermistor are listed below
The advantages
• Low Cost;
• Short Reaction Time;
• High Sensitivity;
• High resistance value, which makes it less critical the value of cable
resistance
Disadvantages
• Limited range of measurement;
• The characteristic may vary according to the manufacturer;
• Self-heating;
• Non-linearity;
• It needs many additional components, which compromises its reliability.

iii. Thermocouples
The thermal couple is frequently used as the sensing element in a thermal sensor or switch. The
principle is that two dissimilar metals always have a small contact potential between them and
this contact potential changes as the temperature changes. The contact potential cannot be
measured for a single connection (or junction), but when two junctions are in a circuit with the
junctions at different temperatures, then voltage of few millivolts can be detected

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iv. Integrated Temperature Sensor
The voltage in a P-N junction biased with a constant current depends on temperature with a
sensitivity of about -2𝑚𝑉/℃. It is possible to use a junction of this type to make an integrated
temperature sensor.

This allows the correction of non-linearity and the production of a high voltage output with the
use of integrated amplifiers. This type of temperature sensor is cheap and has good accuracy
for temperatures near room temperature. It has the disadvantage of having a limited
measurement range. Such a sensor is manufactured, for example, by the National
Semiconductors company that produces the LM35 model. It has the following specifications:
• Works from -55°C to 150°C;
• Sensitivity of 10 mV per °C;
• Continuous supply voltage between 4 V and 20 V;
• Current consumption below 60 𝜇𝐴;
• Self-heating limited to 0.08°C (in still air);
• Accuracy of 0.5°C (at 25°C);
• Non-linearity below 0.25°C;
• Low output impedance (0.1 W for a load of 1mA);
• No additional components required.

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Application of Integrated Temperature Sensors
• Use to sense the temperature of a printed circuit board (PCB) or the ambient air around it.
• Use to measure the temperature of PCs to temperature control systems,
High-performance personal computers and servers use monolithic temperature sensors on
their motherboards to monitor system temperatures and alert system failure.
• Simple Fan Controller: senses the temperature and control the fan speed
The main advantages and disadvantages regarding integrated temperature sensors are:
Advantages
• Cheaper than other RTDs
• More linear than thermistors
• Contain incorporated signal conditioning
Disadvantages
• Not as linear as other RTDs
• Low Precision
• More expensive than thermistors and thermocouples
• Reduced measuring range
• Slower response time

Level Sensors and Transducers

i. Ultrasonic Level Sensor
It’s a non-contact sensor, Ultrasound is an acoustic wave with a frequency higher than the
audible range of the human ear, which is 20 𝑘𝐻𝑧. Ultrasound can be within the audible range
for some animals, like dogs, bats, or dolphins. The basic principle for the use of ultrasound as a
measurement tool is the time-of-flight technique.

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ii. Capacitance Level Sensor
The principle of capacitive level measurement is based on change of capacitance and there are
two types:
Moving Plate Type
One plate is kept fixed as other plate moves with the liquid level. The change in distance 𝑑
affects the overall capacitance of the capacitor censor which directly relates with the level of
the fluid in the tank.

Insertion Type
An insulated electrode acts as one plate of capacitor and the tank wall (or reference electrode
in a non-metallic vessel) acts as the other plate. The capacitance depends on the fluid level. An
empty tank has a lower capacitance while a filled tank has a higher capacitance. A simple
capacitor consists of two electrode plate separated by a small thickness of an insulator such as
solid, liquid, gas, or vacuum. This insulator is also called as dielectric. Value of 𝐶 depends on
dielectric used, area of the plate and also distance between the plates.

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iii. Microwave/Radar Level Sensors
Microwave level sensors are an essential part of many industrial and commercial applications.
These devices utilize the properties of microwaves to accurately measure the level of liquids,
solids, or granular materials in various types of containers.

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Working Principle
A microwave level sensor operates by transmitting microwave signals from an antenna and
measuring the time it takes for the signals to bounce back after reflecting off the surface of the
material being measured. This time-of-flight (ToF) method is used to calculate the distance
between the sensor and the material surface, ultimately providing an accurate level
measurement.

iv. Optical Level Sensor & Transducer

At the core of an optical level sensor is the principle of light transmission, reflection, and
refraction. These sensors use an infrared light source, typically a light-emitting diode (LED), to
emit a beam of light into a prism or a light guide, which is in direct contact with the liquid being
measured. When the liquid level is below the sensor’s detection point, the light beam is
internally reflected within the prism or the light guide, and is received by a photodetector,
producing a strong signal.

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However, when the liquid level rises and reaches the detection point, the light is refracted into
the liquid, causing a significant decrease in the signal received by the photodetector. This
change in signal strength is used to determine the presence or absence of liquid at the sensor’s
detection point.`

v. Float Element Type Level Transducers

A float element type liquid level transducer is the most common simple method to measure
liquid levels.

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As the liquid level rises in the tank, the float rises. It causes to move the wiper over the
potential divider. The output terminals of the potentiometer are connected to a voltmeter. The
output voltage is increased as the float rises. That is the voltage will be proportional to the
liquid level.

vi. Vibrating Fork Level Sensor

Vibrating or tuning forks is another type of point level sensor. They use a forkshaped sensing
element with two tines. The fork vibrates at its natural resonant frequency. As the level
changes, the frequency of the fork will change detecting the level. Vibrating tuning fork liquid
level switches are threshold contact trip devices which typically consist of a tuning fork which
extends out from the switch housing.
In operation a piezoelectric oscillator is used to vibrate the tuning fork at its natural frequency
for air. A second piezoelectric device is used to pick-up the frequency of the vibrating tuning
fork. When the liquid level rises and covers the tuning fork it will vibrate at a lower frequency.

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This change in vibration frequency is used to detect when the required liquid level has been
reached.

A vibrating tuning fork liquid level switch makes direct contact with the liquid to be measured,
and therefore material compatibility has to be a consideration. Since there are no pressure
sensitive components exposed to the inside of the tank it is possible to fit tuning fork level
switches to sealed pressurised tanks.

Also, since there are no sensitive components immersed in the fluid it is possible to use them
on higher temperature media that would not be tolerated by other types of liquid level switch.
Vibrating tuning fork liquid level switches are generally mounted through the top or side of the
tank with the tuning fork protruding horizontally into the tank.

vii. Float Switch

A float switch is a mechanical switch that floats on the surface of a liquid. The float switch
moves vertically up and down as the liquid level changes. The mechanical switch inside the float

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opens or closes depending on the counterweight and pre-set trigger, allowing an electrical
current to pass through to the device. The sensor probes inside the float switch are what trigger
the pump to fill or stop filling the tank or container with liquid. Float switches are a popular
choice for controlling liquid levels, because they are very reliable, cost-effective, and they can
be used in different liquids.

Normally Open: When the float switch is set to “normally open” it will open when it is in a
down position and close when it is in an up position. This means when the liquid rises to the
pre-set level in the tank or container, the float switch will close. Normally, open float switches
are used when liquid levels are known to get too low.
Normally Closed: A normally closed float switch is the opposite. So, when the float switch is
positioned down the circuit will be closed, and open when it is in an up position. Therefore, the
float switch opens when the liquid rises to the pre-set level inside the tank or container. These
types of float switches are used when low-level alarms are required.

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The hollow body is what makes the float switch float on top of the water, and the internal
switch acts as a sensor. Internal switches vary depending on which type of float switch you
have, but the most common is a reed switch (mechanically operated switches), which also
contains a magnet inside. Even though there are different types of float switches, they all work
on the same principle, they open or close depending on the liquid level.

viii. Conductivity Level Sensors

Conductivity level switches make use of conductivity sensing technology or conductance

method for liquid level detection. Conductance method of liquid measurement and control is
considered to be very simple in operation. Their working depends upon the electrical
conductance or conductivity of the process liquid being measured. The liquid under
measurement can typically conduct a current with a low voltage power source having voltage
usually less than 20 Volts. One common way to set up an electrical circuit is to use a dual-tip
probe that eliminates the need for grounding a metal tank. Such probes are generally used for
point level detection, and the detected point can be the interface between a conductive and
nonconductive liquid.

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In this arrangement, two dual-tip probes are employed which are helpful in indicating the
highest and lowest levels of fluid. As soon as the level of the liquid approaches the upper probe,
a switch gets operated to activate the discharge pump whereas when the level drops below and
approaches the lower probe, the switch gets deactivated and the pump gets stopped.

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The conductive probes operate by means of differences in the electrical resistance between the
reference electrode and the level control electrode. These sensors tend to detect the electrical
resistance when the level electrodes get submerged in the process fluid. An electrically
conductive tank wall can be used as the reference electrode. If the tank is made of plastic,
concrete, or any other nonconductive material, an additional electrode is required as a
reference.

ix. Hydrostatic Pressure Sensor

Using well labelled diagram elaborate the working of Hydrostatic Pressure Sensor & Transducer
its advantage and disadvantage and its application in the industry. Hydrostatics is the science of
fluids not in motion. A hydrostatic level sensor is a form of level probe that is used especially for
level monitoring by measuring the hydrostatic pressure in a virtually static liquid at a
predetermined level of submersion.

The pressure transducer can be a piezoresistive, capacitive, or strain gauge type, among others.
These transducers vary in their sensitivity, accuracy, and response time, making them suitable
for different applications.

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DISPLACEMENT AND PROXIMITY SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS

i. Capacitive Displacement Sensors & Transducers

Automobiles increasingly allow the driver to control different aspects of cars for greater
comfort and safety of the passengers. Examples are the activation of the airbags in the event of
a collision, seat heating, or mirror adjustment. Another aspect is the amount of information
that is available to the driver, from the water temperature and engine oil to the consumption of
gasoline and tire pressure. In line with these advances in terms of available information, there
is a desire to monitor aspects related to the mechanics of the automobile, such as the state of
wear of the brake discs. For that purpose, the system requires a sensor capable of measuring
the thickness of a brake disc that can be permanently mounted in the car so you can make
continuous monitoring of the status of the disks. The brake discs wear out due to the friction
with the brake pads when slowing down the car. It must be a sensor that can, for example,
measure the distance from a fixed point to the surface of the disk. The greater the wear, the
greater is the distance. Given that the sensor is supposed to be fixed permanently to the car, it
must be able to measure this distance even with the disc moving. What solutions exist, and
which could be used?
• The sensors of resistive displacement, wherein the displacement is determined by the
position of a cursor potentiometer, are not adequate because there can be no contact between
the sensor and the disc.
• The inductive displacement sensors in which displacement is measured by varying the
thickness of an air gap of a magnetic circuit could be used if the disk brake would itself be part
of the magnetic circuit. This, however, would only work when the disk is made of iron and thus
would not work in the case of ceramic discs because they are not ferromagnetic materials.
• The optical displacement sensors that work by measuring the time of flight of a light beam
emitted by a LED would not be the best choice because the surface of a disc is not a very good
reflector. Another problem with this type of solution has to do with the fact that this type of
sensor is likely to be affected by dirt which is a very real possibility in the case of an automobile
wheel. The ultrasonic displacement sensors, which work by measuring the time of flight of
an acoustic wave, are also not suitable due to noise and multiple reflections present.
• The best solution for this application would be the use of a capacitive sensor.
This type of sensor discussed in detail below works as a capacitor in which one of the plates is
the brake disc itself. This sensor can be used because the brake disc is conductive. We can thus
build a non-contact sensor that is immune to this dirt in the measurement environment. Let us
now look at a displacement sensor that uses the capacity variation with the distance between
the plates of a flat capacitor. Keeping one of the plates fixed and associating the other plate to
the object whose displacement is to be measured, we can have a capacity whose distance
between plates varies with displacement.

ii. Inductive Proximity Sensors and Transducers

Inductive proximity sensors use the principle of electromagnetic induction to detect the
presence/absence of metallic objects. These sensors look very similar to capacitive proximity
sensors in terms of size.

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Principle of Electromagnetic Induction
When a DC current is applied to a conductor (i.e. a wire), it creates a magnetic field around the
conductor. This is called a ‘static magnetic field’ because it’s generated by a DC current. If the
current source is an AC voltage, the magnetic field created starts to ‘oscillate’ back and forth. If
a metallic object such as a piece of wire is placed within this magnetic field, this oscillating
magnetic field causes an electric current to generate inside this second conductor. This
principle is known as ‘electromagnetic induction’.

Eddy Currents
When a metallic object enters into an electromagnetic field, the field creates an electrical
current inside the conductor according to the principle of electromagnetic induction.
Sometimes this effect becomes undesirable. Eddy currents are the type of induced currents
that start to circulate/loop inside the metallic object.
Eddy currents do not exit the object as electrical current flow. Eddy currents also disrupt the
existing magnetic field. This is the phenomenon that inductive proximity sensors take
advantage of to detect objects.

35
How does an Inductive Proximity Sensor Detect Metallic Objects
Inductive proximity sensors use the same principle of Eddy currents to detect metallic objects.
They measure the change in eddy currents induced in the object present, and output a signal
accordingly.
Measuring Eddy currents in a close by object however, is a complicated task. Therefore,
inductive proximity sensors also have complicated circuitry inside them to process the signals
and provide a decent output.

Unlike capacitive proximity sensors, inductive proximity sensors have a narrower sensing range.
However, they can detect objects within a range of 1mm to 60mm. Special purpose sensors can
also be designed to have an increased sensing distance.
There are mainly 3 types of wiring schemes available. 4-wire sensors are not widely used, while
2 and 3 wire sensors are the most popular.
How to Wire an Inductive Proximity Sensor
Here’s how sensors are classified according to their supply voltage and output types:
• AC or DC suppl: Determines whether the sensors works with 220V AC or 24V DC power supply

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• Output type: Transistor output (3-wire) -Transistor output sensors can beeither NPN or PNP.
For both of those types, here are NO (Normally Open) and NC (Normally Closed) output
options. Some sensors may even support both. (NO+NC).
Relay output (2-wire or 3-wire)
AC 2-wire and 3-wire sensors are always relay output type. DC sensors can be either relay or
transistor output type. Relay output sensors also have NO, NC and NO+NC options.

Advantages of Inductive Proximity Sensors

• Contactless detection
• Environment adaptability- resistant to common conditions seen in industrial areas such as
dust and dirt
• Capable and versatile in metal sensing
• High switching rate
• No moving parts, ensuring a longer service life
Disadvantages of Inductive Proximity Sensors
• Lack in detection range, averaging a max range of up to 60 mm
• Can only detect metal objects
• External conditions like extreme temperatures, cutting fluids, or chemicals affect the
performance of the sensor.
Applications of Inductive Proximity Sensors
• Machine tools, assembly lines, automotive industry
• Detection of metal parts in harsh environments
• High-speed moving parts

iii. Capacitive Proximity Sensor and Transducer

Capacitive Proximity Sensors detect changes in the capacitance between the sensing object and
the Sensor. As per the name, capacitive proximity sensors operate by noting a change in the
capacitance read by the sensor. The amount of capacitance varies depending on the size and
distance of the sensing object. An ordinary Capacitive Proximity Sensor is similar to a capacitor
with two parallel plates, where the capacity of the two plates detected.

37
One of the plates is the object being measured (with an imaginary ground), and the other is the
Sensor’s sensing surface. It detects the changes in the capacity generated between these two
poles. The detection of the object depends on their dielectric constant, but they include resin
and water in addition to metals. The capacitive proximity sensor consists a high-frequency
oscillator along with a sensing surface formed by two metal electrodes. When an object comes
near the sensing surface, it enters the electrostatic field of the electrodes and changes the
capacitance of the oscillator.

38
As a result, the oscillator circuit starts oscillating and changes the output state of the sensor
when it reaches certain amplitude. As the object moves away from the sensor, the oscillator’s
amplitude decreases, switching the sensor back to its initial state.

A typical sensing range for capacitive proximity sensors is from a few millimetres up to about 1
inch. (or 25 mm), and some sensors have an extended range up to 2 inches. Where capacitive
sensors really excel, however, is in applications where they must detect objects through some
kind of material such as a bag, bin, or box. They can tune out non-metallic containers and can
be tuned or set to detect different levels of liquids or solid materials.
The capacitive proximity sensor detects the larger dielectric constant of a target easily. This
makes possible the detection of materials inside non-metallic containers because the liquid has
a much higher dielectric constant than the container, which gives the sensor ability to see
through the container and detect the liquid.
For best operation, they should use in an environment with relatively constant temperature
and humidity. When dealing with non-conductive targets there are three factors that determine
the sensing distance.
• The size of the active surface of the sensor – the larger the sensing face the longer the sensing
distance.
• The capacitive material properties of the target object, also referred to as the dielectric
constant – the higher the constant the longer the sensing distance.
• The surface area of the target object to be sensed – the larger the surface area the longer the
sensing distance.
Other factors that have minimal effect on the sensing distance ▪ Temperature
▪ Speed of the target object
The point at which the proximity sensor recognizes an incoming target is the operating point.
The point at which an outgoing target causes the device to switch back to its normal state is the
release point. The area between operating and release points is the hysteresis zone. Most
proximity sensors are equipped with an LED status indicator to verify the output switching
action.

The difference between Inductive and Capacitive Proximity Sensor

Inductive sensors use a magnetic field to detect objects. Capacitive sensors use an electric field.
In order to be sense by an inductive sensor an object must be conductive. This limits suitable
targets to metal objects (for the most part). In order to be sense by a capacitive sensor the
target doesn’t need to be conductive.
A capacitive sensor will react to an object acting as a dielectric material as well as a conductive
object. This makes metal and non-metal objects suitable targets.
Advantages of Capacitive proximity sensors
• Contactless detection
• A wide array of materials can detect
• Able to detect objects through non-metallic walls with its wide sensitivity band
• Well-suited to be used in an industrial environment
• Contains potentiometer that allows users to adjust sensor sensitivity, such that only wanted
objects will be sensed

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• No moving parts, ensuring a longer service life
Disadvantages of Capacitive proximity sensors
• Relative low range, though incremental increase from inductive sensors
• Higher price as compared to inductive sensors

iv. Ultrasonic Proximity Sensors

Ultrasonic sensors measure the distance or presence of target objects by sending a pulsed
ultrasound wave at the object and then measuring the time for the sound echo to return.
Knowing the speed of sound, the sensor can determine the distance of the object. This sensor
has a sensing range of 30 to 400 mm and is unaffected by the color or transparency of objects.

v. Capacitive Touchscreen Sensor

A fingerprint sensor allows you to recognize the fingerprint of a human finger. There are several
techniques, including the use of light, the use of ultrasound, and the use of electrical capacity.
The latter will now be covered. The sensor has a two-dimensional array of capacitors whose
dielectric is formed partly by the finger and partly by air. This creates a 2D “image” of the
dielectric constant of the material leaning against the sensor surface.

40
 vi. . Encoders Types Sensors and Transducers
Encoders are used to determine the position, velocity and direction of a motor shaft or other
mechanical motion. They provide information required for the precise control of a variety of
applications, such as positioning a rotary table, pick and place, machine assembly, packaging,
robotics and more. Regardless of type, all encoders provide a method of orientation detection
that’s used as a reference point for position control.

Absolute and Incremental Measurements

Encoders come in incremental and absolute styles. Like linear and rotary encoders, incremental
and absolute encoders have similarities, but they differ in wiring and movement identification:

41
a. Absolute Measurements
An encoder that detects how far from the home position is called an absolute type. The
absolute angle detection type encoder outputs the current absolute angle in a digital serial
code or an analog voltage in response to instructions from the microcomputer. Such an output
way is called an absolute method. A standard absolute encoder has a resolution similar to
incremental encoders (ppr, ppi, etc.). Instead of an output of high-speed pulse streams, though,
the output is a specified in a binary format.
The incremental method has only one row of slits, while the absolute method has multiple
rows. For example, if there are four rows of slits, you can find the absolute position of 16 angles
from 0000 to 1111 in binary code (binary number). If there are 5 rows of slits, there are 32
patterns from 00000 to 11111. By doubling the row of slits to eight, you can see the absolute

42
positions of 256 different angles from 00000000 to 11111111. As the number of rows of slits
increases, the resolution of the angle change increases, allowing for a finer representation of
the amount of movement.
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 2n (𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒
𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑟)

43
So, a 4𝑝𝑝𝑟 encoder has 2 outputs, an 8𝑝𝑝𝑟 encoder has 3 outputs, a 16𝑝𝑝𝑟 encoder has 4
outputs, etc. If power is lost, the actual value of the position will be known when power is
restored because each location in an absolute encoder’s revolution is a unique binary value.

When several tracks change together (as between positions 3 and 4 in Figure 35 (a), a serious
error could occur if a readout is attempted midway between these positions. The well-known
Gray code Figure 35 (b) was developed to overcome this, and has the property that only one
track changes at a time so whenever the readout occurs it cannot be in error by more than one
bit. Simple algorithms exist for converting between Gray code and binary. Absolute encoders
are available with 8, 10 or 12 tracks, but become increasingly expensive, and also
physically large, as the number of tracks increases. the need for the Gray code arose because
the readout was essentially asynchronous; it could be required at any time and was not related
to any reference or clock waveform. However, recent technological developments have made it
usual, or at least convenient, to read the outputs of encoders directly via microprocessors, and
the earlier difficulties no longer apply. One can either reject an invalid reading occurring at a
crossover point (as one would do intuitively) or use an additional clock track to ensure that
readings are taken only where valid (the previous value is taken if the disc comes to rest at a
crossover on the clock track).
There’s one drawback to single-turn absolute encoders: the exact angle of the encoder when
powered up is evident, but the number of turns made before powering up isn’t. Multi-turn
absolute encoders are used to solve this problem. Multi-turn absolute encoders usually have a
battery or super-capacitor that monitors how many revolutions the encoder has turned even
while power is off. A multi-turn absolute encoder is like a measuring wheel that increments
once per revolution. These encoders typically have serial communication and require special
receivers to decode their position information.

44
In general, incremental encoders must be wired into high-speed inputs (although there are PPR
encoders that don’t produce a high-speed pulse train). Absolute encoders, however, are
designed to be wired to general purpose I/O.

b. Incremental Measurements
An incremental encoder only reads pulses to provide information about the relative motion of
the shaft. It has no information about location when powered up; it can only show how far the
shaft has moved since the encoder was powered up. It reports back these position changes
with electrical “pulses”. These pulse streams can either be single channel (one output wire from
the encoder) or dual channel (two wires – see also the “Quadrature” section below). Think of
an incremental encoder as a tape measure with no numbers on it, only tick marks: you can tell
how far you’ve moved, but you don’t know exactly where you are unless you measure from a
known spot.
Example:
An optical encoder generates pulses when a disk with a slit (hole) in the radial direction rotates.
Counting the number of pulses shows the angular change (movement) of the disk. When four
slits are arranged in a row, the number of pulses per rotation is four, so it can be seen that one
pulse has rotated 360 ° 4 = 90°. If the number of slits is doubled to eight, one pulse rotates 360
° 8 = 45° . If the number of slits, that is, the number of pulses per rotation, is larger, the
resolution of the angle change will be higher, and the movement amount can be represented
finer.

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However, this method cannot recognize that the rotational direction has changed. Therefore,
two pulses whose phases are shifted by a quarter cycle are generated. These two pulses are
generally called phase A and phase B. The rotational direction can be determined depending on
which pulse of the phase A or phase B rises first. By subtracting the number of pulses in reverse
rotation, the amount of rotation can be accurately determined even if the rotational direction
changes.

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VISCOSITY SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS

Viscosity in a fluid is the resistance to its change of shape. Viscosity is related to the attraction
between the molecules in a liquid, which resists any change due to flow or motion.

Viscosity Measuring Instruments

Viscometers or viscosimeters are used to measure the resistance to motion of liquids and
gases. Several different types of instruments have been designed to measure viscosity. The rate
of rise of bubbles in a liquid also can be used to give a measure of the viscosity of a liquid.

i. The Falling-Cylinder Viscometer

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Uses the principle that an object, when dropped into a liquid, will descend to the bottom of the
vessel at a fixed rate. The rate of descent is determined by the size, shape, and density of the
object, and the density and viscosity of the liquid. The higher the viscosity, the longer the object
will take to reach the bottom of the vessel. The falling-cylinder device measures the rate of
descent of a cylinder in a liquid, and correlates the rate of descent to the viscosity of the liquid.

ii. Electromagnetically Spinning Sphere Viscometer (EMS Viscometer)

The electromagnetic interaction-driven spinning of a sphere is used by the EMS Viscometer to
gauge the viscosity of liquids. A spinning magnetic field is created by two magnets connected to
a rotor. In a little test tube is the sample (3) that needs to be measured (2). An aluminum
spherical is located inside the tube (4). The tube is positioned so that the sphere is in the middle
of the two magnets in a temperature-controlled space (1).

FLOW SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS

Types of Flow Sensors

Velocity Flow Sensors: These sensors measure the velocity of the fluid to determine the
volume flow. Types of velocity flow sensors include turbine flow meters, vortex flow meters,
and ultrasonic flow meters.
Differential Pressure Flow Sensors: This type uses a constriction in the flow channel to create a
pressure difference across two points. By knowing this difference and the properties of the

48
fluid, one can calculate the flow rate. Examples of this type include orifice plates and Venturi
tubes.
Mass Flow Sensors: As the name suggests, these sensors measure the mass flow rate of a fluid,
rather than the volumetric flow rate. A prime example of this type is a thermal mass flow
sensor.

Differential Pressure Flow Sensors

Differential pressure sensors are one of the most common flow sensors used in the industry.
Differential pressure sensors work by measuring the pressure difference between two points of
a fluid system. A pressure difference is created by forcing the fluid through a constriction,
usually a smaller pipe diameter, increasing its velocity. Then, two pressure ports are positioned,
one upstream and one downstream of the constriction. The resulting pressure differential is
used to calculate the flow rate.

i. Venturi Meter
These sensors employ Bernoulli’s equation, which states that the flow of a fluid has constant
energy at every point, establishing a proportional relationship between the
two pressure points. Differential pressure sensors are relatively simple to build compared to
other flow meters. They are also widely regarded as reliable and costeffective. In addition,
these sensors are versatile because they can be used in a wide range of fluids and flow rates.
On the other hand, differential pressure sensors can be prone to errors if improperly calibrated.

49
They are also sensitive to rapid changes in fluid properties such as temperature and viscosity.
Also, sensor design is crucial to avoid unwanted pressure drops in the fluid system.

Venturi tube consists of a section of pipe with a conical entrance, a short straight throat, and a
conical outlet. The velocity increases and the pressure drops at the throat. The differential
pressure is measured between the inlet (upstream of the conical entrance) and the throat.

ii. Orifice Meter

An orifice meter consists of a flat plate that has a sharp-edged hole accurately machined in it
and placed concentrically in a pipe as shown. As liquid flows through the pipe, the flow
suddenly contracts as it approaches the orifice and then suddenly expands after the orifice back
to the full pipe diameter. This forms a vena contracta or a throat immediately past the orifice.
This reduction in flow pattern at the vena contracta causes increased velocity and hence lower
pressure at the throat, similar to the venturi meter, discussed previously. The pressure of the
fluid is decreased along the orifice due to an increased velocity through this vena contracta. But

50
it increases as the fluid leaves the orifice through the outlet section. This pressure difference is
known as the differential pressure and the measurement of this is called the differential
pressure measurement principle.

MASS FLOW SENSORS

i. Electromagnetic Flow Meter

Electromagnetic flow rate sensors (flow meters) are designed based on Faraday’s law of
electromagnetic induction. Faraday’s law establishes a relationship between a magnetic field
and the current induced onto an electrical conductor. Firstly, again, the liquid must be
conductive. A voltage is measured that is dependent on the average velocity of liquid times the
strength of the magnetic field times the length of the conductor (this is the distance between
the electrodes).

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ii. Heat Transfer Flow Sensor
Calorimetric Flow Meter
The calorimetric principle is based on two temperature sensors in close quarters of one another
but thermally insulated from one another. Heat transfer is essential in flow rate sensors
because heat transfer between fluid and sensor depends on the fluid velocity. The higher the
fluid velocity, the higher the heat transfer rate. This rate can be measured using different
methods, such as thermal conduction, convection, or radiation. This type of flow meter is
suitable for monitoring the flow rates of liquid and gaseous mediums.

VELOCITY FLOW SENSORS

iii. Ultrasonic Flow Rate Sensors
Transit time or Time of Flight flow meters utilize two transducers which function as both
ultrasonic transmitters and receivers. The flow meters operate by alternately transmitting and
receiving a frequency modulated burst of sound energy between the two transducers. The
burst is first transmitted in the direction of fluid flow and then against fluid flow. Since sound
energy in a moving liquid is carried faster when it travels in the direction of fluid flow
(downstream) than it does when it travels against fluid flow (upstream), a differential in the
times of flight will occur. The sound's time of flight is accurately measured in both directions
and the difference in time of flight calculated.

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iv. Turbine Meter
It consists of a multi-bladed rotor mounted at right angles to the fluid flow and suspended in
the fluid stream on a free-running bearing. The diameter of the rotor is very slightly less than
the inside diameter of the metering chamber, and its speed of rotation is proportional to the
volumetric flow rate. Turbine rotation can be detected by solid state devices (reluctance,
inductance, capacitive and Hall-effect pick-ups) or by mechanical sensors (gear or magnetic
drives).

PRESSURE SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS

A pressure transducer consists of a pressure-sensitive element, such as a diaphragm, with a

constant area. The fluid pressure causes the diaphragm to deflect. The pressure transducer also
consists of a transduction element. This transduction element converts the deflection sensed by
the diaphragm into an electrical output signal. This signal will increase or decrease
proportionally to the pressure change. Therefore, device calibration is critical to ensure that the
pressure is within the range of the specifications.

Strain Gauge Pressure Transducer

These transducers are suitable to measure extraordinarily high and low pressures, as well as
differential pressure. Differential pressure is the difference in pressure between any two given
points. The transducer contains a sensing element, a diaphragm. Any deformation of the
diaphragm will cause a change in the resistance of the strain gauges. Typically, 4 gauges are
used in a Wheatstone bridge to maximize the sensitivity of the transducer. This resistance
change is converted into a usable output signal.

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An example of a bonded strain gauge can be seen in Figure 2. This is placed on top of a
diaphragm, which deforms with change in pressure, straining the wires attached to the
diaphragm.

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Capacitance Pressure Transducer
Capacitance pressure transducers measure pressure by detecting the changes in electrical
capacitance due to the movement of the diaphragm. It has two capacitor plates, a diaphragm,
and an electrode fixed to an unpressurized surface. These plates are at a certain distance from
each other, and the change in pressure will widen or narrow the gap between these plates. This
change in capacitance is converted into a usable signal. Depending upon the application, this
transducer can measure either absolute, gauge, or differential pressure

Diaphragm Elements
They are made of circular metal discs or flexible elements such as rubber, plastic or leather. The
material from which the diaphragm is made depends on whether it takes advantage of the
elastic nature of the material, or is opposed by another element (such as a spring). Diaphragms
made of metal discs utilize elastic characteristics, while those made of flexible elements are
opposed by another elastic element. These diaphragm sensors are very sensitive to rapid
pressure changes. The metal type can measure a maximum pressure of approximately 7 MPa,
while the elastic type is used for measuring extremely low pressures (.1 kPa - 2.2 MPa) when
connected to capacitive transducers or differential pressure sensors. Examples of diaphragms
include flat, corrugated and capsule diaphragms. As previously noted, diaphragms are very

55
sensitive (0.01 MPa). They can measure fractional pressure differences over a very minute
range (say, inches of water) (elastic type) or large pressure differences (approaching a
maximum range of 207 kPa) (metal type).

Potentiometric Pressure Transducer

This type of transducer consists of a precision potentiometer. The potentiometer consists of a
wiper connected to the pressure-sensitive element, such as a diaphragm. The deflection on this
element changes the position of the wiper. The resistance value changes between the wiper
and one end of the potentiometer. This value is the measure of the pressure applied.

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57