Basic Nuclear Properties: Key Concepts and Formulas
1. Size, Shape, and Charge Distribution of the Nucleus
Size: Nuclear radius $ R = R_0 A^{1/3} $, $ R_0 \approx 1.2 1.3
10^{-15} $m) [1] [2] .
Shape: Most nuclei are spherical, but others may be deformed (ellipsoidal)—especially
those far from closed shells [2] [3] .
Charge Distribution: Determined via electron/muon scattering; the charge is concentrated
at the center and falls off smoothly with radius [2] .
2. Spin and Parity
Spin ($ J $): Total angular momentum depends on the arrangement of protons and
neutrons.
Even-even nuclei: $ J = 0 $ (always).
Odd-A nuclei: Spin determined by the unpaired nucleon.
Parity ($ P $): Product of the parities of all constituent nucleons; for a single nucleon, $ P =
(-1)^l $, where $ l $ is its orbital angular momentum quantum number [4] .
3. Binding Energy, Semi-Empirical Mass Formula, Liquid Drop Model
Binding Energy ($ E_B $): Energy required to break a nucleus into its nucleons, related to
the mass defect.
Semi-empirical Mass Formula (Liquid Drop Model):
$ a_v $: Volume term, $ a_s $: Surface term, $ a_c $: Coulomb term, $ a_a $:
Asymmetry term, $ \delta $: Pairing term.
This formula explains trends in binding energy and nuclear stability [5] [6] .
4. Nuclear Force and Nucleon-Nucleon Potential
Nature: Short-range, strong attractive force, much stronger than the electromagnetic force.
Form: Includes central, tensor, and spin-orbit components.
Charge Independence/Symmetry: Force is nearly the same for pp, nn, and np pairs—this is
known as charge independence; small differences are called charge symmetry breaking [7]
[8] .
5. Deuteron Problem
Deuteron (proton + neutron): Only bound two-nucleon system.
Quantum numbers: Spin 1, parity +1, isospin 0, binding energy ≈2.224MeV [9] [10] .
6. Evidence of Shell Structure, Single-Particle Shell Model
Evidence: Magic numbers in nuclear stability, peaks in separation energies, specific
reaction cross-sections near closed shells [11] .
Single-Particle Shell Model: Protons and neutrons fill quantized energy levels; explains
magic numbers.
Limitations: Fails to explain properties of many nuclei, especially those away from closed
shells, and moments in deformed nuclei [11] [12] .
7. Rotational Spectra
Non-spherical nuclei (deformed) exhibit quantized rotational energy levels, observable as
rotational bands in their spectra.
Energy of rotational states: , where is the moment of inertia [13] [14] .
8. Radioactive Decay: Alpha, Beta, Gamma; Selection Rules
Alpha Decay: Nucleus emits a helium nucleus ( ).
Beta Decay: Nuclear process where a neutron turns into a proton (or vice versa), emitting an
electron/positron and antineutrino/neutrino.
Gamma Decay: Emission of photons as excited nuclei return to lower energy states.
Selection Rules: Decays must obey angular momentum and parity conservation; transitions
are classified as allowed or forbidden depending on ∆J and parity change [15] [16] .
9. Fission and Fusion
Fission: Splitting of a heavy nucleus into two lighter nuclei plus free neutrons and
energy [17] .
Fusion: Combining two light nuclei to form a heavier nucleus; main energy source in
stars [18] .
10. Nuclear Reactions, Mechanisms
Direct Reactions: Fast, single-step nuclear processes (e.g., (d,p) reactions).
Compound Nucleus: Intermediate state forms and then decays; used to explain many
reaction cross-sections.
11. Fundamental Forces Classification
Strong, electromagnetic, weak, and gravitational forces.
12. Elementary Particles and Quantum Numbers
Types: Quarks, leptons (e.g., electrons, neutrinos), gauge bosons.
Quantum Numbers: Charge (Q), spin (S), parity (P), isospin (I or T), strangeness (S), etc.
13. Gell-Mann–Nishijima Formula
Where $ Q $: charge, $ I_3 $: third component of isospin, $ B $: baryon number, $ S $:
strangeness [19] .
14. Quark Model, Baryons, and Mesons
Quark Model: Hadrons made of quarks ( ).
Baryons: 3 quarks (e.g., proton: uud, neutron: udd).
Mesons: Quark-antiquark pairs (e.g., : u ).
15. C, P, T Invariance
C (Charge Conjugation): Replace particles with antiparticles.
P (Parity): Spatial inversion (mirror image).
T (Time Reversal): Reversal of time.
CPT theorem: All physical laws are invariant under the combined operation of C, P, and T.
16. Symmetry Arguments, Parity Non-Conservation, Weak Interaction
Parity is not conserved in weak interactions (e.g., $ \beta $-decay) but is conserved in
strong/electromagnetic [4] .
17. Relativistic Kinematics: Key Concepts & Formulae
Energy-momentum relation: $ E^2 = (pc)^2 + (mc2)2 $
Invariant mass: For two-particle system: $ M^2 = (E_1 + E_2)^2 - (\vec{p}_1 + \vec{p}_2)^2
c^2 $
These points summarize the key physical principles, experimental evidence, and formulas
relevant to nuclear and particle physics as specified in your syllabus prompt [2] [4] [5] [7] [11] [16] .
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