THE COLLEGE OF EDUCATION ISEYIN,

BIOLOGY DEPARTMENT

BIO 113

VIRUSES, BACTERIA AND LOWER PLANTS

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TABLE OF CONTENT

CHAPTER 1 VIRUSES
CHAPTER 2 BACTERIA
CHAPTER 3 FUNGI
CHAPTER 4 ALGAE
CHAPTER 5 LINCHES

CHAPTER 1
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VIRUSES
Viruses are extremely small infectious agents composed of nucleic
acid core (either DNA or RNA) surrounded by protein capsid.
Viruses are the smallest and most primitive living organisms known
to scientist. They are even smaller than bacteria which can only be
seen with the aid of an electron microscope. Viruses do not capture
or store free energy and arenot functionally active outside their host.
They are therefore parasites (and usuallypathogens).Viruses were
first discovered by a Russian Botanist Dmitri Ivanosky in 1892 in
his attempt to isolate the causative organism of tobacco mosaic
diseases.

CHARACTERISTICS OF VIRUS
1. They are acellular i.e. they do not contain any cell.
2. They are extremely small and cannot be seen even under light
microscope but withthe aid of an electron microscope.
3. No metabolic processes i.e. they neither carry out photosynthesis
nor cellular respiration, however fermentation takes place in them.
4. They do not arise directly from pre-existing viruses.
5. They are obligate parasites on every life form.
6. A virus has either a DNA or an RNA genome and is called a
DNA virus or RNAvirus, respectively. The vast majority of viruses
have RNA genomes.
7. Plant viruses tend to have single stranded RNA genomes while
bacteriophageshave double-stranded DNA genomes.

CLASSIFICATION OF VIRUSES
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Viruses are classified based on the following:
1. Presence or absence of DNA or RNA.
2. Single or double stranded nucleic acid (DNA or RNA).
3. Shape of the virus.
4. Symmetry of the capsid, which may be helical (coiled),
icosahedral (regular solid with 20 faces) or binal (polyhedral or
many faced headed with helical tail).
5. Presence or absence of membraneous envelope around the
virion.
6. Size of capsid (protein coat).
STRUCTURE OF A VIRUS
Viruses display a wide diversity of shapes and sizes, called
morphologies. In general, viruses are much smaller than bacteria.
Most viruses that have been studied have a diameter between 20 and
300 nanometers. Most viruses cannot be seen with an optical
microscope and so scanning and transmission based electron
microscopes are used to visualize them. A complete virus particle,
known as a virion, consists of nucleic acid surrounded by a
protective coat of protein called a capsid. These are formed from
identical protein subunits called capsomeres. Viruses can have a
lipid "envelope" derived from the host cell membrane. As illustrated
in the diagram that follows.

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Fig. 1: A Generalized Structure of Virus

TRANSMISSION OF VIRUSES
Viruses spread in many ways; viruses in plants are often transmitted
from plant to plant byinsects that feed on plant sap, such as aphids;
viruses in animals can be carried by bloodsucking insects. These
disease bearing organisms are known as vectors. Influenza
virusesare spread by coughing and sneezing.
HIV (Human Immune-deficiency Virus) is one of several viruses
transmitted throughsexual contact and by exposure to infected
blood. The range of host cells that a virus caninfect is called its
"host range". This can be narrow (meaning a virus is capable
ofinfecting few species) or broad (meaning it is capable of infecting
many).Viral infections in animals provoke an immune response that
usually eliminates theinfecting virus. Immune responses can also be
produced by vaccines, which confer anartificially acquired
immunity to the specific viral infection. However, some
virusesincluding those that cause AIDS (Acquired Immune
Deficiency Syndrome) and viralhepatitis evade these immune
responses and result in chronic infections. Antibiotics haveno effect
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on viruses, but several antiviral drugs have been developed.When an
individual, even animal (e.g. goat) is infected with virus, that
person's or animal'ssurrounding is saturated with virus. When
someone with flu virus sneezes, he releases trillions of viruses and
any healthy person around can contact the virus. There are
threemain routes of transmission:
1. Physical contact, through blood or semen, e.g. vaccinia virus in
AIDS.
2. Axial droplets of virus bearing dust particles, e.g. respiratory
viruses that causecommon colds - influenza A, B and C.
3. Faecal-oral transmission, e.g. polio virus and gastroenteritis.
GROWTH OF A VIRUS
Virus unlike bacteria, cannot be grown and observed on a culture
medium because it only grows and survives in another living cell
known as host (as parasite). Though scientists have grown virus on
chick embryo incubated in a sterile chamber or room, a process
known as cell culture. Virus, being an obligate parasite, is very
difficult to culture artificially, making it not easy to handle and also
difficult to study except for learned scientists.
LIFE CYCLE OF VIRUSES
Viral populations do not grow through cell division, because they
are acellular. Instead, they use the machinery and metabolism of a
host cell to produce multiple copies of themselves and they
assemble in the cell. The life cycle of viruses differs greatly
between species. However, there are six basic stages in the life cycle
of viruses.
1. Attachment is a specific binding between viral capsid proteins
and specific receptors on the host cellular surface. This
specificity determines the host range of a virus. For example,
HIV infects a limited range of human leucocytes. Attachment
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 to the receptor can induce the viral envelope protein to undergo
changes that result in the fusion of viral and cellular
membranes or changes of non-enveloped virus surface proteins
that allow the virus to enter.
2. Penetration follows attachment: Virions enter the host cell
through receptor mediatedendocytosis or membrane fusion.
This is often called viral entry. The infection of plant and
fungal cells is different from that of animal cells. Plants have a
rigid cell wall made of cellulose, and fungi of chitin,so that
viruses can get inside these cells only after causing trauma to
the cell walls.
3. Uncoatingis a process in which the viral capsid is removed:
This may be bydegradation, by viral enzymes host enzymes or
by simple dissociation. The endresultis the released of the viral
genomic nucleic acid.
4. Replication/Biosynthesis of viruses is primarily the
multiplication of genomes,which involves synthesis of viral
messenger RNA (mRNA) from "early" genes(with exceptions
for positive sense RNA viruses), viral protein synthesis,
possibleassembly of viral proteins and then viral genome
replication mediated by early orregulatory protein expressions.
5. Assembly follows the structure-mediated, self-assembly of the
virus particles, somemodifications of the proteins often occur
in HIV virus.
6. Release viruses can be released from the host cell by lysis, a
process that kills thecell by bursting its membrane and cell wall
if present.

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Fig. 2: A Typical Virus Life Cycle
ROLE OF VIRUS IN HUMAN DISEASES
Examples of common human diseases caused by viruses include:
the common cold,influenza, chickenpox and cold sores. Many
serious diseases such as Ebola, AIDS, avianinfluenza, and SARS
are caused by viruses. The relative ability of viruses to cause
diseaseis described in terms of the level of its virulence.Some
viruses can cause life-long or chronic infections, where the viruses
continue toreplicate in the body despite the host's defense
mechanisms.This is common in hepatitis Bvirus and hepatitis C
virus infections. People that are chronically infected are known
ascarriers, as they serve as reservoirs of infectious virus.In
populations with a highproportion of carriers, the disease is said to
be endemic.
HIV-AIDS VIRUS
HIV or Human Immune-deficiency Virus, is the virus that causes
AIDS (AcquiredImmune Deficiency Syndrome). The interesting
thing about HIV virus is that it belongs toa group of RNA viruses
known as Retroviruses. This name comes from the fact that
theseviruses can convert their RNA back into a DNA copy using an
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enzyme known as reversetranscriptase. The virus infects and
destroys certain white blood cells called T. HelperLymphocytes,
thus crippling the immune system.
Most researchers believed that HIV originated in sub-Saharan
Africa during the 20thcentury; it is now pandemic, with an estimated
38.6 million people now living with thedisease worldwide
(Gaoetal., 1999). The Joint United Nations Programme on
HIV/AIDS(UNAIDS) and the World Health Organization (WHO)
estimated that AIDS has killedmore than 25 million people since it
was first recognized on 5 June 1981, making it one ofthe most
destructive epidemics in recorded history. In 2007 there were 2.7
million newHIV infections and 2 million HIV-related deaths.
Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS)
It is a disorder which damages the human body’s immune system. It
is caused by the HIV(Human Immune-deficiency Virus). It was
discovered among homosexuals, and can alsobe transmitted in
heterosexuals. The virus passes in the fluid of the infected person to
thefluid of a healthy person. Example is the semen, blood or for the
homosexuals, analintercourse. Other modes of transmission include:
infected blood transfusion, sharing ofsharp objects such as needles,
razor blade, knife, clipper etc. with infected person.It canalso be
transmitted to infants by infected mother during pregnancy through
placenta orduring breast feeding, however, there is no known insect
vector for the virus.
STRUCTURE OF HIV VIRUS
The cone-shaped capsid is made of a helical spiral of capsomeres. It
is cut open to revealthe two copies of the RNA genetic code.
Reverse transcriptase is an enzyme whichconverts single-stranded
RNA into double-stranded DNA copies. The capsid is enclosed ina
protein shell which is anchored in a lipid bilayer, or envelope,
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obtained from the cellsurface membrane of the previous host cell.
This envelope contains glycoproteins whichbind specifically to
helper T-cell receptors, enabling the virus to enter its host.

TREATMENT AND PREVENTION

Unlike bacteria, antibiotics cannot be used in treating HIV-AIDS
due to the nature of thevirus (i.e. being able to live inside another
cell). Three suggestions were made by scientiststo treat and prevent
infection:
1. Restoring, or improving the damaged immune system of victims.
2. Developing drugs that will stop the growth of the virus and also
treat the otherinfections and symptoms that result from HIV
infection.
3. Developing a vaccine against the virus. There are other infections
(secondary)associated with HIV infection.
Drugs used in the treatment and prevention of viral diseases are
known asretroviral drugs. Examples of these drugs include:
Azidothymidine (AZT),Zalcitabine Glycyrrhizin and Ribavirin. The
success of these drugs is still beingdetermined. The best way to
prevent the disease is to look at how the disease canbe contracted in
order to avoid them.

BACTERIOPHAGE
Bacteriophage is a virus that infects and replicates within a
bacterium. The term wasderived from "bacteria" and the Greek
word (phagein), "to devour". Bacteriophages arecomposed of
proteins that encapsulate a DNA or RNAgenome and may have
relativelysimple or elaborate structures. Bacteriophages are a
common and diverse group of virusesand are the most abundant
form of biological entity in aquatic environments. There are upto ten
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times more of these viruses in the oceans than there are bacteria,
reaching levels of250,000,000 bacteriophages per milliliter of
seawater.These viruses infect specific bacteria by binding to surface
receptor molecules and thenentering the cell. Within a short period
of time, in some cases just minutes, bacterialpolymerase starts
translating viral mRNA into protein. These proteins go on to
becomenew virions within the cell, helper proteins, which help the
assembly of new virions, orproteins involved in cell lysis. Viral
enzymes aid in the breakdown of the cell membraneand in the case
of the T4 phage, in just over twenty minutes after injection, over
threehundred phages could be released. They have been used for
over 90 years as an alternativeto antibiotics in the former Soviet
Union and Central Europe, as well as in France (BBC,1997). They
are seen as a possible therapy against multi drug resistant strains of
manybacteria.

STRUCTURE OF BACTERIOPHAGE
Given the millions of different phages in the environment, phages'
genomes come in avariety of forms and sizes. RNA phages such as
MS2 have the smallest genomes of only afew kilobases. However,
some DNA phages such as T4 may have large genomes
withhundreds of genes. The size and shape of the capsid vary along
with the size of thegenome.
Bacteriophage genomes can be highly mosaic, i.e. the genome of
many phage speciesappear to be composed of numerous individual
modules. These modules may be found inother phage species in
different arrangements. Bacteriophages with mycobacterial
hostshave provided excellent examples of this mosaicism. In these
mycobacteriophages, geneticassortment may be the result of
repeated instances of site-specific recombination andillegitimate
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recombination (phage genome acquisition of bacterial host genetic
sequences).
It should be noted however, that evolutionary mechanisms, shaping
the genomes ofbacterial viruses, vary between different families and
depend on the type of the nucleicacid, characteristics of the virion as
well as the mode of the viral life cycle.

Fig. 3: illustration of how some bacteriophages inject their

genomes into bacterial cells
BIOCHEMICAL ACTIVITY OF A PHAGE
Phages often have dramatic effects on their hosts. As a
consequence, the transcriptionpattern of the infected bacterium may
change considerably. For instance, infection ofPseudomonas
aeruginosaby the temperate phage PaP3, changed the expression of
38% ofits host's genes. Many of these effects are probably indirect,
hence the challenge is toidentify the direct interactions among
bacteria and phage. Several attempts have beenmade to map
protein-protein interactions among phages and their host. For
instance,bacteriophage lambda was found to interact with its host E.
coli 31 times. However, alarge-scale study revealed 62 interactions,
most of which were new. Again, thesignificance of many of these
interactions remains unclear, but these studies suggest thatthere are
most likely several key interactions and many indirect interactions
whose roleremains uncharacterized.
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Bacteriophages are thought to extensively contribute to horizontal
gene transfer in naturalenvironments, principally via transduction
but also via transformation. Metagenomicsbasedstudies have also
revealed that viromes from a variety of environments
harborantibiotic resistance genes, including those that could confer
multi drug resistance.
REPLICATION OF A PHAGE
Bacteriophage like normal virus has replication cycle which can be
summarized into 4stages as follows;
1. Attachment and Penetration: To enter a host cell,
bacteriophages attach tospecific receptors on the surface of
bacteria, including lipopolysaccharides,teichoic acids, proteins
or even flagella. This specificity means a bacteriophage
caninfect only certain bacteria bearing receptors to which they
can bind, which in turndetermines the phage's host range. Host
growth conditions also influence theability of the phage to
attach and invade them.
2. Synthesis of Protein and Nucleic Acid: Within minutes,
bacterial ribosomes starttranslating viral mRNA into protein.
For RNA-based phages, RNA-replicase issynthesized early in
the process. Proteins modify the bacterial RNA polymerase soit
preferentially transcribes viral mRNA.
3. Assembly: In the case of the T4 phage, the construction of
new virus particlesinvolves the assistance of helper proteins.
The base plates are assembled first, withthe tails being built
upon them afterward.
4. Release: Phages may be released via cell lysis by extrusion or
in a few cases, bybudding. Lysis by tailed phages is achieved
by an enzyme called endolysin, whichattacks and breaks down
the cell wall peptidoglycan.
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 CHAPTER 2
BACTERIA

CHARACTERISTICS OF BACTERIA
1. They are single-celled prokaryotic organisms
2. They are the smallest cellular organisms
3. Bacteria cannot be seen except with the aid of a microscope
4. They inhabit all habitat (cosmopolitan in distribution)
5. Some are parasitic while others are saprophytic or symbiots
6. They lack chlorophyll hence non photosynthetic
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BACTERIA AND VIRUS
B a c t e r i a V i r u s
C e l l u l a r Not made of cells
S o m e p a r a s i t i c All parasites (obligate parasites
Cellular respiration occur No cellular respiration occurs

STRUCTURE
The bacterial cell is surrounded by a cell membrane (also known as
a lipid, cytoplasmic or plasma membrane). This membrane encloses
the contents of the cell and acts as a barrier to hold nutrients,
proteins and other essential components of the cytoplasm within the
cell. As they are prokaryotes, bacteria do not usually have
membrane-bound organelles in their cytoplasm. And thus, contain
few large intracellular structures. They lack a true nucleus,
mitochondria, chloroplasts and the other organelles present in
eukaryotic cells. Bacteria were once seen as simple bags of
cytoplasm. But structures such as the prokaryotic cytoskeleton and
the localization of proteins to specific locations within the
cytoplasm that gives bacteria some complexity, have been

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discovered. These subcellular levels of organization have been
called "bacterial hyper-structure".

Fig. 4: Structure and contents of a typical gram-positive bacterial

cell
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON SHAPE
1. Bacilli (singular bacillus): these are rod-shaped bacteria e.g.
Bacillus(Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Clostridium tetani, Bacillus
typhosusetc.)
2. Cocci(singular coccus): these are spherically shaped bacteria e.g.
Staphylococcus,Streptococcus, Azotobacteretc.
3. Sprilla(singular sprillum): these are bacteria with spirally shaped
body e.g.Spirillum, Spirochaeteetc.
4. Commas: they are slightly twisted like comma e.g. Vibrio
cholerae.

The spherical bacteria (cocci) are grouped differently on the

basis of number ormake up:
1. When they occur in pairs, are known as diplococci
2. When they occur in long chains, are known as Streptococci
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3. If they are in groups of four’s, are known as tetrad
4. If they occur in bunch, they are known as staphylococcus
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON NUTRITION
1. Autotrophic bacteria: these are bacteria that can synthesize their
own food andthere are two methods here; photosynthesis and
chemosynthesis. Photosyntheticbacteria develop a kind of pigment
that is closely related to chlorophyll. Theyinclude the purple sulphur
and green sulphur bacteria, both of which are anaerobic.They
possess bacterio chlorophyll and bacterioviridin which are
substitutes ofchlorophyll respectively. They both utilize light as
source of energy. Whilechemosynthetic bacteria are colourless but
autotrophic i.e. they have the ability tosynthesize carbohydrate
without the use of light as energy source. Such bacteriaare aerobic.
2. Parasitic bacteria: parasitic bacteria infect living plants and
animals, some ofwhich live as parasites on higher plants and
humans e.g. Xanthemonascitri,Pseudomonas tabaci, Clostridium
tetani, Salmonella typhietc.
3. Symbiotic bacteria: these are bacteria which lives in the root
nodules ofleguminous plants (G/nut, cowpea etc.) known as
nitrogen fixing bacteria e.g.Rhizobium.
4. Saprophytic bacteria: various types of nitrogen fixing bacteria
exist freely in thesoil and have the power of fixing the free nitrogen
to their body e.g. Clostridium(anaerobic) and Azotobacter(aerobic).
5. Commensal bacteria: these are bacteria relating with other
organisms in whichboth organisms involved are self-supporting e.g.
E. coli that lives in the intestine ofanimals and Protococcusthat lives
on tree trunk.
TYPES OF FLAGELLA IN BACTERIA
The flagellum or flagella (plural) in bacteria allow the cells to move
from one place toanother in a liquid medium. This movement can
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aid the survival of the bacterial cells,allowing them to move to a
more nutrient-rich environment if their current location losesnutrient
content. The flagellum consists of a group of proteins, oriented into
a rotor, hookand tail. The ability of the rotor to turn about a solid
base is driven by the proton motiveforce. The proton motive force
refers to the buildup of protons across the cell membrane.Protons in
this gradient then move back across the cell membrane, creating the
energyused to drive the motor of the flagellum, allowing it to rotate.
1. Monotrichous Flagellum: The names used to identify the
different types of flagellations indicate the location of the
flagella on the cell. A monotrichous flagellum is located on one
end of the bacterial cell. The flagellum, embedded in the
double cell membrane of the bacterial cell, rotates around
counter-clockwise. This rotation drives the bacterial cell
forward.
2. Amphitrichous Flagellum: Amphitrichous flagella are located
at each end of the bacterial cell. The increased number of
flagella and the arrangement on both ends of the cell allow the
bacteria to move from standstill to forward or reverse directly.
With a monotrichous flagellum, the bacteria can only move in
one direction, and manoeuvering is more difficult.
3. Lophotrichous Flagellum: The flagella in a lophotrichous
arrangement are situated on one end of the bacterial cell, as
with a monotrichous flagellum. However, instead of just one
flagellum, multiple flagella help drive the cell forward. With
more flagella working at the same time, the bacterial cell can
move faster from point A to point B.
4. Peritrichous Flagellum: The peritrichous flagella are located
randomly over the surface of the bacterial cell. Many flagella
exist in the peritrichous orientation, and can cover the entire
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 cell. The bacteria can easily move in any direction needed.
This is especially useful when trying to move toward areas of
nutrients, or away from areas that contain no nutrients or other
potentially harmful substances.
MODE OF RESPIRATION
Bacteria can respire aerobically or anaerobically.
Aerobic:
a. Obligate Aerobes: these are bacteria which can respire only
aerobically. They generally get killed under anaerobic
conditions e.g. Bacillus subtilis
b. Faculatative aerobes: they are bacteria which respire an
aerobically under normal conditions but can respire aerobically
when oxygen is available. Most of the photosynthetic bacteria
(e.gRhodopseudomonas) belong to this group.
Anaerobic
a. Obligate Anaerobes: the bacteria of this category respire only
an aerobically. They generally get killed under aerobic
conditions. E.g., Clostridium botulinum.
b. Facultative Anaerobes: they are bacteria which generally
respire aerobically but switch over to anaerobic mode of
respiration if oxygen become deficient. e.g., halophiles.
STAINING MECHANISM
The Gram stain is a test used to identify bacteria by the composition
of their cell walls.
Bacteria are first stained with a purple dye called crystal violet,
which specifically binds to peptidoglycan, a complex structure of
amino acids and sugars found in the cell wall. This is followed by a
series of steps that ultimately remove any unbound or loosely bound
crystal violet.

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Then the cells are stained with a second red-colored dye called
safranin. Gram-positive bacteria stain purple because their cell
walls are rich in peptidoglycan (thick). On the other hand, Gram-
negative bacteria which cells walls have two layers take on a red
coloring. The outer layer of lipids does not bind strongly to crystal
violet and the dye is easily washed away during the staining
process. For example, Streptococcus pneumoniae, which causes
pneumonia, is a Gram-positive bacterium, while Escherichia coli
(E.coli) and Vibrio cholerae, which causes cholera, are Gram-
negative. Thus, most bacteria are Gram-negative.
LIFE HISTORY
The ancestors of modern bacteria were unicellular microorganisms
and were among thefirst forms of life to appear on Earth, about 4
billion years ago. For about 3 billion years,most organisms were
microscopic, bacteria and archaea were the dominant forms of
life.The most recent common ancestor of bacteria and archaea was
probably ahyperthermophile that lived about 2.5 billion–3.2 billion
years ago.
NUTRITION IN BACTERIA
This is the process by which bacteria acquire energy and materials.
Living organisms that synthesize their organic requirement by using
light are called phototrophs. Those that do so by using chemical
energy are called chemotrophs. Autotrophic organisms are those
that source their carbon requirement from inorganic matter.
Heterotropic organisms are those that derive their carbon source
from organic matter.
Based on these, organisms (bacteria) are further classified as:
i. Photoautotrophs (blue-green bacteria).
ii. Photoheterotrophs(purple non sulphur bacteria)
iii. Chemoautotrophs (nitrifying bacteria).
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iv. Chemoheterotrophs(most bacteria e.g. saprotrophs,)
BACTERIA ROLE IN DISEASES
This is a situation where a person whose immune system has been
severely weakened,falls prey to all kinds of bacterial infection. For
example, when a HIV patient enters thethird phase of the
development of the disease (AIDS-related complex ARC),
severalinfections will begin to take place. The bacterial infection
becomes prolonged and moredifficult to treat. This happens because
of the significant drop in the number of T help cellsin the patient.
Pathogenic bacteria are a major cause of human diseases and cause
infections such astetanus, typhoid fever, diphtheria, syphilis,
cholera, foodborne illness, leprosy andtuberculosis. A pathogenic
cause for a known medical disease may only be discoveredmany
years after, as was the case with Helicobacter pylori and peptic
ulcer disease.Bacterial diseases are also important in agriculture,
with bacteria causing leaf spot, fireblight and wilts in plants, as well
as Johne's disease, mastitis, salmonella and anthrax infarm animals.
Yet these organisms are also part of the normal human flora and
usuallyexist on the skin or in the nose without causing any disease
at all.
Treatments of Bacterial Infections:
Bacterial infections may be treated with antibiotics, which are
classified as bacteriocidal ifthey kill bacteria or bacteriostatic if they
just prevent bacterial growth. There are many types of antibiotics
and each class inhibits a process that is different in the pathogen
fromthat found in the host. An example of how antibiotics produce
selective toxicity ischloramphenicol and puromycin which inhibit
the bacterial ribosome, but not thestructurally different eukaryotic
ribosome.

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 CHAPTER 3
FUNGI
FUNGI GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Fungi are a large group of organisms. They range from unicellular
yeast to toadstool,puffballs, and stinkhorns. Toadstool and puffballs
are a kind of mushrooms, you musthave seen or even eaten, though
some are poisonous. About 120,000 species of fungi havebeen
described by taxonomists, but the global biodiversity of the fungus
kingdom is notfully understood.
Rigid cell walls contain chitin as the fibrillar material. Chitin is a
nitrogen containingpolysaccharide, very similar in structure to
cellulose. Like cellulose, it has high tensilestrength. It therefore
gives shape to the hyphae and prevents osmotic busting of
cells.Body is usually a mycellium, a network of fine tubular
filaments called hyphae. Thesemay be septate (have cross-walls)
e.g. Penicilliumsp. or aseptate (no cross-walls) e.g.Mucorsp.
They have some benefits to man, e.g. the mushrooms that are used
for food while othersare used for medicine. Yeast is used as raising
agents in baking industries. Some grow onbread which is referred to
as moulds. Some grow on leather products such as shoes,handbags,
rotten vegetable etc. Some are parasites on plants, causing the
disease of plantsuch as mildew, smuts and rusts. While others are
parasites on animals including humans,causing many health
problems.
Parasites that are totally dependent on a living host for their survival
are called obligateparasites. While those that live on host, yet are
capable of living an independent life arecalled facultative
parasites. Those who study fungi in detail are called Mycologists
andthe field itself is called Mycology.

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Fig. 5: Mycelium of Mucorsp. as seen with low power of a light
microscope
CHARACTERISTICS OF FUNGI
1. Fungi are group of thallophytes that lack chlorophyll. Hence do
not photosynthesize, but live a heterotrophic mode of life either
as parasites, saprophytes or symbionts.
2. The body of fungus is made up of filament called hypha and
the hyphae form a mass called mycelium
3. Fungi with the exception of myxomycetes, have definite walls
which are chitinous, less often composed glycogen and
cellulose
4. Some are filamentous with some being unicellular and
uninucleate. While others are non-filamentous and
multinucleate, a condition known as coenocytic
5. Their Carbohydrates are stored in form of glycogen and not
starch
6. The saprophytes live on dead, decaying materials. While the
parasitic ones live on living organisms

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 7. Many parasitic fungi produce specially modified hyphae called
haustorium whichpenetrates the host and derives nourishment
8. Many fungi produce a relatively short hyphae which serves as
anchorage. Suchhyphae are called rhizoids
9. Reproduction is usually asexual by means of spores and
sometimes sexually byconjugation.
10. They are cosmopolitan in nature (can be found almost
everywhere).
CLASSIFICATION OF FUNGI
Kingdom fungi has majorly two divisions: the Myxomycota (false
fungi) and Eumycota(true fungi)
MYXOMYCOTA (class myxomycetes):
These are the slime moulds which are also classified as protozoan-
animals calledmycetozoa. They lack cell walls except in the spores,
their body is amoeboid or a mass ofamoeba, clumped together
forming a structure called plasmodium. They are regarded asfalse
fungi (in other words; they are not true fungi).
EUMYCOTA (true fungi) this division has four classes:
1. Phycomycetes
2. Ascomycetes
3. Basidiomycetes
4. Deuteromycetes
PHYCOMYCETES
They are the most primitive group of fungi and referred to as the
lower or algal fungi.
They are characterized by the following features:
1. Hyphae non septate and walls rarely contain cellulose
2. Reproduction is by non-sexual aplanospores (non-motile spores)
3. Sexual reproduction is by oospores (oomycetes)orzygospores
(zygomycetes)
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4. They lack fruiting bodies
5. Examples are Mucor, Rhizopus(bread mould),
Peronospora(downy mildew),Phytopthora(potato blight),
Pythiumspp. etc.
MUCOR
Mucor fungi cause the group of infection referred to as zygomycosis
(mucormycosis). It is a filamentous fungus found in the soil, plants,
decayed fruits and vegetables.It is ubiquitous in nature and a
common laboratory contaminant. Mucor spp. May cause infections
in man, fogs, amphibians, cattle and swine. They are unable to grow
at 37oC. The mucor contains several species. The most common
ones are Mucoramphibiorum, Mucorcircinelloides, Mucorhiemalis,
Mucorindicus, Mucorracemosus and Mucorramosissimus.
RHIZOPUS
The genus Rhizopus is one of the most widely studies Zygomycetes
fungi. It is ubiquitous in soil, animal excrements and rotting
vegetation. They are filamentous fungi found in soil, decaying fruit,
animal feces and old bread. They are occasional causes of serious
infections in humans while some are plant pathogens. Rhizopus are
important fermentation agents in food industrial processes. they are
also useful for the production of medicine and important enzymes.
The most common species of Rhizopus are Rhizopusstolonifer (R.
nigricans), Rhizopusarrhizus (R. oryzae), Rhizopusmicrosporus,
Rhizopusoligosporus, Rhizopushomothallicus.
RELATIONSHIP WITH THE ENVIRONMENT
Fungi play a crucial role in the balance of ecosystems. They are
decomposers and breakdown dead, organic substances releasing
nutrient into the soil.They can be parasitic or pathogens to plants
and animals. Fungi are mutualists through mychorrhizal fungi. They
help plants get more water and nutrients and in return, plants
24
perform the photosynthesis. They also form lichens with algae. In
this relationship, the fungi partner provides nutrients like
carbondoxide and water and gives the lichen its shape.

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF FUNGI

1. Fungi are used as food e.g. Mushrooms and Morels.
2. Yeast - different species and strains of yeast are used in the
brewing industry foralcoholic fermentation.
3. Some fungi are used in production of several antibiotics and other
useful medicinelike penicillin, streptomycin, ergometrine, ephedrine
etc.
4. Yeast is also used in baking industry and fermentation of milk to
produce yoghurt
5. Cause disease in plants, animals and humans
6. Aspergillus- is economically an important fungus. Some species
are usedindustrially in the manufacture of alcohol from rice starch,
and manufacture ofcertain organic acids (e.g. citric, gluconic acid)
on a commercial basis. Somespecies are sources of certain
antibiotics.
7. Food spoilage (destruction) caused by fungi like mucor and yeast.

25
 CHAPTER 4
ALGAE
CLASSIFICATION
Classification means grouping of organisms according to the
simulation in theircharacters. It is not far-fetched, but true that
organisms showing similar morphology, lifecycle, physiology and
biochemistry are genetically related from the evolutionary point
ofview. Therefore, the following criteria are used: Nature of cell
wall component, certaindetails of cell structures, Photosynthetic
pigmentation, Nature of flagellation and Nature offood reserve.
Based on the above mentioned criteria, algae are classified into
classes as follows:
1. Cyanophyta (prokaryotic algae) or blue-green algae e.g. Nostoc,
Anabaena,Oscillatoria.
2. Chlorophyta (Green algae) eg. Chlamydomonas, Spirogyra,
Chlorella
3. Phaeophyta (brown algae) eg. Fucus, Sargassum, laminaria.
4. Xantophyta (yellow-green algae) eg. Vaucheria, Botrydium
5. Chrysophyta (Golden-Brown algae) eg. Synura, Mallomonas,
Chromalina.
6. Euglenophyta (Euglenoids) eg. Euglena, Trachelommas.
7. Dinophyta (Dinoflagellates) e.g. Ceratium, Peridinum.
8. Crytophyta(Crytomanads) e.g. Crytomones, Chromonas.
9. Bucillariophyta (Diatoms) eg. Diatoma, fragilaria.
RANGE OF FORMS IN ALGAE
SOLITARY (unicellular) FORM
The solitary forms of algae are non-motile, amoeba-like or motile
cells. The amoeba-like(rhizopodial type) lacks a rigid cell wall and
forms cytoplasmic projections. Examples ofthese are found in the
Xanthophyceae and other groups.
26
Fig. 6: Unicellular Algae (Chlamydomonas)

COLONIAL FORM
Flagellate colonies
These are motile unicells (flagellate cells), aggregated to form
simple species. For example, in Chlorophyceae
(Chlamydomonastype), cells are aggregated in mucilage sheets as
found in Volvox, Pandorinaand Gonium.
Non-flagellate colonies:
These are made up of aggregates of non-motile cells in which the
cells are fused together.
This is commonly found in Chlorophyceae e.g. Scenedesmus.

Fig. 7: Scenedesmus sp.

FILAMENTOUS FORM
Unbranched filament
27
These are found in a few groups which may be free living (e.g.
Ulothrix) attached (e.g.
Oedogonium) or form into colonies (e.g. Nostoc). In the
Cyanophyta, the filament is made
up of simple vegetative cells e.g. Oscillatoriawhile in others, the
filament is wound into a
loose or close helix (e.g. Anabenaand Spirulina).
Siphonaceous form
This is found in the xanthophyceae and chlorophyceae. The simplest
siphon is a smallunbranched vesicles containing a central vacuole
and peripheral cytoplasm in which thechloroplast and nuclei are
located. A simple branched form of siphon is found inVaucheria.

Fig. 8: Vaucheria sp.

REPRODUCTION IN ALGAE
Algae reproduce by vegetative, sexual and asexual involving
various reproductive strategies. Vegetative reproduction solely
depends on the capacity of bits of algae accidentally broken to
produce a new one by simple cell division. Asexual reproduction
occurs through division or fragmentation without the combination
of different material in minor algae species. In superior algae,
reproduction occurs through spores. Asexual reproduction involves
28
production of new type of cells e.g zoospores. In sexual
reproduction gametes are formed. They fuse in pairs to form zygote.
Sexual reproduction typically comprises of using genetic material
from two different cells. Different environmental events influence
and regulate sexual reproduction. There are normally two phases in
the cycle of sexual reproduction. The first stage has one set of
chromosomes and is known as haploid. The second phase is diploid
having two sets of chromosomes
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF ALGAE
1. Algae as food: Large numbers of Algae (like
Laminarinasp.)are used as source offood by human beings.
2. Some species like Chlamydomonas, Scenedesmus, Chlorella,
play a role in sewagedisposal, they are mainly useful to clean
the water by releasing oxygen
3. The species of Nostoc, Syctonema,Lyngobya, Microcoleus,
Anabaena etc. are ableto prevent soil erosion by binding the
soil particles firmly due to theirmucilaginous sheath and most
of these can fix atmospheric nitrogen and increasethe soil
fertility.
4. Many red algae are used as the basic raw material for
extraction of gel-like andnon-nitrogenous Agar-agar
5. Algae as source of iodine: some algae like Laminariadigitata,
Fucussp, Eckloniasp. etc. are known as important sources of
iodine
6. Algae as source of diatomite which is used industrially for
filtration processes inrefining industries and brewing
industries.
7. Algae have also been reported to play an important role in
indicating pollution. Inhighly polluted areas, members of
cyanophyceae and a few euglenoids arecommon. While water
29
 purity is depicted by appearance of diatoms and
filamentousgreen algae.
8. Production of antibiotics e.g. chlorellin is extracted from
Chlorella vulgaris whichinhibits the growth of certain bacteria
and a few algae.
9. Sea algae are used as food for fishes. So they play an important
role in pisi culture.
10. They are primary producers and algae are the main
Oxygen producers in aquaticareas. 10% of total photosynthesis
carried out by plants is carried out by the algae.

30
 CHAPTER 5
THE LICHENS
Lichen is a stable symbiotic association between a fungus
(mycobiont) and alga (symbiont), the fungal partner provides
protection and support while the algal partner is photosynthetic,
hence provides food in the relationship. They are mostly found in
harsh environment on rock surfaces, tree barks, walls etc. They
range in colour from white to black, red, orange, brown, yellow,
green depending on the chemical they synthesize. The mycobiont
belong to ascomycetes, basidiomycetes or deuteromycetes. While
the algae involved are of cyanophyta (blue green), chrysophyta or
chorophyta. In this association, the two partners lose their identity
and are designated new generic and species names. The algal
species are able to grow independently in nature, but the fungi are
not found naturally outside their association with the algae.
CLASSIFICATION OF LICHENS
Morphologically, they exist in three (3) types of thalli.
1. Foliose (leafy) - The thallus generally forms flat, leaf-like lobes,
withdifferentiated layers of tissue, the upper and lower cortices,
forming the upper andlower surfaces. The lobes are commonly, but
not always appressed to the substratesurface, but can be lifted away
e.g. Everniaprunastri.
2. Crustose (crusty)- The thallus forms a crust over the substrate,
edges flat, unlobedand is firmly attached to it.The lichen normally
cannot be collected intact withoutcollecting a portion of the
substrate along with ite.g. Ophioparmaventosa.
3. Fructicose (shrubby) - The thallus is extended up into a tufted or
pendantbranched structure, the branches being covered by a single
cortex e.g.Ramalinapolymorpha.

31
IMPORTANCE OF LICHEN
1. Lichen as food e.g. Umbilicariaesculentaeaten in North America
2. Some species of lichen are extensively used as food flavouring
agents
3. Lichen also serve as fodder to some animals like reindeer
4. Lichen are also used as source of dyes
5. Roccellamontagneia lichen, is used in manufacture of litmus
paper (an acid orbase indicator)
6. Everniaprunastriand Ramalinasp. are used in producing
perfumes, soaps andcosmetics
7. They are used in medicine, they contain several metabolites
which are naturallyantibiotics
8. It is used as an indicator of atmosphere

CLASSIFICATION OF BRYOPHYTES
They are broadly classified into 3 classes. These classes are:
1. MUSCI (Mosses)
2. HEPATICAE (Liverworts)
3. ANTHOCEROTAE (Hornwort).
MUSCI (Mosses)
Mosses are mostly-terrestrial bryophytes. Mosses are found in a
range of habitats,although moist and shady habitats are more
common. Mosses are often epiphytes with thefollowing
characteristics.The dominant phase of the moss life cycle is the
gametophyte (haploid). The plant iscalled a thallus, they may be
erect or prostrate (axis along the ground). Mosses have
radialsymmetry, in that a cut down the long axis of an individual
gives two similar halves. Thegametophyte has a stem-like axis with
spirally arranged leaves, which are known asphyllids. Mosses attach
to their substrate with multicellular rhizoids. Moss leaves
32
arevariable in shape. Leaves usually consist of a single cell layer
and consisting of a midribthat is always more than one cell in
thickness. It lacks xylem and phloem. The plant bodymay have
conducting tissue. The xylem-like water and mineral transporting
tissue iscalled hydroid. The phloem-like sugar and amino-acid
conducting tissue is called leptoid.e.g. Moss sp.
HEPATICAE (Liverworts)
Liverworts are odd, little plants that appear as small, flat green
patches attached to theground. Although they may form large
masses in favorable habitats such as moist, shadedrocks or soil, tree
trunks or branches and a few even grow directly in water. There
arealmost 8,500 species with the following
characteristics:Liverworts are made up of flat, lobed thalli that look
like a liver. They lack specializedconducting tissues, cuticles,
stomata, and their rhizoids are always unicellular. Theirgametophyte
are either leafy or thalloid, often lobed and bilaterally
symmetrical.Theirsporangia are often unstalked. They shade their
spores from the sporangia for relativelyshort time. They frequently
reproduce asexually through fragmentation or gemma
cupproduction (a star-shaped or cup-shaped). Their growth in the
thallus form is at the apicalnotch. Examples of leafy liverworts are
Bazzaniaspp, Calypogeia spp. etc. Thalloidliverworts include
Marchantia, Riccia, Pelliaetc.
Funnariahygrometrica(moss): is one of the common examples of
mosses in Nigeria,
The foliose plant body of Funnariais made up of rhizoids, axis,
leaves, mature
sporophyte, capsule, seta and calyptra.

33
Fig. 10: Foliose plant body of Funariahygrometrica
Habits of Funaria
Funariamostly and commonly occurs on trunks of trees, damp walls
or damp soil duringrainy season. However, it dries up in winter. It is
gregarious in habit. It forms a greenpatch or a soft velvet-like, green
carpet wherever it grows. It is small, a few centimeters inheight and
consists of a short axis with spirally arranged small leaves (green in
colour). Notrue roots but bears rhizoids which perform the functions
of roots. Other parts of Funariainclude seta, capsule and calyptra
which make up the mature sporophyte. .
Ricciasp. (Liverwort) habits:
Ricciais one of the widespread, terrestrial genera that grows on most
lands and rocks. It isa thalloid liverwort, showing distinct
dichotomous branching on a rosette form. In India,there are about
22 species of Ricciaand R. himalayensisis a fairly common one.
Thethallus is flattened and has a longitudinal groove along the
whole length of the mid-rib onthe dorsal surface. But the ventral
surface has a row of scales at the apex and a number ofunicellular
hairy structures (rhizoids). Ricciaspecies grows as a green carpet on
wetground, old damp walls, old tree trunks and moist rocks.
Ricciafruitansis the only aquaticspecies.
The vegetative propagation of Ricciatakes place by progressive
decay of older portion ofthe thallus at its base and its separation into
branches which then grow into thalli.However, Ricciasexual
reproduction is through gametes. The male and female gametesare
34
borne in special structures known as antheridia and archegonia
respectively.Alternation of generation also occurs in Riccia.

Fig. 11: Riccia plant body

PROBLEMS OF THE TERRESTRIAL ENVIRONMENT AS
ENCOUNTERED BY
BRYOPHYTES IN TRANSITION FROM WATER TO LAND
AND SOMEADAPTIVE FEATURES ON LAND
The major problem of terrestrial environment as encountered by
bryophytes in transitionfrom water to land is water absorption. This
problem is solved by the possession ofrhizoids which help in water
or mineral absorption. Another adaptive feature ofbryophytes on
land is that spores borne on capsule are raised some inches above
soilsurface for wind dispersal. In addition, leaf-like structures are
developed to increase rate ofphotosynthesis. Confinement of
photosynthetic pigment to upper surface of thalloid forme.g.
Marchantiais another adaptive feature. Bryophytes are
poikilohydric in nature (i.e.they have no mechanisms to prevent
dessication).
PTEIDOPHYTA
CLASSIFICATION OF PTEIDOPHYTA
Class I: Psilotopsida (or psilophytinae)
Order 1: Psilotales (or Psilotales e. g. Psilotum)
Class II: Lycopsida (orLycopodinae)
Order 1: Lycopodialese.g.Lycopodium
Order2: Selaginellales e.g. Selaginella

35
Order3: Isoetales e.g. Isoetes
Class III: Sphenopsida (orEguisetinae)
Order 1: Equisetales e.g. Eguisetum
Class IV: Pteropsida (or filicinae)
Sub-class: Eusporangiate
Order 1: Ophioglossales e.g. Ophioglessum
Order2: Osmundales e.g. Osmunda
Order3: Marattiales e.g. Marantia
Sub-class: Leptosporangiate
Order4: Filicales e.g. Dryopteris
Order 5: Marsiteales e.g. Marsilea
Order6: Salviniales e. g. Salviniaand Azolla
GENERAL DESCRIPTION AND HABITS OF SOME
PTERIDOPHYTES
Class: Lycopsida(e.g. Lycopodiumand Selaginella)
Lycopodium: They are commonly called club moss. It is a much
branched herbaceous plant and abundantly found in hills at a high
altitude. The creeping rhizomes makes up the plant body that give
rise to slender, elongated, aerial branches from the upper side and
adventitious roots from the lower. Numerous small, narrow, pointed
leaves cover branches. Lycopodiummostly shows dichotomous
branching.
Selaginella:They grow in damp places in the hills and plains.
Selaginellamay beprostrate, sub-erect, erect or rarely climbing in
habit. The plant is slender, much branchedand creep on well or
ground. Slender stem bears a long row of leaves. Ligule
(scalystructure) develops on upper (ventral) surface of each leaf
above its base. Rhizophorebears a long, slender, root-like organ
from the under surface of the stem at the point ofbranching.

36
Dryopterisand Marsilea:They are slender, prostrate herb, growing
rooted to the mud atthe edges of tanks or ditches. The plant body
consists of a slender, prostrate,dichotomously branched rhizome
with distinct nodes and internodes. Roots are formed atnodes and
gives off leaves alternately in two rows along the upper side, the
apicaltetrahedral, rneristernatic cell leads to growth of the stem.
REPRODUCTION IN LYCOPODIUM
Lycopodiumhas two main plant bodies for reproduction i.e.
sporophyte and gametophyte.
Sporophyte: Lycopodiummain plant body is sporophyte which
reproduced asexually bymeans of spores borne on specialized leaves
called sporophylls.Sporophylls aggregate together and are specially
arranged at the tip of a vegetative branchcalled sporangiferous spike
or strobilus. Lycopodiumis homosporous. The sporangiumconsists
of a wall commonly made of a few layers of cells and an inner mass
of sporemother cells. Through reduction division, spores are formed
as tetrads.
Gametophyte: The spore on germination leads to the formation of
gametophyte(orprothallus). The gametophyte may be a tube-like or
cylindrical body with a lobed bodyor may be broad and irregularly
cup-shaped. The sexual organs are borne on the crown.Gametophyte
of Lycopodiumis monoecious. Many antheridia and archegonia are
formedin the upper lobed portion of crown. The antheridium lies
partially sunken or wholly in thetissue of prothallus while
archegonium lies almostwholly embedded in the prothallus.
TYPES AND EVOLUTION OF STELES IN
PTERIDOPHYTES
Stele constitutes the vascular tissues as a whole together with
associated tissues making upthe central column of the root, stem and
leaf. Van Tieghem (1886) first formulated theoryof Stele and he laid
37
the foundation for future study of this important structure.
Jeffrey(1837) later modified Van Tieghem's concepts of stele and
introduced the terms,siphonostele and protostele. Different types of
steles are recognized, depending on therelative position of xylem
and phloem and the presence or absence of pith in Pteridophyta.
Protostele
It is the most primitive and simple type of stele. The xylem and
phloem (vascular tissues)form a solid central column without pith. It
is subdivided into four:
a) Haplostele: In this stele, xylem forms a solid central core,
circular in outline,surrounded by a ring of phloem. This is found in
Selaginellasp.

Fig. 12: Haplostele

b) Actinostele: It is a more advanced and complex type with xylem
which look- likea star-shaped structure and phloem alternating with
its rays. This is found inLycopodiumand Psilotumsp.

Fig. 13: Actinostele

c) Plectiostele: This is the most advanced type, in which xylem and
phloem occur inmore or less parallel bands, alternating with each
other. This is found inLycopodiumcalvatu.
38
Fig. 14: Plectiostele
d) Mixed protostele: Xylem forms several small irregular groups
which lieembedded in the ground mass of phloem. Example of this
stele is found inLycopodiumcernum.

Fig. 15: Mixed protostele

Siphonostele: It is known to originate from proto-stele. In this stele,
the vascular tissuesare pushed away from the center while xylem
forms a cylinder around the pith and phloemlies on both sides of it
or phloem lies only on the outside of xylem. Siphonostele is
therefore hallow or tubular stele.Siphonostele is subdivided into:
a. Amphiphloicsiphonostele: Xylem forms a cylinder around the
pith and phloemforms two cylinders, one on the outside of xylem
and another on the inside of it.This type of stele is known as
"Soleno-stele" This is found in Marsileasp. AndOicksoniasp.

Fig. 16: Amphiphloicsiphonostele

b. Ectophloicsiphonostele: Xylem forms a cylinder around the pith,
but only external cylinder of phloem together with external
pericycle and endodermis is present, the internal one being absent.
This is found in Osmundasp.

39
Fig. 17: Ectophloicsiphonostele
Dictyostele: This is a much dissected type of stele derived from
Siphonostele. In other words, the stele is broken up into a number of
separate vascular strands. It is the most advanced stele. This type of
stele is broken up into a network of separate strands each
constituting a concentric bundle due to the presence of numerous
leaf gabs caused by leaf traces. This kind of stele is found in
Selaginellasp and Dryoptesissp.

TRANSITIONAL POSITION OF PTERIDOPHYTES

AMONG VASCULAR ANDNON- VASCULAR PLANTS
Pteridophytes’ origin cannot be stated with any assurance. However,
among thePteridophytes (vascular seedless plants), the oldest and
most primitive group is Psilophytales. Although the group soon
declined and before it disappeared, it gave rise to three independent
lines of evolution as represented by Lycopodinae, Equisetinae and
Filianae. Each of them followed its own course of evolution.
Speculatively, Psilophytales may have been derived from algal
ancestors or from some bryophytes. Lycopodinae seems to be
comparatively old among the three groups mentioned above.
Equisetinae is more advanced than the Lycopodinae, while Filicinae
is the most advanced group. Among the orders of this group, the
Eusporangiate ferns are regarded as ancient and the
Leptosporangiate ferns as modern.

40