Physics Investigatory Project
Topic: To Study Photoelectric Effect and its Applications
Class: XII
Subject: Physics
Name: (Your Name) Roll No.: (Your Roll Number)
School: (Your School Name) Year: (Academic Year)
1. Certificate
This is to certify that (Your Name), a student of Class XII, (School Name), has successfully
completed the investigatory project on the topic "To Study Photoelectric Effect and its
Applications" under the guidance of (Teacher's Name) during the academic year (Academic
Year) in fulfillment of the curriculum requirements of the Central Board of Secondary Education
(CBSE).
Date:
Place:
(External Examiner)
(Physics Teacher)
(Principal)
2. Acknowledgement
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my physics teacher, (Teacher's Name), for their
invaluable guidance, constant encouragement, and support throughout the duration of this
project. Their suggestions were instrumental in completing this project.
I would also like to thank my parents and friends for their constant motivation and help. Finally,
I am thankful to the school authorities for providing the necessary facilities to complete this
project.
(Your Name)
3. Index
S. No. Topic Page No.
1. Certificate
2. Acknowledgement
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3. Index
4. Introduction
5. Theory of Photoelectric Effect
6. Experimental Study and Observations
7. Einstein's Photoelectric Equation
8. Laws of Photoelectric Emission
9. Applications of Photoelectric Effect
10. Conclusion
11. Bibliography
4. Introduction
The Photoelectric Effect is a fundamental phenomenon in quantum physics where electrons
are emitted from a material (usually a metal) when it absorbs electromagnetic radiation (light).
This effect provided crucial evidence for the quantum nature of light, contradicting the classical
wave theory by demonstrating that light energy is transferred in discrete packets called
photons.
This project aims to study the underlying principles of the photoelectric effect, understand the
experimental observations that led to its quantum interpretation, and explore its significant
technological applications.
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5. Theory of Photoelectric Effect
Classical (Wave) Theory Failure
According to classical electromagnetism, light is a wave, and its energy is distributed
continuously over the wavefront. This theory predicted:
Electron emission should occur at any frequency, provided the intensity is high enough.
The maximum kinetic energy of the emitted electrons should increase with light intensity.
There should be a time delay between the illumination and the start of emission.
Experimental Observations
Actual experiments revealed results that contradicted the classical predictions:
Threshold Frequency (½
0
): No emission occurs if the frequency (½)of the incident light is below a minimum value called
the threshold frequency, regardless of the intensity.
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Kinetic Energy vs. Frequency: The maximum kinetic energy (K
max
) of the emitted electrons increases linearly with the frequency of the incident light, and is
independent of its intensity.
Photoelectric Current vs. Intensity: The photoelectric current (number of emitted electrons) is
directly proportional to the intensity of the incident light.
Instantaneous Emission: Electron emission is virtually instantaneous (no measurable time
delay).
6. Experimental Study and Observations
Experimental Setup
A typical setup involves an evacuated glass tube with two electrodes: a photosensitive emitter
plate (C) and a collector plate (A). Monochromatic light of variable frequency and intensity is
shone on the emitter. A variable voltage source and a microammeter are used to measure the
stopping potential and the photoelectric current, respectively.
Key Observations
Parameter Varied Observed Effect Conclusion
Intensity (Frequency constant) Photoelectric current increases. Stopping potential (V
0
) remains constant. Current is proportional to the number of photons (Intensity). Energy is
independent of Intensity.
Frequency (Intensity constant) Stopping potential (V
0
) increases linearly. Saturation current remains constant. Max. K.E. increases with frequency.
Saturation current is independent of frequency.
Stopping Potential (V
0
): The minimum negative (retarding) potential given to the collector plate A for which the
photoelectric current drops to zero. This potential is a measure of the maximum kinetic energy
of the emitted photoelectrons:
K
max
=eV
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0
7. Einstein's Photoelectric Equation (Quantum Theory)
In 1905, Albert Einstein explained the photoelectric effect using Planck's Quantum Theory of
light, for which he received the Nobel Prize in 1921.
Postulates:
Light energy is concentrated in discrete bundles, or quanta, called photons.
The energy of a single photon is given by: E=h½,where h is Planck's constant and ½is the
frequency.
The photoelectric emission is a result of an elastic collision between a single photon and a
single electron.
The Equation:
Einstein applied the Law of Conservation of Energy to the photon-electron interaction:
Energy of incident photon=Work Function+Max. Kinetic Energy of electron
h½=Õ
0
+K
max
Where:
h½is the energy of the incident photon.
Õ
0
=h½
0
is the Work Function—the minimum energy required for an electron to escape the metal
surface.
K
max
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=
2
1
mv
max
2
is the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted electron.
Substituting K
max
=eV
0
h½=Õ
0
+eV
0
The linear relationship predicted by this equation between V
0
and ½perfectly matched the experimental observations.
8. Laws of Photoelectric Emission
Based on experimental findings and Einstein's equation, the laws of photoelectric emission
are:
For a given photosensitive material and a fixed frequency of incident radiation (above the
threshold), the photoelectric current is directly proportional to the intensity of the incident light.
For a given material, there is a threshold frequency (½
0
) below which no photoemission takes place, no matter how high the intensity of the incident
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light may be.
The maximum kinetic energy (K
max
) of the photoelectrons is directly proportional to the frequency of the incident light and is
independent of its intensity.
The photoelectric emission is an instantaneous process (delay of less than 10
"9
s).
9. Applications of Photoelectric Effect
The photoelectric effect is the principle behind numerous modern devices and technologies.
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Application Principle of Operation
Solar Cells (Photovoltaic Cells) Converts solar energy into electrical energy. Light striking the
semiconductor material causes the photoelectric effect, releasing electrons to create a current.
Photodiodes/Photocells Used as light detectors. The intensity of light incident on the cathode
controls the photoelectric current, which can be measured. Used in light meters, optical
sensors, and street lighting control.
Photomultiplier Tubes (PMTs) Highly sensitive detectors of light. A single photon can initiate a
cascade of photoelectrons through a series of electrodes (dynodes), multiplying the current
into a detectable signal. Used in astronomy and medical imaging.
Automatic Door Openers A light beam is focused onto a photocell. When a person breaks the
beam, the photoelectric current stops, triggering a relay that opens the door.
Sound Reproduction from Films In older cinema projectors, the varying intensity of light
passing through the sound track on the film causes a proportional variation in the photoelectric
current, which is then amplified into sound.
10. Conclusion
The study of the photoelectric effect successfully demonstrated the particle nature of light,
establishing the concept of the photon and the quantization of energy. The phenomenon
adheres strictly to the laws derived from Einstein's Photoelectric Equation (h½=Õ
0
+K
max
), which links the energy of a photon to the metal's work function and the kinetic energy of the
emitted electron. This pivotal discovery laid the foundation for quantum mechanics and has led
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to the development of critical technologies, most notably in energy generation (solar cells) and
light detection (photocells and PMTs).
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