Fluent Python Luciano Ramalho

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 Fluent Python Luciano Ramalho

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Fluent Python

Luciano Ramalho

Fluent Python

by Luciano Ramalho

Copyright © 2014 Luciano Ramalho. All rights reserved.

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Para Marta, com todo o meu amor.

Table of Contents

Preface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv

Part I. Prologue

1. The Python Data Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

.........................3

A Pythonic Card Deck 4

How special methods are used 8

Emulating numeric types 9

String representation 11

Arithmetic operators 11

Boolean value of a custom type 12

Overview of special methods 12

Why len is not a method 14

Chapter summary 14

Further reading 15

Part II. Data structures

2. An array of sequences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Overview of built-in sequences 20

List comprehensions and generator expressions 21

List comprehensions and readability 21

Listcomps versus map and filter 23

Cartesian products 23

Generator expressions 25

Tuples are not just immutable lists 26

Tuples as records 26

Tuple unpacking 27

Nested tuple unpacking 29

Named tuples 30

Tuples as immutable lists 32

Slicing 33

Why slices and range exclude the last item 33

Slice objects 34

Multi-dimensional slicing and ellipsis 35

Assigning to slices 36
Using + and * with sequences 36

Building lists of lists 37

Augmented assignment with sequences 38

A += assignment puzzler 40

list.sort and the sorted built-in function 42

Managing ordered sequences with bisect 44

Searching with bisect 44

Inserting with bisect.insort 46

When a list is not the answer 47

Arrays 48

Memory views 51

NumPy and SciPy 52

Deques and other queues 54

Chapter summary 57

Further reading 58

3. Dictionaries and sets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

Generic mapping types 64

dict comprehensions 66

Overview of common mapping methods 66

Handling missing keys with setdefault 68

Mappings with flexible key lookup 70

defaultdict: another take on missing keys 71

The __missing__ method 72

Variations of dict 75

Subclassing UserDict. 76

Immutable mappings 77

Set theory 79

set literals 80

set comprehensions 81

Set operations 82

dict and set under the hood 85

A performance experiment 85

Hash tables in dictionaries 87

vi | Table of Contents

Practical consequences of how dict works 90

How sets work — practical consequences 93

Chapter summary 93

Further reading 94
4. Text versus bytes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

Character issues 98

Byte essentials 99

Structs and memory views 102

Basic encoders/decoders 103

Understanding encode/decode problems 105

Coping with UnicodeEncodeError 105

Coping with UnicodeDecodeError 106

SyntaxError when loading modules with unexpected encoding 107

How to discover the encoding of a byte sequence 108

BOM: a useful gremlin 109

Handling text files 110

Encoding defaults: a madhouse 113

Normalizing Unicode for saner comparisons 116

Case folding 119

Utility functions for normalized text matching 120

Extreme “normalization”: taking out diacritics 121

Sorting Unicode text 124

Sorting with the Unicode Collation Algorithm 126

The Unicode database 126

Dual mode str and bytes APIs 128

str versus bytes in regular expressions 129

str versus bytes on os functions 130

Chapter summary 132

Further reading 133

Part III. Functions as objects

5. First-class functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

Treating a function like an object 140

Higher-order functions 141

Modern replacements for map, filter and reduce 142

Anonymous functions 143

The seven flavors of callable objects 144

User defined callable types 145

Function introspection 147

Table of Contents | vii

From positional to keyword-only parameters 148

Retrieving information about parameters 150

Function annotations 154

Packages for functional programming 156

The operator module 156

Freezing arguments with functools.partial 159

Chapter summary 161

Further reading 162

6. Design patterns with first-class functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

Case study: refactoring Strategy 168

Classic Strategy 168

Function-oriented Strategy 172

Choosing the best strategy: simple approach 175

Finding strategies in a module 176

Command 177

Chapter summary 179

Further reading 180

7. Function decorators and closures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

Decorators 101 184

When Python executes decorators 185

Decorator-enhanced Strategy pattern 187

Variable scope rules 189

Closures 192

The nonlocal declaration 195

Implementing a simple decorator 197

How it works 198

Decorators in the standard library 200

Memoization with functools.lru_cache 200

Generic functions with single dispatch 202

Stacked decorators 205

Parametrized Decorators 206

A parametrized registration decorator 206

The parametrized clock decorator 209

Chapter summary 211

Further reading 212

viii | Table of Contents

Part IV. Object Oriented Idioms

8. Object references, mutability and recycling. . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219

Variables are not boxes 220

Identity, equality and aliases 221

Choosing between == and is 223

The relative immutability of tuples 224

Copies are shallow by default 225

Deep and shallow copies of arbitrary objects 227

Function parameters as references 229

Mutable types as parameter defaults: bad idea 230

Defensive programming with mutable parameters 232

del and garbage collection 234

Weak references 236

The WeakValueDictionary skit 237

Limitations of weak references 239

Tricks Python plays with immutables 240

Chapter summary 242

Further reading 243

9. A Pythonic object. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

Object representations 248

Vector class redux 248

An alternative constructor 251

classmethod versus staticmethod 252

Formatted displays 253

A hashable Vector2d 257

Private and “protected” attributes in Python 263

Saving space with the __slots__ class attribute 265

The problems with __slots__ 267

Overriding class attributes 268

Chapter summary 270

Further reading 271

10. Sequence hacking, hashing and slicing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277

Vector: a user-defined sequence type 278

Vector take #1: Vector2d compatible 278

Protocols and duck typing 281

Vector take #2: a sliceable sequence 282

How slicing works 283

A slice-aware __getitem__ 285

Table of Contents | ix

Vector take #3: dynamic attribute access 286

Vector take #4: hashing and a faster == 290

Vector take #5: formatting 296

Chapter summary 303

Further reading 304

11. Interfaces: from protocols to ABCs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309

Interfaces and protocols in Python culture 310

Python digs sequences 312

Monkey-patching to implement a protocol at run time 314

Waterfowl and ABCs 316

Subclassing an ABC 321

ABCs in the standard library. 323

ABCs in collections.abc 323

The numbers tower of ABCs 324

Defining and using an ABC 325

ABC syntax details 330

Subclassing the Tombola ABC 331

A virtual subclass of Tombola 333

How the Tombola subclasses were tested 336

Usage of register in practice 339

Geese can behave as ducks 340

Chapter summary 341

Further reading 343

12. Inheritance: for good or for worse. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349

Subclassing built-in types is tricky 350

Multiple inheritance and method resolution order 353

Multiple inheritance in the real world 358

Coping with multiple inheritance 360

1. Distinguish interface inheritance from implementation inheritance

361

2. Make interfaces explicit with ABCs 361

3. Use mixins for code reuse 361

4. Make mixins explicit by naming 361

5. An ABC may also be a mixin; the reverse is not true 361

6. Don’t subclass from more than one concrete class 362

7. Provide aggregate classes to users 362

8. “Favor object composition over class inheritance.” 363

Tkinter: the good, the bad and the ugly 363

A modern example: mixins in Django generic views 364

Chapter summary 368

Further reading 369

x | Table of Contents
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