COM-512 - DSE-1B(2)

Basic Computer Networks

UNIT-I

Overview of Computer network and their applications

A computer network is a system of interconnected computing devices that can exchange data and
share resources. These devices, also known as nodes, communicate using standardized protocols
over digital connections, which can be wired or wireless. Networks are essential for sharing
information, applications, and hardware resources like printers and storage.
Components of Network:
Nodes:
These are the devices connected to the network, such as computers, servers, printers, and other
devices capable of sending or receiving data.
Links:
These are the physical or wireless connections that allow data to travel between
nodes. Examples include cables (like Ethernet cables) and wireless signals (like Wi-Fi).
Protocols:
These are sets of rules that govern how data is transmitted and received, ensuring that devices
can understand each other.
Types of Networks:
 Personal Area Network (PAN): Connects devices within a very close range, typically around
a person.
 Local Area Network (LAN): Connects devices within a limited area, like a home, office, or
school.
 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): Connects devices across a city or metropolitan area.
 Wide Area Network (WAN): Connects devices over a large geographical area, often
including multiple cities or countries.
 Internet: A global network of interconnected networks.
Functions of Computer Networks:
 Resource Sharing: Allows users to share hardware (printers, scanners), software
(applications), and data.
 Communication: Enables email, instant messaging, video conferencing, and other forms of
communication.
 Data Management: Facilitates centralized or distributed storage and management of data.
 Remote Access: Allows users to access resources and systems from different locations.

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 Entertainment: Provides access to online games, streaming services, and other forms of
entertainment.
Examples:
 The Internet: A massive global network connecting billions of devices.
 A home network: Connecting your computers, smart phones, and other devices.
 A company network: Connecting all the computers and servers in an office.
Benefits:
 Increased efficiency: Sharing resources and data reduces the need for duplicate hardware
and software.
 Improved collaboration: Enables teams to work together on shared documents and
applications.
 Enhanced communication: Facilitates faster and more efficient communication between
individuals and groups.
 Centralized data management: Allows for better control and security of critical data.
 Cost-effectiveness: Reduces the overall cost of hardware, software, and IT support.

Applications of computer network

Computer networks have become integral to modern life, supporting a vast array of applications
across various sectors. These networks facilitate communication, resource sharing, and access to
information, fundamentally changing how we interact with technology and with each other.
Here's a breakdown of key applications:
1. Communication:
Email:
Sending and receiving messages electronically, a cornerstone of modern communication.
Instant Messaging:
Real-time text-based communication, including platforms like WhatsApp and Slack.
Video Conferencing:
Facilitating face-to-face interactions over long distances, vital for remote work and
collaboration.
Social Media:
Connecting people and enabling the sharing of information, ideas, and content.
2. Resource Sharing:
Hardware Sharing:
Enabling multiple users to access a single printer, storage device, or other hardware, improving
efficiency and reducing costs.

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Software Sharing:
Allowing users to access and utilize software applications from a central server, rather than
installing them on each individual computer.
Data Sharing:
Facilitating the exchange of information between different users and systems, enabling
collaboration and access to shared databases.
3. Information Access and Management:
 World Wide Web: Accessing and navigating vast amounts of information through web
browsers.
 Remote Access: Connecting to and controlling computers or systems from a remote
location.
 E-commerce: Enabling online shopping, transactions, and the exchange of goods and
services.
 Banking and Finance: Providing access to banking services, fund transfers, and financial
information online.
 Healthcare: Supporting telemedicine, electronic health records, and remote patient
monitoring.
 Education: Facilitating online learning platforms, access to educational resources, and
virtual classrooms.
4. Entertainment:
Streaming Services:
Delivering movies, music, and other media content to users over the internet.
Online Gaming:
Connecting players for multiplayer games, fostering social interaction and competition.
5. Other Applications:
 Business Operations: Managing inventory, tracking sales, and streamlining business
processes.
 Smart Homes: Connecting and controlling various smart devices for home automation and
convenience.
 Government Services: Providing access to government information, online forms, and other
citizen services.
 Mobile Computing: Enabling users to access networks and applications from mobile
devices.
In essence, computer networks have transformed various aspects of modern life, offering
enhanced communication, resource sharing, and access to information.

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Network Topologies
Computer network topologies describe the physical and logical arrangement of devices and
connections within a network. Key types include bus, star, ring, mesh, and tree topologies, each
with distinct characteristics impacting performance, cost, and reliability.
How devices are connected in a computer network is determined by the topology of the network.
They set up the network's configuration, determining how data flows between devices and how
they communicate with one another. Building, implementing, and managing reliable and
efficient networks requires an understanding of different network topologies.
The term topology refers to the way a network is laid out, either physically or logically. A
topology can be considered as the network’s shape. It is the geometric representation of the
relationship of all the links. There are five basic topologies: Bus, Ring, Star, Tree, and Mesh.
1.Bus Topology
 Bus topology uses a common bus or backbone (a single cable) to connect all devices with
terminators at both ends. The backbone acts as a shared communication medium, and each
node (file server, workstations, and peripherals) is attached to it with an interface connector.
 Whenever a message is to be transmitted on the network, it is passed back and forth along the
cable, past the stations (computers) and between the two terminators, from one end of the
network to the other. As the message passes each station, the station checks the message’s
destination address.
 If the address in the message matches the station’s address, the station receives the message.
If the addresses do not match, the bus carries the message to the next station, and so on.
Following Figure illustrates how devices such as file servers, workstations, and printers are
connected to the linear cable or the backbone.

Advantages of Bus Topology

1. Connecting a computer or peripheral to a linear bus is easy.
2. This topology requires least amount of cabling to connect the computers and, therefore,less
expensive than other cabling arrangement.

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Disadvantages of Bus Topology
1. Entire network shuts down if there is a failure in the backbone.
2. Heavy traffic can slow down a bus because computers on such networks do not coordinate
with each other to reserve time to transmit.
2.Ring Topology
 In ring topology computers are placed on a circle of cable without any terminated ends since
there are no unconnected ends.Every node has exactly two Neighbours for communication
purposes.All messages travel through a ring in the same direction (clockwise or
counterclockwise) until it reaches its destination.
 Each node in the ring incorporates a repeater. When a node receives a signal intended for
another device, its repeater regenerates the bits and passes them along the wire.

Advantages of Ring Topology

1. Ring topology is easy to install and reconfigure.
2. Every computer is given equal access to the ring.Hence no single computer can monopolize
the network.
Disadvantages of Ring Topology
1. Failure in any cable or node breaks the loop and can take down the entire network.
2. Maximum ring length and number of nodes are limited.

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3.Star Topology
 In star topology, devices are not directly linked to each other, but they are connected via a
centralized network component known as hub or concentrator.The hub acts as a central
controller and if a node wants to send data to another node, it boosts up the message and
sends the message to the intended node.This topology commonly uses twisted pair cable;
however, coaxial cable or fiber optic cable can also be used.

Advantages of Star Topology

1. Star topology is easy to install and wire.
2. The network is not disrupted even if a node fails or is removed from the network.
3. Fault detection and removal of faulty parts is easier in star topology.
Disadvantages of Star Topology
1. It requires a longer length of cable.
2. If the hub fails, nodes attached to it are disabled.
3. The cost of the hub makes the network expensive as compared to bus and ring topology.

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4.Tree Topology
 A tree topology combines characteristics of linear bus and star topologies.It consists of
groups of star configured workstations connected to a bus backbone cable. Not every node
plugs directly to the central hub. The majority of nodes connect to a secondary hub that, in
turn, is connected to the central hub. Each secondary hub in this topology functions as the
originating point of a branch to which other nodes connect.

Advantages of Tree Topology

1. The distance to which a signal can travel increases as the signal passes through a chain of
hubs.
2. Tree topology allows isolating and prioritizing communications from different nodes.
3. Tree topology allows for easy expansion of an existing network,which enables organizations
to configure a network to meet their needs.
Disadvantages of Tree Topology
1. If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
2. It is more difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.

5.Mesh Topology
 In a mesh topology, every node has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other node.
Messages sent on a mesh network can take any of several possible paths from source to
destination.
 A fully connected mesh network has n×(n−12) physical links to link n devices. For example,
if an organization has 5 nodes and wants to implement a mesh topology, 5×(5−12), that is, 10
links are required.
 In addition, to accommodate that many links, every device on the network must have (n-1)
communication (InputOutput) ports.

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Advantages of Mesh Topology
1. The use of large number of links eliminates network congestion.
2. If one link becomes unusable, it does not disable the entire system.
Disadvantages of Mesh Topology
1. The amount of required cabling is very large.
2. As every node is connected to the other, installation and reconfiguration is very difficult.
3. The amount of hardware required in this type of topology can make it expensive to
implement.
With a thorough examination of these variables and an understanding of the distinct
characteristics of various network structures, we can confidently design and implement network
systems that meet our company's needs and objectives. Each topology has pros and cons of its
own, and the optimal choice will change according on our network's specific requirements and
constraints.

Network architectures
Network architecture refers to the design and structure of a computer network, encompassing the
physical and logical components, their organization, and the protocols governing their
communication. It's essentially the blueprint for how network devices and services connect and
interact to facilitate data transfer and resource sharing.
Key Aspects of Network Architecture:
 Physical Components:
This includes the hardware like routers, switches, servers, computers, and the cabling or
wireless connections that link them.

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 Logical Components:
This involves the software and protocols that govern how data is transmitted, such as TCP/IP,
which handles addressing and routing, and DNS, which translates domain names into IP
addresses.
 Organization and Structure:
Network architecture defines how devices are connected (e.g., star, bus, or mesh topologies)
and how they interact to achieve specific functions like routing, security, and resource
allocation.
 Protocols:
These are the rules and standards that govern communication between devices, ensuring
consistent and reliable data transfer.

Importance of Network Architecture:

 Efficient Data Transfer:
A well-designed network architecture ensures that data flows smoothly and efficiently,
minimizing latency and maximizing throughput.
 Scalability:
A good architecture allows the network to grow and adapt to changing needs,
accommodating more devices and increased traffic without significant disruption.
 Security:
Network architecture plays a crucial role in securing the network by implementing firewalls,
intrusion detection systems, and other security measures.
 Reliability:
Network architecture design can incorporate redundancy and failover mechanisms to ensure
continuous operation even in the event of hardware failures or other disruptions.

Examples of Network Architectures:

 Client-Server:
Client-server architecture is a network model where clients request services from a
centralized server. Clients, such as computers or applications, initiate requests, and the server
processes them, providing the necessary resources or data. This model is fundamental to
many internet applications and network services, including web browsing, email, and online
banking.
Client-server architecture is a fundamental concept in system design where a network
involves multiple clients and a server. Clients are devices or programs that request services
or resources, while the server is a powerful machine providing these resources or services.
This architecture allows efficient data management and resource sharing, making it popular
in web applications, databases, and other network-based systems. By separating roles and
distributing tasks, client-server architecture enhances performance, scalability, and security.

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 Peer-to-Peer:
A peer-to-peer (P2P) network is a decentralized network architecture where each participant,
or peer, has equal capabilities and responsibilities, acting as both a client and a server. Unlike
client-server models, P2P networks lack a central server, allowing nodes to directly
communicate and share resources. This architecture is characterized by its decentralization,
scalability, and resilience, making it suitable for various applications like file sharing and
cryptocurrency.

 Cloud Computing:
Cloud networking architecture refers to the design and structure of how cloud resources, like
virtual machines, storage, and applications, are interconnected and made accessible over a
network. It essentially acts as a blueprint for building and managing cloud computing
environments, considering factors like security, scalability, and cost-effectiveness. A
distributed architecture that leverages shared computing resources over the internet.

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Layered Network Architecture
Layered architecture in computer networks refers to dividing a network's functioning into
different layers, each responsible for a certain communication component. The major goal of
this layered architecture is to separate the complex network communication process into
manageable, smaller activities that can be better developed. In this article, we will discuss
Layered Architecture in Computer Networks.
Every network consists of a specific number of functions, layers, and tasks to perform. Layered
Architecture in a computer network is defined as a model where a whole network process is
divided into various smaller sub-tasks. These divided sub-tasks are then assigned to a specific
layer to perform only the dedicated tasks. A single layer performs only a specific type of task.
To run the application and provide all types of services to clients a lower layer adds its services
to the higher layer present above it. Therefore layered architecture provides interactions
between the sub-systems. If any type of modification is done in one layer it does not affect the
next layer.

Layered Architecture
As shown in the above diagram, there are five different layers. Therefore, it is a five-layered
architecture. Each layer performs a dedicated task. The lower-level data for example from
layer 1 data is transferred to layer 2. Below all the layers Physical Medium is present. The
physical medium is responsible for the actual communication to take place. For the transfer of
data and communication layered architecture provides simple interface.
Features of Layered Architecture
 Use of Layered architecture in computer network provides with the feature of modularity
and distinct interfaces.
 Layered architecture ensures independence between layers, by offering services to higher
layers from the lower layers and without specifying how these services are implemented.
 Layered architecture segments as larger and unmanageable design into small sub tasks.
 In layer architecture every network has different number of functions, layers and content.
 In layered architecture, the physical route provides with communication which is available
under the layer 1.

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 In layered architecture, the implementation done by one layer can be modified by another
layer.
Elements of Layered Architecture
There are three different types of elements of a layered architecture. They are described below:
 Service: Service is defined as a set of functions and tasks being provided by a lower layer
to a higher layer. Each layer performs a different type of task. Therefore, actions provided
by each layer are different.
 Protocol: Protocol is defined as a set rule used by the layer for exchanging and
transmission of data with its peer entities. These rules can consists details regarding a type
of content and their order passed from one layer to another.
 Interface: Interface is defined as a channel that allows to transmit the messages from one
layer to another.
Significance of Layered Architecture
 Divide and Conquer Approach: Layered architecture supports divide and conquer
approach. The unmanageable and complex task is further divided into smaller sub tasks.
Each sub task is then carried out by the different layer. Therefore, using this approach
reduces the complexity of the problem or design process.
 Easy to Modify: The layers are independent of each other in layered architecture. If any
sudden change occurs in the implementation of one layer, it can be changed. This change
does not affect the working of other layers involved in the task. Therefore, layered
architectures are required to perform any sudden update or change.
 Modularity: Layered architecture is more modular as compared to other architecture
models in computer network. Modularity provides with more independence between the
layers and are easier to understand.
 Easy to Test: Each layer in layered architecture performs a different and dedicated task.
Therefore, each layer can be analyzed and tested individually. It helps to analyze the
problem and solve them more efficiently as compared to solving all the problems at a time.
 Scalability: As networks grow in size and complexity, additional layers or protocols may
be added to meet new requirements while maintaining existing functionality.
 Security: The layered technique enables security measures to be implemented to varying
degrees, protecting the community from a variety of threats.
 Efficiency: Each layer focuses on a certain aspect of verbal exchange, optimizing aid
allocation and performance.
Evolution of Layered Architecture
In computer networks, layered architecture is majorly used for communication. The network
model that make use of layered architecture is OSI Model.
OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection. OSI is a seven layered architecture. All these
seven layers work collaboratively to transmit data from one layer to another. Below are the
layers of OSI Model.

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 Physical Layer: Physical layer is the lowest layer of OSI model and is responsible for the
physical connection between all the required devices. The information present in physical
layer is in the form of bits. Physical layer performs various functions such as bit rate
control, bit synchronization, transmission mode etc.
 Data Link Layer: Data Link layer provides with successful delivery of message from one
node to another. It checks whether this delivery of message is error free. Other functions
performed by data link layer are error control, framing, flow control etc.
 Network Layer: Network Layer is responsible for the transmission of data from one host
to another host that is connected in different network. It performs other tasks such routing
and logical addressing.
 Transport Layer: Transport Layer is defined as a layer that takes services from network
layer and provides services to application layer. Other tasks performed by transport
layer are service point addressing, segmentation and reassembling.
 Session Layer: Session layer is defined as a layer that is responsible for establishing a
connection, maintenance of session and to provide with security. Other functions of session
Layer are to establish session, termination and synchronization.
 Presentation Layer: The data from application layer is extracted at the presentation layer.
This layer is also known as translation layer. The functions of presentation layer are
encryption, decryption, compression and translation.
 Application Layer: Application layer is the topmost layer of OSI Model. Application layer
is also known as desktop layer. It provides with other functions such as directory services,
mail services, network virtual terminal etc.
Benefits of Layered Architecture
 Modularity
 Interoperability
 Flexibility
 Reusability
 Scalability
 Security

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Challenges in Layered Architecture
 Performance Overhead
 Complexity in Implementation
 Resource Utilization
 Debugging and Troubleshooting
 Protocol Overhead

Real-World Applications and Examples

 Internet Browsing
 Email Communication
 Video Streaming
 Online Gaming
 Voice over IP (VoIP)
 Smart Home Devices
 Cloud Computing
 Blockchain Networks

Layered architecture in computer networks significantly simplifies the complex process

involved in network communication by dividing them into smaller process, each with its own
function and responsibility. This method improves modularity, interoperability, flexibility, and
security, making network systems easier to design, manage, and expand. Despite problems like
performance overhead and implementation complexity, the layered model's benefits may be
seen in real-world applications such as internet browsing, email communication, video
streaming, and more, emphasizing its importance in modern networking.
Physical layer and its functions
The physical layer is the first and lowest layer in the OSI model and is responsible for
transmitting raw bit data streams over a physical medium. It defines the electrical, mechanical,
procedural, and functional specifications for activating, maintaining, and deactivating the
physical link between communicating devices.

Functions of Physical layer:

1. Bit Transmission: The physical layer's core function is to transmit a stream of bits (0s and 1s)
over a physical medium. It handles the actual movement of data from one device to another.

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2. Physical Medium: This layer deals with the physical characteristics of the network, such as
cables, connectors, voltage levels, and frequencies. It defines how data is represented as signals
(electrical, radio, or optical) on the transmission medium.
3. Encoding/Decoding: The physical layer encodes the data bits into signals suitable for
transmission and decodes received signals back into bits. This ensures that the data can be
correctly interpreted by the receiving device.
4. Transmission Modes: It also specifies the modes of data transmission, such as simplex (one-
way), half-duplex (two-way, one direction at a time), and full-duplex (two-way, simultaneous).
5. Physical Topology: The physical layer defines the physical arrangement of devices in a
network (e.g., bus, star, ring).
6. Data Rate and Synchronization: It manages the speed of data transmission and ensures
synchronization between the sender and receiver.
7. Hardware Devices: The physical layer is concerned with physical network components like
network interface cards (NICs), hubs, repeaters, and cables.
The physical layer is the foundation upon which all other layers of the OSI model are built,
providing the basic means for transmitting data over a network.

Transmission Medias and their characteristics

Transmission media, the physical pathways for data transfer, are characterized by several key
properties that influence network performance. These include bandwidth, data rate, latency, cost,
and susceptibility to interference. Understanding these characteristics is crucial for selecting the
appropriate transmission medium for specific applications.
Characteristics of Transmission Media:
1. Bandwidth:
Bandwidth refers to the data carrying capacity of the transmission medium, essentially how
much data can be transmitted over it in a given time period. Higher bandwidth means faster
data transfer rates.
2. Data Rate:
Data rate, measured in bits per second (bps), indicates how quickly data can be transmitted
through the medium.
3. Latency:
Latency is the time it takes for a signal to travel from the sender to the receiver. Lower latency
is crucial for real-time applications like online gaming and video conferencing.
4. Cost and Installation:
The cost of acquiring, installing, and maintaining the transmission medium varies
significantly. For example, fiber optic cables are generally more expensive than twisted-pair
cables but offer higher bandwidth and longer transmission distances.

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5. Attenuation:
Attenuation refers to the loss of signal strength as it travels through the medium. Different
media have varying attenuation characteristics, impacting transmission distance.
6. Interference:
Interference is the disruption of the signal due to external factors. Some media are more
susceptible to interference than others, which can degrade data transmission quality.
7. Noise:
Noise refers to unwanted electrical signals that can interfere with the transmitted
data. Different media have different noise immunity characteristics.
8. Flexibility:
The flexibility of the medium is important for installation and routing, especially in complex
network topologies.
9. Transmission Distance:
The maximum distance a signal can travel through the medium without requiring amplification
or regeneration.
10. Reliability:
This refers to the consistency of transmission, which can be affected by factors like
environmental conditions.
11. Number of Receivers:
This refers to how many devices can be connected to the transmission medium.
12. Radiation:
This refers to the leakage of signals from the medium, which can affect signal quality.
Types of Transmission Media:
Transmission media, also known as the communication pathway or medium, serves as the
channel for transmitting information from a sender to a receiver. Typically, this information is
conveyed through the use of electrical or electromagnetic signals.
Guided Media (Wired):
Guided media represent physical mediums that incorporate conducting materials such as metal
or glass to facilitate the transmission of data or signals.This category includes various types of
cables and wires, each possessing its unique characteristics, including transmission speed,
susceptibility to noise, physical appearance, and cost.
Guided media is also commonly referred to as wired media and encompasses elements like
copper wires, twisted pairs, coaxial cables, and optical fibers, which physically guide the data
signal.

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Twisted Pair Cable:

 A twisted pair cable consists of two copper wires, each approximately 1mm thick.
 In a twisted pair cable, one wire carries the signal, while the other wire is used for
ground reference. The receiver at the other end of the cable uses the difference between
the two signals to interpret the transmitted data.
 Twisted pair cables can be used for transmitting both analog and digital signals. Their
frequency range typically spans from 100 Hz to 5 MHz, making them suitable for
various communication applications.
 One of the most common applications of twisted pair cables is in telephone systems,
where they have been widely used for voice communication and, more recently, for
broadband internet access.
 Twisted pair cables can be used for transmitting both analog and digital signals. Their
frequency range typically spans from 100 Hz to 5 MHz, making them suitable for
various communication applications.
 One of the most common applications of twisted pair cables is in telephone systems,
where they have been widely used for voice communication and, more recently, for
broadband internet access.
Twisted Pair Cables come in two primary types:
1. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): UTP cables are the most common and widely used type of
twisted pair cables.
Advantages:
 Cost-Effective: UTP cables are generally more affordable than STP cables, making them a
budget-friendly choice for many applications.
 Flexibility: They are flexible and easy to work with, making installation and maintenance
straightforward.
 Common Usage: UTP cables are widely used for Ethernet networking, telephone lines,
and various data transmission needs.
 Decent Interference Resistance: UTP cables provide reasonable resistance to external
interference in typical environments.
Disadvantages:
 Limited EMI Protection: UTP cables offer limited protection against electromagnetic
interference (EMI) and may not be suitable for environments with high levels of
interference.
 Distance Limitations: They have distance limitations for data transmission, especially at
higher data rates.

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2. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): STP cables incorporate an extra layer of shielding, typically
made of metal or foil, in addition to the twisted pairs.
Advantages:
 Enhanced EMI Protection: STP cables offer superior protection against electromagnetic
interference, making them suitable for environments with high interference levels.
 High Data Rates: They can support higher data rates and longer transmission distances
compared to UTP cables.
 Reduced Crosstalk: STP cables reduce crosstalk (signal interference between adjacent
pairs) more effectively than UTP cables.
 Reliability: STP cables are often chosen for critical applications where signal integrity is
paramount.
Disadvantages:
 Cost: STP cables are typically more expensive than UTP cables due to the added shielding
material.
 Rigidity: The additional shielding makes STP cables thicker and less flexible, which can
make installation and maintenance more challenging.
 Grounding: Proper grounding of the shielding is essential for optimal performance, and
improper grounding can lead to issues.
Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cables are a type of guided media designed to carry signals with a higher frequency
range compared to twisted pair cables.The frequency range of coaxial cables typically spans
from 100 kHz to 500 MHz, making them suitable for a variety of applications.Coaxial cables
are sometimes referred to as "coax" for short. They consist of a central copper wire surrounded
by a plastic insulator known as a dielectric.
There are two types of coaxial cables:
1. Baseband Coaxial Cable: Baseband coaxial cables support a frequency range of 0-4
kHz and are primarily used for digital signalling.
 These cables have an impedance of 50 ohms and were originally employed in
Ethernet systems operating at 10 Mbps.
 In baseband cables, digital signals consume the entire frequency spectrum of the
cable.
 They are not suitable for transmitting multiple channels using Frequency Division
Multiplexing (FDM) and are commonly used in telephone networks.
2. Broadband Coaxial Cable: Broadband coaxial cables support a frequency range above
4 kHz and are primarily used for analog signals.
 Broadband systems cover larger areas and, therefore, require analog amplifiers.
 A typical application of broadband coaxial cable is in cable TV systems, where
signals can travel for nearly 100 km due to the use of analogsignaling, which is less
sensitive to signal degradation over long distances.

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  Broadband coaxial cables are more expensive, challenging to install, and require
more maintenance compared to baseband coaxial cables.
Optical Fibers

An optical fiber cable is composed of glass or plastic and serves as a transmission medium
for signals in the form of light. An optical transmission system comprises three
fundamental components:
 Light Source: In such a system, a pulse of light represents bit 1, while the absence of
light indicates bit 0. Light sources can be light-emitting diodes (LEDs) or laser beams.
 Transmission Medium (Fiber Optics): The transmission medium is an ultra-thin fiber
made of glass or plastic, designed to guide and transmit light signals over long
distances with minimal loss.
 Detector: A detector is responsible for generating an electrical pulse when light falls on
it. In an optical system, the light source is attached to one end of the fiber, and the
detector is connected to the other end.
 On the source side, data is converted into signals, and in the case of fiber optics, these
signals are in the form of light. The light signals are then transmitted using the optical
fiber cable. On the receiver side, a detector is employed. When light falls on the
detector, it converts the received light signals into binary data, interpreting light as 1
and the absence of light as 0.

Unguided Media (Wireless):

These use electromagnetic waves to transmit data through the air or space, such as radio
waves, microwaves, and infrared light.
 Definition: Unguided media, in contrast to guided media, do not rely on physical
conductors or metals to transport signals. Instead, they transmit information using
electromagnetic waves that travel through the air.
 Accessibility: One key feature of unguided media is that these electromagnetic signals
are accessible to anyone equipped with a suitable receiving device. This mode of
transmission is often referred to as wireless communication.
 Types of Waves: Various types of electromagnetic waves are utilized in unguided
media, making it a versatile choice for communication. These waves include radio
waves, microwaves, and infrared waves, each with distinct properties and applications.
 Wireless Transmission: Wireless media operates by transporting electromagnetic
waves without the need for a physical conductor. This means that signals are broadcast
through the air and are available to anyone who possesses a compatible receiving
device.

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 Frequency Range: The electromagnetic spectrum for wireless communication covers a
wide range of frequencies, from approximately 3 kHz (kilohertz) to 900 THz
(terahertz). This broad spectrum allows for a diverse range of applications, from AM
and FM radio broadcasting to Wi-Fi and cellular communication.
Radio Wave Transmission
 Frequency Range: Radio waves have frequencies ranging from 3 KHz (kilohertz) to 1
GHz (gigahertz).
 Distance and Direction: They are relatively easy to generate and can travel long
distances. Radio waves are omnidirectional, meaning they radiate in all directions from
the source, making them suitable for broadcasting.
 Frequency Dependency: The properties of radio waves vary with frequency. At lower
frequencies, radio waves can pass through obstacles, while at higher frequencies, they
tend to travel in straight lines and can bounce off obstacles. They are also susceptible to
absorption by rain. Interference from motors and other electrical equipment can affect
radio wave signals at all frequencies.
 Power Decay: The power of radio wave signals decreases significantly with distance
from the source, roughly following the inverse square law (1/r²) in air.
Microwave Transmission
 Frequency Range: Microwaves are electromagnetic waves with frequencies ranging
between 1 GHz and 300 GHz.
 Types of Microwave Systems: There are two main types of microwave data
communication systems:
1. Terrestrial: Terrestrial microwave systems are unidirectional, traveling only in
straight lines from the source to the destination. They require repeaters to
strengthen the signal over long distances. Terrestrial microwave communication
relies on line-of-sight propagation, where antennas must have a clear line of sight
to communicate effectively. These systems are commonly used for point-to-point
communication, including cellular phones, satellite networks, and wireless LANs.
2. Satellite: Satellite-based microwave communication involves the use of orbiting
satellites to relay signals between different locations on Earth. This method enables
global communication and is essential for satellite television, global positioning
systems (GPS), and long-distance data transmission.
Infrared Waves (IR Waves)
 Frequency Range: Infrared waves, often abbreviated as IR waves, fall within the
electromagnetic spectrum with frequencies ranging from 300 GHz (gigahertz) to 400
THz (terahertz). These frequencies place IR waves between microwaves and visible
light on the spectrum.
 Short-Range Communication: IR waves are primarily used for short-range
communication. They are well-suited for applications where data transmission needs to
occur over relatively short distances.

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 Line-of-Sight: Infrared communication operates using a line-of-sight mechanism. This
means that for successful transmission, there should be an unobstructed path between
the transmitting and receiving devices. Solid objects, such as walls, can block IR
waves, making them suitable for contained environments like rooms.
 Cost-Effective: IR communication is cost-effective and relatively easy to implement.
Devices that utilize IR technology, such as remote controls for TV, DVD players, and
stereo systems, are readily available and affordable. Additionally, IR communication
does not require government licenses, making it accessible for various applications.
 Limitations Outdoors: Infrared waves have limitations when used outdoors. Natural
sunlight contains IR waves, which can interfere with IR-based communication systems.
This limitation restricts the practical use of IR waves to indoor environments where
sunlight interference is minimal.
 Common Applications: One of the most common applications of IR waves is in
remote controls for various electronic devices. They are also used in proximity sensors,
data transfer between devices (e.g., smartphones), and certain security systems

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