Writing Basics

Creating an essay can be very annoying until you know where to start. It's very important to know what the good essay consists of. We don't make any
inventions here because essay structures are always the same. So here are the essay outline, strong thesis statement, attention-catching introduction, organized
body paragraphs, and powerful conclusion. This is your plan for creating a clear and convincing essay. Inspiration is guaranteed.
Why Should Your Essay Contain A Thesis Statement?
 to test your ideas by distilling them into a sentence or two
 to better organize and develop your argument
 to provide your reader with a "guide" to your argument
In general, your thesis statement will accomplish these goals if you think of the thesis as the answer to the question your paper explores.
A strong thesis takes some sort of stand.
Remember that your thesis needs to show your conclusions about a subject. For example, if you are writing a paper for a class on fitness, you might be asked
to choose a popular weight-loss product to evaluate. Here are two thesis statements:
There are some negative and positive aspects to the Banana Herb Tea Supplement.
This is a weak thesis. First, it fails to take a stand. Second, the phrase "negative and positive" aspects" are vague.
Because Banana Herb Tea Supplement promotes rapid weight loss that results in the loss of muscle and lean body mass, it poses a potential danger to
customers.
This is a strong thesis because it takes a stand.
2. A strong thesis justifies discussion.
Your thesis should indicate the point of the discussion. If your assignment is to write a paper on kinship systems, using your own family as an example, you
might come up with either of these two thesis statements:
My family is an extended family.
This is a weak thesis because it states an observation. Your reader won't be able to tell the point of the statement, and will probably stop reading.
While most American families would view consanguineal marriage as a threat to the nuclear family structure, many Iranian families, like my own, believe that
these marriages help reinforce kinship ties in an extended family.
This is a strong thesis because it shows how your experience contradicts a widely accepted view. A good strategy for creating a strong thesis is to show that
the topic is controversial. Readers will be interested in reading the rest of the essay to see how you support your point.
3. A strong thesis expresses one main idea.
Readers need to be able to see that your paper has one main point. If your thesis expresses more than one idea, then you might confuse your readers about the
subject of your paper. For example:
Companies need to exploit the marketing potential of the Internet, and web pages can provide both advertising and customer support.
This is a weak thesis statement because the reader can't decide whether the paper is about marketing on the Internet or web pages. To revise the thesis, the
relationship between the two ideas needs to become clearer. One way to revise the thesis would be to write:
Because the Internet is filled with tremendous marketing potential, companies should exploit this potential by using web pages that offer both advertising and
customer support.
This is a strong thesis because it shows that the two ideas are related. Hint: a great many clear and engaging thesis statements contain words like "because,"
"since," "so," "although," "unless," and "however."
4. A strong thesis statement is specific.
A thesis statement should show exactly what your paper will be about, and will help you keep your paper to a manageable topic. For example, if you write a
paper on hunger, you might say:
World hunger has many causes and effects.
This is a weak thesis statement for two major reasons. First, "world hunger" can't be discussed thoroughly in five or ten pages. Second, "many causes and
effects" is vague. You should be able to identify specific causes and effects. A revised thesis might look like this:
Hunger persists in Appalachia because jobs are scarce and farming in the infertile soil is rarely profitable.
This is a strong thesis because it narrows the subject to a more specific and manageable topic and it also identifies the specific causes for the existence of
hunger.

Introduction
The introduction should start with a general discussion of your subject and lead to a very specific statement of your main point, or thesis. Sometimes an essay
begins with a "grabber," such as a challenging claim, or surprising story to catch a reader's attention. The thesis should tell in one (or at most two) sentence(s),
what your overall point or argument is, and briefly, what your main body paragraphs will be about.
For example, in an essay about the importance of airbags in cars, the introduction might start with some information about car accidents and survival rates. It
might also have a grabber about someone who survived a terrible accident because of an airbag. The thesis would briefly state the main reasons for
recommending airbags, and each reason would be discussed in the main body of the essay.
The introduction should be designed to attract the reader's attention and give him/her an idea of the essay's focus.
1. Begin with an attention grabber. The attention grabber you use is up to you, but here are some ideas:
o Startling information
This information must be true and verifiable, and it doesn't need to be totally new to your readers. It could simply be a pertinent fact that
explicitly illustrates the point you wish to make.
If you use a piece of startling information, follow it with a sentence or two of elaboration.
o Anecdote
An anecdote is a story that illustrates a point. Be sure your anecdote is short, to the point, and relevant to your topic. This can be a very
effective opener for your essay, but use it carefully.
o Dialogue
An appropriate dialogue does not have to identify the speakers, but the reader must understand the point you are trying to convey. Use
only two or three exchanges between speakers to make your point.
Follow dialogue with a sentence or two of elaboration.
o Summary Information
A few sentences explaining your topic in general terms can lead the reader gently to your thesis. Each sentence should become gradually
more specific, until you reach your thesis.
2. If the attention grabber was only a sentence or two, add one or two more sentences that will lead the reader from your opening to your thesis
statement.
3. Finish the paragraph with your thesis statement.

Body
The body paragraphs will explain your essay's topic. Each of the main ideas that you listed in your outline will become a paragraph in your essay. If your
outline contained three main ideas, you will have three body paragraphs. Start by writing down one of your main ideas, in sentence form.
If your essay topic is a new university in your hometown, one of your main ideas may be "population growth of town" you might say this:
The new university will cause a boom in the population of Fort Myers.
Build on your paragraph by including each of the supporting ideas from your outline In the body of the essay, all the preparation up to this point comes to
fruition. The topic you have chosen must now be explained, described, or argued.
Each body paragraph will have the same basic structure.
1. Start by writing down one of your main ideas, in sentence form. If your main idea is "reduces freeway congestion," you might say this: Public
transportation reduces freeway congestion.
2. Next, write down each of your supporting points for that main idea, but leave four or five lines in between each point.
3. In the space under each point, write down some elaboration for that point. Elaboration can be further description or explanation or discussion.
Supporting Point
Commuters appreciate the cost savings of taking public transportation rather than driving.
Elaboration
Less driving time means less maintenance expense, such as oil changes.
Of course, less driving time means savings on gasoline as well. In many cases, these savings amount to more than the cost of riding public
transportation.
4. If you wish, include a summary sentence for each paragraph. This is not generally needed, however, and such sentences have a tendency to sound
stilted, so be cautious about using them.
Each main body paragraph will focus on a single idea, reason, or example that supports your thesis. Each paragraph will have a clear topic sentence (a mini
thesis that states the main idea of the paragraph). You should try to use details and specific examples to make your ideas clear and convincing.

Conclusion
The conclusion serves to give the reader closure, summing up the essay's points or providing a final viewpoint about the topic.
The conclusion should consist of three or four convincing sentences. Clearly review the main points, being careful not to restate them exactly, or briefly
describe your opinion about the topic.
Even an anecdote can end your essay in a useful way
5-paragraph Essay
Introductory paragraph
The introductory paragraph should also include the thesis statement, a kind of mini-outline for the essay. This is where the writer grabs the reader's attention. It
tells the reader what the paper is about. The last sentence of this paragraph must also include a transitional "hook" which moves the reader to the first
paragraph of the body of the essay.
Body - First paragraph
The first paragraph of the body should include the strongest argument, most significant example, cleverest illustration, or an obvious beginning point. The first
sentence should contain the "reverse hook" which ties in with the transitional hook at the end of the introductory paragraph. The subject for this paragraph
should be in the first or second sentence. This subject should relate to the thesis statement in the introductory paragraph. The last sentence in this paragraph
should include a transitional hook to tie into the second paragraph of the body.
Body - Second paragraph
The second paragraph of the body should include the second strongest argument, second most significant example, second cleverest illustration, or an obvious
follow up the first paragraph in the body. The first sentence of this paragraph should contain the reverse hook, which ties in with the transitional hook at the
end of the first paragraph of the body. The topic for this paragraph should be in the first or second sentence. This topic should relate to the thesis statement in
the introductory paragraph. The last sentence in this paragraph should include a transitional hook to tie into the third paragraph of the body.
Body - Third paragraph
The third paragraph of the body should include the weakest argument, weakest example, weakest illustration, or an obvious follow up to the second paragraph
in the body. The first sentence of this paragraph should contain the reverse hook, which ties in with the transitional hook at the end of the second paragraph.
The topic for this paragraph should be in the first or second sentence. This topic should relate to the thesis statement in the introductory paragraph. The last
sentence in this paragraph should include a transitional concluding hook that signals the reader that this is the final major point being made in this essay. This
hook also leads into the concluding paragraph.
Concluding paragraph
The fifth paragraph is the summary paragraph. It is important to restate the thesis and three supporting ideas in an original and powerful way as this is the last
chance the writer has to convince the reader of the validity of the information presented.
This paragraph should include the following:
1. an allusion to the pattern used in the introductory paragraph,
2. a restatement of the thesis statement, using some of the original language or language that "echoes" the original language. (The restatement,
however, must not be a duplicate thesis statement.)
3. a summary of the three main points from the body of the essay.
4. a final statement that gives the reader signals that the discussion has come to an end. (This final statement may be a "call to action" in a persuasive
essay.)
Example
1
Stephen King, creator of such stories as Carrie and Pet Sematary, stated that the Edgar Allan Poe stories he read as a child gave him the inspiration and
instruction he needed to become the writer that he is. 2Poe, as does Stephen King, fills the reader's imagination with the images that he wishes the reader to
see, hear, and feel. 3His use of vivid, concrete visual imagery to present both static and dynamic settings and to describe people is part of his technique. 4Poe's
short story "The Tell-Tale Heart" is a story about a young man who kills an old man who cares for him, dismembers the corpse, then goes mad when he thinks
he hears the old man's heart beating beneath the floor boards under his feet as he sits and discusses the old man's absence with the police. 5In "The Tell-Tale
Heart," a careful reader can observe Poe's skillful manipulation of the senses.
The introductory paragraph includes a paraphrase of something said by a famous person in order to get the reader's attention. The second sentence leads up
to the thesis statement which is the third sentence. The thesis statement (sentence 3) presents topic of the paper to the reader and provides a mini- outline. The
topic is Poe's use of visual imagery. The mini- outline tells the reader that this paper will present Poe's use of imagery in three places in his writing: (1)
description of static setting; (2) description of dynamic setting; and (3) description of a person. The last sentence of the paragraph uses the words
"manipulation" and "senses" as transitional hooks.
1
The sense of sight, the primary sense, is particularly susceptible to manipulation. 2In "The Tell-Tale Heart," Poe uses the following image to describe a static
scene: "His room was as black as pitch with the thick darkness . . ." Poe used the words "black," "pitch," and "thick darkness" not only to show the reader the
condition of the old man's room, but also to make the reader feel the darkness." 3"Thick" is a word that is not usually associated with color (darkness), yet in
using it, Poe stimulates the reader's sense of feeling as well as his sense of sight.
In the first sentence of the second paragraph (first paragraph of the body) the words "sense" and "manipulation" are used to hook into the end of the
introductory paragraph. The first part of the second sentence provides the topic for this paragraph--imagery in a static scene. Then a quotation from "The Tell-
Tale Heart" is presented and briefly discussed. The last sentence of this paragraph uses the expressions "sense of feeling" and "sense of sight" as hooks for
leading into the third paragraph
1
Further on in the story, Poe uses a couple of words that cross not only the sense of sight but also the sense of feeling to describe a dynamic scene. 2The youth
in the story has been standing in the open doorway of the old man's room for a long time, waiting for just the right moment to reveal himself to the old man in
order to frighten him. 3Poe writes: "So I opened it [the lantern opening]--you cannot imagine how stealthily, stealthily--until, at length, a single dim ray, like
the thread of the spider, shot from out the crevice and fell full upon the vulture eye." 4By using the metaphor of the thread of the spider (which we all know is a
creepy creature) and the word "shot," Poe almost makes the reader gasp, as surely did the old man whose one blind eye the young man describes as "the
vulture eye."
The first sentence of the third paragraph (second paragraph of the body) uses the words "sense of sight" and "sense of feeling" to hook back into the previous
paragraph. Note that in the second paragraph "feeling" came first, and in this paragraph "sight" comes first. The first sentence also includes the topic for this
paragraph--imagery in a dynamic scene. Again, a quotation is taken from the story, and it is briefly discussed. The last sentence uses the words "one blind eye"
which was in the quotation. This expression provides the transitional hook for the last paragraph in the body of the paper.
1
The reader does not know much about what the old man in this story looks like except that he has one blind eye. 2In the second paragraph of "The Tell-Tale
Heart," Poe establishes the young man's obsession with that blind eye when he writes: "He had the eye of the vulture--a pale blue eye, with a film over it."
3
This "vulture eye" is evoked over and over again in the story until the reader becomes as obsessed with it as does the young man. 4His use of the vivid,
concrete word "vulture" establishes a specific image in the mind of the reader that is inescapable.
In the first sentence of the fourth paragraph (third paragraph in the body), "one blind eye" is used that hooks into the previous paragraph. This first sentence
also lets the reader know that this paragraph will deal with descriptions of people: ". . . what the old man looks like . . .." Once again Poe is quoted and
discussed. The last sentence uses the word "image" which hooks into the last paragraph. (It is less important that this paragraph has a hook since the last
paragraph is going to include a summary of the body of the paper.)
1
"Thick darkness," "thread of the spider," and "vulture eye" are three images that Poe used in "The Tell-Tale Heart" to stimulate a reader's senses. 2Poe
wanted the reader to see and feel real life. 3He used concrete imagery rather than vague abstract words to describe settings and people. If Edgar Allan Poe
was one of Stephen King's teachers, then readers of King owe a debt of gratitude to that nineteenth-century creator of horror stories.
The first sentence of the concluding paragraph uses the principal words from the quotations from each paragraph of the body of the paper. This summarizes
those three paragraphs. The second and third sentences provide observations which can also be considered a summary, not only of the content of the paper, but
also offers personal opinion which was logically drawn as the result of this study. The last sentence returns to the Edgar Allan Poe-Stephen King relationship
that began this paper. This sentence also provides a "wrap-up" and gives the paper a sense of finality.
5 paragraph essay topics are not limited to anything, as anything can be discussed in this type of essay. You can choose the essay topic that you know the most
about, for example:
 Economic Power of the US
 The Best City in The World
 My Grandfather
 My First Teacher
 What is the Green House Effect
 Teaching Techniques

Admission Essay
Essays are used to learn more about your reasons for applying to the course, university or company and your ability to benefit from and contribute to it. Your
answers will let you state your case more fully than other sections of the application, and provide the evaluator with better insight about you and how you
differ from the other applicants. In marginal cases, the essays are used to decide whether an applicant will be selected. The purpose of the admissions essay is
to convey a sense of your unique character to the admissions committee. The essay also demonstrates your writing skills as well as your ability to organize
your thoughts coherently.
Sample admission essay topics
There are hundreds of possible topics that you can be asked to write an essay on. Given below are some of the more common ones.
1. What events, activities or achievements have contributed to your own self-development?
2. Describe a situation in which you had significant responsibility and what you learned from it.
3. Describe your strengths and weaknesses in two areas: setting and achieving goals, and working with other people.
4. Your career aspirations and factors leading you to apply to this course at this time. Describe a challenge to which you have successfully responded.
What did you learn about yourself as you responded to this challenge? Describe a challenge you anticipate facing in any aspect of college life. On
the basis of what you learned from your earlier response, how do you expect to deal with this challenge?
5. Describe and evaluate one experience that significantly influenced your academic interests. The experience might be a high school course, a job, a
relationship, or an extracurricular activity. Be sure to explain how this experience led to your setting the goals you now have for yourself, and why
you think the academic program for which you are applying will help you to reach those goals.
6. Describe your educational, personal or career goals.
7. Role Model - If you could meet/be/have dinner with anyone in history, who would it be and why?
8. Past Experience - Describe an event that has had a great impact on you and why?
9. What was your most important activity/course in high school and why?
10. Forecast important issues in the next decade, century - nationally, globally.
11. Why do you want to study at this university?
12. Tell us something about yourself, your most important activities?
13. How would your room, computer or car describe you?
List all your activities for the past four years. Include school activities; awards, honors, and offices held; community services; jobs; and travel. Record major
travel experiences. Note your strongest impressions and how they affected you. If you loved the Grand Canyon, for example, write down three specific reasons
why, aside from the grandeur and beauty that everyone loves. Describe an accomplishment that you had to struggle to achieve. Include what it was, how you
tackled it, and how it changed you.
Think of one or two sayings that you've heard again and again around your house since childhood. How have they shaped your life? What personality traits do
you value most in yourself? Choose a few and jot down examples of how each has helped you. Think of things that other people often say about you. Write
about whether or not you agree with their assessments and how they make you feel.
Brainstorm "top ten" lists in a few selected categories: favorite books, plays, movies, sports, eras in history, famous people, etc. Review your list to see which
items stand out and describe what they've added to your life. Describe "regular people" who have motivated you in different ways throughout your life. It
could be someone you only met once, a third-grade teacher, or a family member or friend.
Starting your essay
The most common topic--particularly if only one essay is required--is the first, "tell us about yourself." Since this kind of essay has no specific focus,
applicants sometimes have trouble deciding which part of their lives to write about. Beware of the chronological list of events that produces dull reading.
Remember, also, to accent the positive rather than the negative side of an experience. If you write about the effect of a death, divorce, or illness on your life,
tell about but don't dwell on your bad luck and disappointments.
Instead, emphasize what you have learned from the experience, and how coping with adversity has strengthened you as an individual.
1. Tie yourself to the college: Why are you interested in attending, and what can the institution do for you? Be specific. Go beyond "XYZ College will
best allow me to realize my academic potential.
2. Read the directions carefully and follow them to the letter. In other words, if the essay is supposed to be 500 words or less, don't submit 1000
words.
3. Consider the unique features of the institution, e.g., a liberal arts college will be impressed with the variety of academic and personal interests you
might have, while an art institute would be most interested in your creative abilities.
4. Be positive, upbeat and avoid the negatives, e.g. I am applying to your school because I won't be required to take physical education or a foreign
language.
5. Emphasize what you have learned, e.g. provide more than a narration when recounting an experience.
6. Write about something you know, something only you could write.
7. Make certain you understand the question or the topic. Your essay should answer the question or speak directly to the given topic.
8. List all ideas. Be creative. Brainstorm without censoring.
9. Sort through ideas and prioritize. You cannot tell them everything, Be selective.
10. Choose information and ideas which are not reflected in other parts of your application. This is your chance to supplement your application with
information you want them to know.
11. Be persuasive in showing the reader you are deserving of admission. Remember your audience.

Argumentative Essay
The function of an argumentative essay is to show that your assertion (opinion, theory, hypothesis) about some phenomenon or phenomena is correct or more
truthful than others'. The art of argumentation is not an easy skill to acquire. Many people might think that if one simply has an opinion, one can argue it
successfully, and these folks are always surprised when others don't agree with them because their logic seems so correct. Argumentative writing is the act of
forming reasons, making inductions, drawing conclusions, and applying them to the case in discussion; the operation of inferring propositions, not known or
admitted as true, from facts or principles known, admitted, or proved to be true. It clearly explains the process of your reasoning from the known or assumed to
the unknown. Without doing this you do not have an argument, you have only an assertion, an essay that is just your unsubstantiated opinion.
Notice that you do not have to completely prove your point; you only have to convince reasonable readers that your argument or position has merit; i.e., that it
is somehow more accurate and complete than competing arguments.
Argumentative essays are often organized in the following manner:
1. They begin with a statement of your assertion, its timeliness, significance, and relevance in relation to some phenomenon.
2. They review critically the literature about that phenomenon.
3. They illustrate how your assertion is "better" (simpler or more explanatory) than others, including improved (i.e., more reliable or valid) methods
that you used to accumulate the data (case) to be explained.
Finally revise and edit, and be sure to apply the critical process to your argument to be certain you have not committed any errors in reasoning or integrated
any fallacies for which you would criticize some other writer.
Additionally, you will want to find out how your readers will object to your argument. Will they say that you have used imprecise concepts? Have you erred in
collecting data? Your argument is only as strong as the objections to it. If you cannot refute or discount an objection, then you need to rethink and revise your
position.
Popular argumentative essay topics could be:
 Animal testing
 Capital punishment
 Security cameras and privacy
 Homeschooling
 Retirement age
 The use of animals in scientific research
 Government and family planning
All these essay topics give you a chance to develop an argument in your future essay. The best idea is to choose essay topics that really matter to you. You
have to have the strong personal opinion on the topic you are planning to discuss in your argumentative essay.

Cause and Effect Essay

What is a cause and effect essay?
Cause and effect essays are concerned with why things happen (causes) and what happens as a result (effects). Cause and effect is a common method of
organizing and discussing ideas.
Follow these steps when writing a cause and effect essay
 1. Distinguish between cause and effect. To determine causes, ask, "Why did this happen?" To identify effects, ask, "What happened because of this?"
The following is an example of one cause producing one effect:
Cause
You are out of gas.
Effect
Your car won't start.
Sometimes, many causes contribute to a single effect or many effects may result from a single cause. (Your instructor will specify which
cause/effect method to use.) The following are examples:
Causes
liked business in high school
salaries in the field are high
have an aunt who is an accountant
am good with numbers
Effect
choose to major in accounting
Cause
reduce work hours
Effects
less income
employer is irritated
more time to study
more time for family and friends
However, most situations are more complicated. The following is an example of a chain reaction:
Thinking about friend…forgot to buy gas…car wouldn't start…missed math exam…failed math course.
2. Develop your thesis statement. State clearly whether you are discussing causes, effects, or both. Introduce your main idea, using the terms "cause"
and/or "effect."
3. Find and organize supporting details. Back up your thesis with relevant and sufficient details that are organized. You can organize details in the
following ways:
o Chronological. Details are arranged in the order in which the events occurred.

o Order of importance. Details are arranged from least to most important or vice versa.

o Categorical. Details are arranged by dividing the topic into parts or categories.
4. Use appropriate transitions. To blend details smoothly in cause and effect essays, use the transitional words and phrases listed below.
For causes
because, due to, on cause is, another is, since, for, first, second
For Effects
consequently, as a result, thus, resulted in, one result is, another is, therefore
When writing your essay, keep the following suggestions in mind:
o Remember your purpose. Decide if your are writing to inform or persuade.

o Focus on immediate and direct causes (or effects.) Limit yourself to causes that are close in time and related, as opposed to remote and
indirect causes, which occur later and are related indirectly.
o Strengthen your essay by using supporting evidence. Define terms, offer facts and statistics, or provide examples, anecdotes, or personal
observations that support your ideas.
o Qualify or limit your statements about cause and effect. Unless there is clear evidence that one event is related to another, qualify your
statements with phrases such as "It appears that the cause was" or "It seems likely" or "The evidence may indicate" or "Available
evidence suggests."
To evaluate the effectiveness of a cause and effect essay, ask the following questions:
What are the causes? What are the effects? Which should be emphasized? Are there single or multiple causes? Single or multiple effects? Is a chain
reaction involved?
Choosing the essay topic for cause and effect essay type is not difficult, here are some sample essay topics:
 Effects of Pollution
 The Changes in the Ocean
 The Civil Rights Movement and the Effects
 Causes and Effects of the Popularity of Fast Food Restaurants
 Internet Influence on kids
 Popularity of Sports in US
Please, make sure you choose the essay topic that is really important for you. Choosing the correct essay topic makes your cause and effect essay more
interesting and successful.
Classification Essay
What is a Classification Essay?
In a classification essay, a writer organizes, or sorts, things into categories.
Three Steps to Effective Classification:
1. Sort things into useful categories.
 2. Make sure all the categories follow a single organizing principle.
3. Give examples that fit into each category.
This is a key step in writing a classification essay. To classify, or sort, things in a logical way, find the categories to put them into. For example, say you need
to sort the stack of papers on your desk. Before you would put them in random piles, you would decide what useful categories might be: papers that can be
thrown away; papers that need immediate action; papers to read; papers to pass on to other coworkers; or papers to file.
Thesis Statement of a Classification Essay
The thesis statement usually includes the topic and how it is classified. Sometimes the categories are named.
(topic)...(how classified)...(category) (category) (category)
Ex: Tourists in Hawaii can enjoy three water sports: snorkeling, surfing, and sailing.
How to Write an Effective Classification Essay
1. Determine the categories. Be thorough; don't leave out a critical category. For example, if you say water sports of Hawaii include snorkeling and
sailing, but leave out surfing, your essay would be incomplete because surfing is Hawaii's most famous water sport. On the other hand, don't
include too many categories, which will blur your classification. For example, if your topic is sports shoes, and your organizing principle is activity,
you wouldn't include high heels with running and bowling shoes.
2. Classify by a single principle. Once you have categories, make sure that they fit into the same organizing principle. The organizing principle is
how you sort the groups. Do not allow a different principle to pop up unexpectedly. For example, if your unifying principle is "tourist-oriented"
water sports, don't use another unifying principle, such as "native water sports," which would have different categories: pearl diving, outrigger, or
canoe racing.
3. Support equally each category with examples. In general, you should write the same quantity, i.e., give the same number of examples, for each
category. The most important category, usually reserved for last, might require more elaboration.
Common Classification Transitions
 The first kind, the second kind, the third kind
 The first type, the second type, the third type
 The first group, the second group, the third group
Remember: In a classification essay, the writer organizes, or sorts, things into categories. There are three steps to remember when writing an effective
classification essay: organize things into useful categories, use a single organizing principle, and give examples of things that fit into each category.
Below are some sample classification essay topics:
 Classification of historical events in US
 Countries classification (territory, popularity, etc)
 Sport Cars Classification
 Most Popular TV Shows in America
 Classification of Physiological Diseases
You can choose essay topic for your classification essay you are familiar with.

Comparison Essay
To write a comparison or contrast essay that is easy to follow, first decide what the similarities or differences are by writing lists on scrap paper. Which are
more significant, the similarities or the differences? Plan to discuss the less significant first, followed by the more significant. It is much easier to discuss
ONLY the similarities or ONLY the differences, but you can also do both.
Then for organizing your essay, choose one of the plans described below whichever best fits your list. Finally, and this is important, what main point (thesis)
might you make in the essay about the two people/things being compared? Do not begin writing until you have a point that the similarities or differences you
want to use help to prove. Your point should help shape the rest of what you say: For example, if you see that one of your similarities or differences is
unrelated to the point, throw it out and think of one that is related. Or revise your point. Be sure this main point is clearly and prominently expressed
somewhere in the essay.
Plan A: Use Plan A if you have many small similarities and/or differences. After your introduction, say everything you want to say about the first work or
character, and then go on in the second half of the essay to say everything about the second work or character, comparing or contrasting each item in the
second with the same item in the first. In this format, all the comparing or contrasting, except for the statement of your main point, which you may want to put
in the beginning, goes on in the SECOND HALF of the piece.
Plan B: Use Plan B if you have only a few, larger similarities or differences. After your introduction, in the next paragraph discuss one similarity or difference
in BOTH works or characters, and then move on in the next paragraph to the second similarity or difference in both, then the third, and so forth, until you're
done. If you are doing both similarities and differences, juggle them on scrap paper so that in each part you put the less important first ("X and Y are both alike
in their social positions . . ."), followed by the more important ("but X is much more aware of the dangers of his position than is Y"). In this format, the
comparing or contrasting goes on in EACH of the middle parts.
The following outline may be helpful; however, do not be limited by it.
I. Intro. with thesis
II. 1st similarity
A. 1st work
B. 2nd work
III. 2nd similarity
A. 1st work
B. 2nd work
 IV. 1st difference
A. 1st work
B. 2nd work
V. 2nd difference
A. 1st work
B. 2nd work
See the following topic suggestions for your comparison essay. For example:
 Stages of My Life
 Two Places I have Visited
 My Two Best Friends
 Two Political Candidates
 Bulimia and Anorexia
 Microsoft or Apple
 Living on Campus and Living Off Campus
 The Two Girls I Like
This should give you an idea and inspiration. Remember, best essays are written on the topics that really interest their writers.

Critical Essay
The word "critical" has positive as well as negative meanings. You can write a critical essay that agrees entirely with the reading. The word "critical" describes
your attitude when you read the article. This attitude is best described as "detached evaluation," meaning that you weigh the coherence of the reading, the
completeness of its data, and so on, before you accept or reject it.
A critical essay or review begins with an analysis or exposition of the reading, article-by-article, book by book. Each analysis should include the following
points:
1. A summary of the author's point of view, including
a brief statement of the author's main idea (i.e., thesis or theme)
an outline of the important "facts" and lines of reasoning the author used to support the main idea
a summary of the author's explicit or implied values
a presentation of the author's conclusion or suggestions for action
2. An evaluation of the author's work, including
an assessment of the "facts" presented on the basis of correctness, relevance, and whether or not pertinent facts were omitted
an evaluation or judgment of the logical consistency of the author's argument
an appraisal of the author's values in terms of how you feel or by an accepted standard
Once the analysis is completed, check your work! Ask yourself, "Have I read all the relevant (or assigned) material?" "Do I have complete citations?" If not,
complete the work! The following steps are how this is done.
Now you can start to write the first draft of your expository essay/literature review. Outline the conflicting arguments, if any; this will be part of the body of
your expository essay/literature review.
Ask yourself, "Are there other possible positions on this matter?" If so, briefly outline them. Decide on your own position (it may agree with one of the
competing arguments) and state explicitly the reason(s) why you hold that position by outlining the consistent facts and showing the relative insignificance of
contrary facts. Coherently state your position by integrating your evaluations of the works you read. This becomes your conclusions section.
Briefly state your position, state why the problem you are working on is important, and indicate the important questions that need to be answered; this is your
"Introduction." Push quickly through this draft--don't worry about spelling, don't search for exactly the right word, don't hassle yourself with grammar, don't
worry overmuch about sequence--that's why this is called a "rough draft." Deal with these during your revisions. The point of a rough draft is to get your ideas
on paper. Once they are there, you can deal with the superficial (though very important) problems.
Consider this while writing:
 The critical essay is informative; it emphasizes the literary work being studied rather than the feelings and opinions of the person writing about the
literary work; in this kind of writing, all claims made about the work need to be backed up with evidence.
 The difference between feelings and facts is simple--it does not matter what you believe about a book or play or poem; what matters is what you
can prove about it, drawing upon evidence found in the text itself, in biographies of the author, in critical discussions of the literary work, etc.
 Criticism does not mean you have to attack the work or the author; it simply means you are thinking critically about it, exploring it and discussing
your findings.
 In many cases, you are teaching your audience something new about the text.
 The literary essay usually employs a serious and objective tone. (Sometimes, depending on your audience, it is all right to use a lighter or even
humorous tone, but this is not usually the case).
 Use a "claims and evidence" approach. Be specific about the points you are making about the novel, play, poem, or essay you are discussing and
back up those points with evidence that your audience will find credible and appropriate. If you want to say, "The War of the Worlds is a novel
about how men and women react in the face of annihilation, and most of them do not behave in a particularly courageous or noble manner," say it,
and then find evidence that supports your claim.
 Using evidence from the text itself is often your best option. If you want to argue, "isolation drives Frankenstein's creature to become evil," back it
up with events and speeches from the novel itself.
  Another form of evidence you can rely on is criticism, what other writers have claimed about the work of literature you are examining. You may
treat these critics as "expert witnesses," whose ideas provide support for claims you are making about the book. In most cases, you should not
simply provide a summary of what critics have said about the literary work.
 In fact, one starting point might be to look at what a critic has said about one book or poem or story and then a) ask if the same thing is true of
another book or poem or story and 2) ask what it means that it is or is not true.
 Do not try to do everything. Try to do one thing well. And beware of subjects that are too broad; focus your discussion on a particular aspect of a
work rather than trying to say everything that could possibly be said about it.
 Be sure your discussion is well organized. Each section should support the main idea. Each section should logically follow and lead into the
sections that come before it and after it. Within each paragraph, sentences should be logically connected to one another.
 Remember that in most cases you want to keep your tone serious and objective.
 Be sure your essay is free of mechanical and stylistic errors.
 If you quote or summarize (and you will probably have to do this) be sure you follow an appropriate format (MLA format is the most common one
when examining literature) and be sure you provide a properly formatted list of works cited at the end of your essay.
It is easy to choose the topics for critical essay type. For example, you can choose a novel or a movie to discuss. It is important to choose the topic you are
interested and familiar with. Here are the examples of popular critical essay topics:
 The Politics of Obama
 The Educational System of US
 My Favorite Movie
 Home Scholl
 “The Match Point” by Woody Allen
 Shakespeare “The Merchant of Venice”

Deductive Essay
Deductive essays are an important factor in evaluating the knowledge level of students in many courses.
Deductive reasoning is based on the concept that given as set of circumstances or clues (premises), one can draw a reasonable assumption as to the state of the
situation. More simply, a person can solve a puzzle or identify a person if given enough information.
Specifically, deductive reasoning takes individual factors, weighs them against the current knowledge about such things, and adds them up to come to a
conclusion. There are three parts to deductive reasoning. The first is the PREMISE. A premise is a basic fact or belief that is used as the basis for drawing
conclusions. There may be several PREMISES in an argument. The second part is called EVIDENCE. The evidence is the information you have before you,
whether it is a story you are analyzing or something you have observed. The last part is the CONCLUSION. The conclusion is your final analysis of the
situation, based on balancing PREMISES with EVIDENCE. A simplified example might be as follows:
 premise: all dogs are animals
 evidence: Fido is a dog
 conclusion: Fido is an animal.
This is not a complex deductive exercise, but it is accurate.
We use deductive reasoning quite commonly in day-to-day life. For example, say you look out your window some morning and see the street is wet. There are
several ways you could interpret this information. You might assume a large water truck has just driven by, inundating the area with spray. Possibly, you may
decide that water has soaked up from the ground. Most likely, however, you will likely decide that it has rained. Why? Based on your life experience and
likely factors, the most logical deduction is that a wet street is the result of rainfall. There are other possibilities, but the most logical deduction is rain. If,
however, you were SURE that there had been no rain, or you were aware of a street cleaning program, your deduction would change appropriately. Deductive
reasoning takes the MOST REASONABLE, LIKELY path, but is not necessarily fool-proof. Deductive reasoning is commonly used in police work,
investigative reporting, the sciences (including medicine), law, and, oddly enough, literary analysis.
A good deductive essay is clear and focused. Each paragraph focuses on a particular aspect or a particular point, using detail and examples to lead to a specific
conclusion. The support for one's conclusion is the most important factor. In other words, without supporting one's point, the conclusion is weak.
Here are the examples of the popular topics for deductive essays and papers:
 Online Education Courses and Degrees
 Democracy vs Communism
 International Immigrants and Freedom
 The Harm of Lie, The Harm of Truth
 The Love vs Habit
Definition Essay
What is a Definition Essay?
A definition essay is writing that explains what a term means. Some terms have definite, concrete meanings, such as glass, book, or tree. Terms such as
honesty, honor, or love are abstract and depend more on a person's point of view.
Three Steps to Effective Definition
1. Tell readers what term is being defined.
2. Present clear and basic information.
3. Use facts, examples, or anecdotes that readers will understand.
hoosing a Definition
Choosing a definition is a key step in writing a definition essay. You need to understand the term before you can define it for others. Read the dictionary, but
don't just copy the definition. Explain the term briefly in your own words. Also, it's important to limit your term before you start defining it. For example, you
could write forever on the term "love." To limit it, you would write about either "romantic love," "platonic love," or "first love."
Thesis Statement of a Definition Essay
The thesis statement usually identifies the term being defined and provides a brief, basic definition.
(term) (basic definition)
Ex: Assertiveness is standing up for your rights.
How To Write an Effective Definition
1. Create a definition. There are several ways to define a term. Here are a few options.
o Define by function. Explain what something does or how something works.

o Define by structure. Tell how something is organized or put together.

o Define by analysis. Compare the term to other members of its class and then illustrate the differences. These differences are special
characteristics that make the term stand out. For example, compare a Siberian husky to other dogs, such as lap dogs, mutts, or sporting
dogs.
(term) (precise definition)
Ex: A Siberian husky is a dog reputed for its ability to tolerate cold, its distinctive features, and its keen strength and stamina.
o Define by what the term does not mean. This distinction can sometimes clarify a definition and help a reader to better understand it.
2. Use understandable facts, examples, or anecdotes. Select facts, examples, or anecdotes to fully explain your definition. Ask yourself, "Which
examples will best help readers understand the term? What examples would most appeal to my readers? Will a brief story reveal the term's
meaning?" Do not use any examples that will not support the definition.
Remember: A definition essay is writing that explains what a term means. When writing a definition essay, remember to tell readers what term is being
defined, to present a clear and basic definition, and to use facts, examples, or anecdotes that readers will understand
Here are the examples of popular definition essay topics:
 Kindness
 Sense of Humor
 Love
 Charisma
 Team Player
 Optimism
 Beauty
 Respect
 Ambitions
Whatever essay topic you choose, you should be interested in the subject and familiar with it. It would be great if you had your personal experience in the
matter you are going to define.

Exploratory Essay
The concept of an exploratory essay is that you start without an end in mind. You don't necessarily know how you feel about a subject or what you want to say
about the subject, you allow the research and your own direction to determine the outcome. This is writing to learn rather than writing to prove what you
know.
Purpose: The exploratory essay builds on the inquiry essay by having you look at and contribute to a range of arguments rather than just one at a time.
Whereas the inquiry essay introduced you to a debate by looking at one argument a time, the exploratory essay asks you to widen your vision to the whole
conversation.
1. The focus of an exploratory essay is a question, rather than a thesis.
2. The two main ways to compose an exploratory essay yield different effects: The "in-process" strategy produces immediacy, while a "retrospective"
strategy produces more artistically designed essays.
3. Exploratory essays chronicle your research actions and the thinking that results from those actions; they address both content-oriented questions
and rhetorical questions about possible responses to the problem under consideration.
4. Exploratory essays regularly consider the strengths and weaknesses of various different solutions to a perplexing problem.
5. Exploratory essays are often dialectical in either the Platonic or Hegelian sense of that term because they recreate the engagement of antithetical
positions, sometimes resulting in a productive synthesis of contraries.
The exploratory essays can be written in many different subjects. Here are some popular topics to give you an idea:
 Effectiveness of the World Health Organizations
 The Impact of Sports
 The Democracy and Human Rights
 The Importance of Creative Methods of Teaching
  The Reasons of Immigration to US
 The Taxation System of US
 The Fairness of College Admissions
Whatever topic you choose, you should pick the subject you are really interested in, it will show in the exploratory essay you write and will make it more
interesting to the readers.
Expository Essay
The purpose of an expository essay is to present, completely and fairly, other people's views or to report about an event or a situation. Expository writing, or
exposition, presents a subject in detail, apart from criticism, argument, or development; i.e., the writer elucidates a subject by analyzing it. Such writing is
discourse designed to convey information or explain what is difficult to understand. Exposition usually proceeds by the orderly analysis of parts and the use of
familiar illustrations or analogies.
Such an analysis requires
1. reading with understanding the ideas developed in an article by clearly stating another's thesis, outlining the facts used by the author to support that
thesis, and the "values" underlying the ideas
2. putting what is read into a larger context by relating another's article or book to other work in the field
3. clearly and effectively communicating this information to a defined audience. In other words, you must write clearly and fully enough for your
readers to know how you have arrived at your analyses and conclusions. They should never have to guess what you mean; give your readers
everything they need to know to follow your reasoning
This practice is not "just for students." Accurate analysis is a fundamental professional activity in almost all careers. Like any other fundamental skill, it must
be constantly practiced in order to maintain and improve it. Other goals, such as learning "time management" and note-taking, are also developed by this
activity.
Do not be afraid to revise your essay! In fact, you will probably want to change it at least once; this is called "thinking through a 'problem'" or "learning."
The revisions will consist of the following:
1. finding the precise words to express your thoughts
2. correcting typographical, spelling, and grammatical errors
3. making sure that your paragraphs are "tight" and sequenced properly
4. making sure that the transition ("segue") from one major topic to another makes sense
Expository essays also have a distinct format.
The thesis statement must be defined and narrow enough to be supported within the essay.
 Each supporting paragraph must have a distinct controlling topic and all other sentences must factually relate directly to it. The transition words or
phrases are important as they help the reader follow along and reinforce the logic.
 Finally, the conclusion paragraph should originally restate the thesis and the main supporting ideas. Finish with the statement that reinforces your
position in a meaningful and memorable way.
 Never introduce new material in the conclusion.
Here are some popular essay topic examples for expository essay type:
 Explain Three Main Interpretations of Green Marketing
 Explain How Fashion Changes in 1920 Influenced Fashion Trends Today
 Explain Major Ecological Changes
 What is Love
 Explain the Consequences of Nationalism
Choosing the essay topic you are familiar with will help you to write a successful expository essay.

Informal Essay
The informal essay is written mainly for enjoyment. This is not to say that it cannot be informative or persuasive; however, it is less a formal statement than a
relaxed expression of opinion, observation, humor or pleasure. A good informal essay has a relaxed style but retains a strong structure, though that structure
may be less rigid than in a formal paper.
The informal essay tends to be more personal than the formal, even though both may express subjective opinions. In a formal essay the writer is a silent
presence behind the words, while in an informal essay the writer is speaking directly to the reader in a conversational style. If you are writing informally, try to
maintain a sense of your own personality. Do not worry about sounding academic, but avoid sloppiness.
The essay, which follows is an opinion piece that was written for The Globe and Mail. The style is therefore journalistic but aimed at a fairly sophisticated
readership. Paragraphs are short, as is normal in a newspaper with its narrow columns, and the tone is more conversational than would be appropriate for a
formal essay. Notice the clear statement of the thesis, the concrete illustrations in the body of the essay, and the way the conclusion leads to a more general
statement of what is perhaps to come in the future. It is included here both because it is a good example of the essay form and because it explores the kind of
problem you will come up against as you try to punctuate your essays correctly.
The essay topics of the informal essay type are not limited to any specific subject, you can write your informal essay on any topic. For example, here are some
popular essay topics to give you an idea:
 The Best Journey of My Life
 The Point in My Life Where I Would Start Over
 The Perfect Woman, Marriage and Divorce
  My Religion
 The Celebrities Give Us Bad Examples
 Reincarnation
 The “Delights” of Our School Cafeteria
You should be well familiar with the informal essay topic you choose. Also, you have to consider the interests of your readers. You should show your
personality and the attitude in your informal essay.
Literature Essay
 Introduction: Be Brief; give some suggestion of the direction you intend to take in your essay. Indicate the aspects of the book you intend to deal
with.
 Paragraphing: In your plan you should identify very clearly around six distinct points you intend to make and the specific parts of the text that you
intend to examine in some detail. When writing your essay you should devote one or two paragraphs to each point. Try to make smooth links
between paragraphs.
 Evidence: When you make a point - you must prove it. Just as a lawyer in court must produce evidence to support his case, so you must produce
evidence to prove the comments you make about characters, relationships, themes, style etc. When you make a point, refer to the text. give an
example to support what you say. Better still, use a quote.
Remember to introduce the quote with a colon and use quotation marks. It is important to lay out quotes correctly because it shows you are
professional about what you are doing. Keep them short - no more than three or four lines each.
 Selection: Avoid the trap of just re-telling the story. The important thing is to be selective in the way you use the text. Only refer to those parts of
the book that help you to answer the question.
 Answer the question: it sounds obvious, but it's so easy to forget the question and go off at a tangent. When you have finished a paragraph read it
through and ask yourself. "How does this contribute to answering the question?" If it doesn't, change it so that it does address the question directly.
 Conclusion: At the end, try to draw all the strands of your various points together. This should be the part of your essay, which answers the
question most directly and forcefully.
 Style: Keep it formal. Try to avoid making it chatty. If you imagine you are a lawyer in court trying to prove your point of view about a book, that
might help to set the right tone.
 Be creative: Remember you do not have to agree with other people's points of view about literature. If your ideas are original or different, so long
as you develop them clearly, use evidence intelligently and argue persuasively, your point of view will be respected. We want literature to touch
you personally and it will often affect different people in different ways. Be creative.
Checklist after writing your essay
Have you:
1. Put the full title of the question and the date at the top?
2. Written in cleat paragraphs?
3. Produced evidence to prove all your points?
4. Used at least five quotes?
5. Answered the question?
Novel essay
Theme, plot, setting, characters, style; fair divisions for any essay. Order and emphasis will depend on bias of question.
If the question is about theme, talk about it in the introduction, then discuss, one per paragraph, how the other aspects contribute to it, and conclude by talking
about the success or otherwise of the author in communicating his/her theme.
Drama essay
Theme, plot, setting, characters, technique.
If the question is about technique, talk about how it affects the others-one per paragraph.
Poetry essay
Theme, style, technique (include such aspects as alliteration, assonance, versification, rhyme, rhythm, where appropriate).
THE TITLES OF PLAYS, NOVELS, MAGAZINES, NEWSPAPERS, JOURNALS (things that can stand by themselves) are underlined or italicized.
Tennessee Williams' The Glass Menagerie and Toni Morrison's The Bluest Eye don't seem to have much in common at first. If you're using a word processor
or you have a fancy typewriter, use italics, but do not use both underlines and italics. (Some instructors have adopted rules about using italics that go back to a
time when italics on a word processor could be hard to read, so you should ask your instructor if you can use italics. Underlines are always correct.) The titles
of poems, short stories, and articles (things that do not generally stand by themselves) require quotation marks.
Tools of the Trade: Subjects and Verbs
Whenever possible, use strong subjects and active constructions, rather than weak verbal nouns or abstractions and weak passive or linking verbs: instead of
"Petruchio's denial of Kate of her basic necessities would seem cruel and harsh...," try "By denying Kate the basic necessities of life, Petruchio appears cruel
and harsh--but he says that he is just putting on an act." Don't forget that words and even phrases can serve as strong sentence subjects: "Petruchio's 'I'll
buckler thee against a million' injects an unexpectedly chivalric note, especially since it follows hard on the heels of his seemingly un-gentlemanly behavior."
And remember--use regular quotation marks unless you're quoting material that contains a quotation itself.
In General, Avoid the Swamp of Published Criticism
Do not try to sift through the many hundreds of pounds of critical inquiry about the scene or the play. I am most interested in what you bring to the plays, not
the ways in which you try to spew back your versions of what "experts" have written to get tenure or score points with other tweed-jacketed types. Honest
confusion and honest mistaking are part of the learning process, so don't try to seek out some other "authority" for your proof.
Literature essay topics help you to narrow down on a certain idea or detail, it is important to choose the essay topics you are interested in. Below are the
examples of good literature essay topics:
  Why does Hamlet Delay Taking Revenge on Claudius
 The Characters of Hamlet and Horatio
 Why did Ophelia Commit a Suicide
 The Rules of Marriage in 14th Century
 The Tragic Love of Romeo and Juliet
 Pushkin in the Russian Literature
 The Poetry that has a Special Meaning for You

Narrative Essay
As a mode of expository writing, the narrative approach, more than any other, offers writers a chance to think and write about themselves. We all have
experiences lodged in our memories, which are worthy of sharing with readers. Yet sometimes they are so fused with other memories that a lot of the time
spent in writing narrative is in the prewriting stage.
When you write a narrative essay, you are telling a story. Narrative essays are told from a defined point of view, often the author's, so there is feeling as well
as specific and often sensory details provided to get the reader involved in the elements and sequence of the story. The verbs are vivid and precise. The
narrative essay makes a point and that point is often defined in the opening sentence, but can also be found as the last sentence in the opening paragraph.
Since a narrative relies on personal experiences, it often is in the form of a story. When the writer uses this technique, he or she must be sure to include all the
conventions of storytelling: plot, character, setting, climax, and ending. It is usually filled with details that are carefully selected to explain, support, or
embellish the story. All of the details relate to the main point the writer is attempting to make.
To summarize, the narrative essay
 is told from a particular point of view
 makes and supports a point
 is filled with precise detail
 uses vivid verbs and modifiers
 uses conflict and sequence as does any story
 may use dialogue
The purpose of a narrative report is to describe something. Many students write narrative reports thinking that these are college essays or papers. While the
information in these reports is basic to other forms of writing, narrative reports lack the "higher order thinking" that essays require. Thus narrative reports do
not, as a rule, yield high grades for many college courses. A basic example of a narrative report is a "book report" that outlines a book; it includes the
characters, their actions, possibly the plot, and, perhaps, some scenes. That is, it is a description of "what happens in the book." But this leaves out an awful
lot.
What is left out is what the book or article is about -- the underlying concepts, assumptions, arguments, or point of view that the book or article expresses. A
narrative report leaves aside a discussion that puts the events of the text into the context of what the text is about. Is the text about love? Life in the fast lane?
Society? Wealth and power? Poverty? In other words, narrative reports often overlook the authors purpose or point of view expressed through the book or
article.
Once an incident is chosen, the writer should keep three principles in mind.
1. Remember to involve readers in the story. It is much more interesting to actually recreate an incident for readers than to simply tell about it.
2. Find a generalization, which the story supports. This is the only way the writer's personal experience will take on meaning for readers. This
generalization does not have to encompass humanity as a whole; it can concern the writer, men, women, or children of various ages and
backgrounds.
3. Remember that although the main component of a narrative is the story, details must be carefully selected to support, explain, and enhance the
story.
Conventions of Narrative Essays
In writing your narrative essay, keep the following conventions in mind.
 Narratives are generally written in the first person, that is, using I. However, third person (he, she, or it) can also be used.
 Narratives rely on concrete, sensory details to convey their point. These details should create a unified, forceful effect, a dominant impression.
More information on the use of specific details is available on another page.
 Narratives, as stories, should include these story conventions: a plot, including setting and characters; a climax; and an ending.
Here are some popular essay topic examples for your narrative essay type:
 First Day at College
 The Moment of Success
 A Memorable Journey
 The Biggest Misunderstanding
 The Difficult Decision
 The Trip of Your Dreams
 The Day You Decided to Change Your Life
The essay topic you choose should be interesting and important to you, because the best essays are written on the topics that really matter to the writer.
Personal Essay
The overall application package will represent who "you" are to people whom you will most likely not know personally. The written expression of your
qualities as an applicant will often be a very important way for committee members to get to know why you are an acceptable candidate for their program.
Thus, it is essential to take great care in preparing this part of your application. Because graduate schools make important selection decisions that are partly
based on what you say in this essay, the writing of it can be an intimidating prospect.
To begin your essay, brainstorm using the following questions:
 What might help the evaluating committee better understand you? What sets you apart from other applicants? Who will be applying for the same
program?
 Why are you interested in this field? What things have stimulated and reinforced your interest?
 How did you learn about this field (classes, seminars, work experience)?
 What are your career aspirations?
 Are there any gaps or discrepancies in your academic record that need to be explained?
 What skills or personal characteristics do you possess that would enhance your chances for success in this field?
 Why should an admissions committee be interested in you?
Write the first draft from this, then try to find an angle or a hook which can sink into the admissions committee; a good place to start is with an original and
provoking opening paragraph. One of the worst things you can do with your personal statement is to bore the admissions committee, yet that is exactly what
most applicants do. Admissions committees see thousands of "I have always wanted to be a..." opening paragraphs, so a good way to make the essay more
interesting is to write about an anecdote or memorable incident that led you to choose the particular profession. This can help add drama, vitality, and
originality to the statement. It is important, however, that the anecdote is related to the questions asked and not just a retelling of a catchy life drama.
After you have written the first, second, or third draft, there are another set of evaluative questions that you can work through to help you revise your essay.
 Does the opening paragraph grab your attention?
 Is the statement interesting or does it put you to sleep?
 Is it a positive portrayal? Is it upbeat and confident?
 Is it an honest portrayal?
 Have you answered all the questions thoroughly?
 Has anything relevant been omitted? Work or academic experience?
 Does the statement provide insight into your character?
 Is it well-written? Is the grammar, tone, and verb agreement perfect?
 Are there any typos?
For your final draft, be sure to avoid sloppiness, poor English, spelling errors, whining, manufacturing a personality, avoiding the questions that are asked on
the application, high school experiences, personal biases about religion, ethnicity, politics, sexist language, revealing of character weaknesses, and arrogance.
The personal statement is extremely important in gaining admittance to graduate and professional schools. Although it can be frustrating to write an original
and well-devised statement, through time and drafts it will be written. The ones that are good take time. The ones that are bad can sabotage your chances for
success. It is also important that you show your drafts to a Writing Center tutor, your academic advisor, Career Planning advisor, and friends; they will help
you write an essay that reveals the right balance of personal and academic characteristics and specifics.
Once you have developed a sense of the faculty's interests and the department's special features, you can make it clear in your application exactly why you
want to attend that particular school. What is it about the department's curriculum structure or general approach to the field that makes you interested in being
a student there? Don't waste your valuable essay space, or your reader's valuable time, telling the reader how wonderful or prestigious their institution is;
people on the admissions committee already know this. They want to know about you.
Nonetheless, if there are special programs or institutes at the school that seem appealing to you, briefly mention that you are interested in becoming part of
them. For example, state that you "want to be a member of the XYZ Group for Blank and Blank Studies because ...", but don't tell them how great, well
respected, and world-renowned this part of the school is.
If, during your research on the department's faculty, a faculty member strikes you as someone whom you might be interested in working with, indicate this in
your essay; be concise and specific about why you want to work with this person in particular. A word of caution here: Do not try to use this as a way to
"butter up" the admissions committee, because if there is any reason to believe that you are not sincere, your application may be adversely affected. Again,
mention the person and how their work relates to your interest, but don't load this statement with what might be interpreted as false or superfluous praise.
Personal Information
Some applications may ask you to give a personal history, telling about experiences that you have undergone which have led you to decide to pursue graduate
education in a certain field of study. (If personal information of this sort is not required, then you are under no obligation to provide it.)
The information that could be included in a personal-type statement is limited only by your own imagination and life history, but you should be highly
selective about what you include. There are two things to watch out for: (1) saying too much and/or (2) not saying enough.
Some applicants may ramble on about themselves in a manner that may appear self-indulgent and not very appealing to the committee. Remember, this is an
application essay, not an autobiography. Conversely, some applicants tend to say too little, perhaps hesitating to promote themselves too explicitly or not
knowing what about themselves would be interesting to people whom they don't know. In such cases, perhaps focusing more on what you want to do than on
what you have already done (let your record speak for itself) may help in getting beyond self-inhibition.
Generally, keep in mind that the points about your life that you highlight should be somehow relevant to both your own interest in the field of study, as well as
to the concerns of the admissions committee. In judging what information to include or exclude from your essay, try to balance academic, work-related, and
personal information in a manner appropriate to your situation, goals, and the application requirements.
Additional Considerations
If you have additional, relevant information about yourself that does not easily fit into the essay, or into any other section of the university's application, you
may want to include a condensed resume or curriculum vitae with your application package. This is especially applicable to those who have worked
professionally since having graduated from school. Relevant items here might include work experience, publications, and presentations, as well as language
and computer skills.
Also, if you have experienced times of great hardship or extenuating circumstances that have negatively affected your academic performance at any time,
provide a short explanatory statement. This is another one of those places where caution should be exercised: you want to explain the cause of your poor
grades, etc. without alienating the reader by overdoing it. Once again, be specific and concise.
Tips for Writing a Personal Essay for Your College Application
Do start early. Leave plenty of time to revise, record, and rewrite. You can improve on your presentation.
Do read the directions carefully. You will want to answer the question as directly as possible, and you'll want to follow word limits exactly. Express yourself
as briefly and as clearly as you can.
Do tell the truth about yourself. The admission committee is anonymous to you; you are completely unknown to it. Even if you run into a committee member
in the future, he will have no way of connecting your essay (out of the thousands he has read) to you.
Do focus on an aspect of yourself that will show your best side. You might have overcome some adversity, worked through a difficult project, or profited from
a specific incident. A narrow focus is more interesting than broad-based generalizations.
Do feel comfortable in expressing anxieties. Everybody has them, and it's good to know that an applicant can see them and face them.
Do tie yourself to the college. Be specific about what this particular school can do for you. Your essay can have different slants for different colleges.
Do speak positively. Negatives tend to turn people off.
Do write about your greatest assets and achievements. You should be proud of them!
But...
Don't repeat information given elsewhere on your application. The committee has already seen it-and it looks as though you have nothing better to say.
Don't write on general, impersonal topics-like the nuclear arms race or the importance of good management in business. The college wants to know about you.
Don't use the personal statement to excuse your shortcomings. It would give them additional attention.
Don't use cliches.
Don't go to extremes: too witty, too opinionated, or too "intellectual."
Choosing the essay topic for your personal essay is easy as you are well familiar with the subject. Here are the most popular personal essay topic examples:
 Describe Your Grandparents
 My 10-Seconds Car
 The Place I Want to Return
 My Mother’s Hands
 The Movie That Motivates Me
 Me in Ten Years.

Persuasive Essay
What is a persuasive/argument essay?
Persuasive writing, also known as the argument essay, utilizes logic and reason to show that one idea is more legitimate than another idea. It attempts to
persuade a reader to adopt a certain point of view or to take a particular action. The argument must always use sound reasoning and solid evidence by stating
facts, giving logical reasons, using examples, and quoting experts.
When planning a persuasive essay, follow these steps
1. Choose your position. Which side of the issue or problem are you going to write about, and what solution will you offer? Know the purpose of your
essay.
2. Analyze your audience. Decide if your audience agrees with you, is neutral, or disagrees with your position.
3. Research your topic. A persuasive essay must provide specific and convincing evidence. Often it is necessary to go beyond your own knowledge
and experience. You might need to go to the library or interview people who are experts on your topic.
4. Structure your essay. Figure out what evidence you will include and in what order you will present the evidence. Remember to consider your
purpose, your audience, and you topic.
The following criteria are essential to produce an effective argument
 Be well informed about your topic. To add to your knowledge of a topic, read thoroughly about it, using legitimate sources. Take notes.
 Test your thesis. Your thesis, i.e., argument, must have two sides. It must be debatable. If you can write down a thesis statement directly opposing
your own, you will ensure that your own argument is debatable.
 Disprove the opposing argument. Understand the opposite viewpoint of your position and then counter it by providing contrasting evidence or by
finding mistakes and inconsistencies in the logic of the opposing argument.
 Support your position with evidence. Remember that your evidence must appeal to reason.
The following are different ways to support your argument:
Facts - A powerful means of convincing, facts can come from your reading, observation, or personal experience.
Note: Do not confuse facts with truths. A "truth" is an idea believed by many people, but it cannot be proven.
Statistics - These can provide excellent support. Be sure your statistics come from responsible sources. Always cite your sources.
Quotes - Direct quotes from leading experts that support your position are invaluable.
Examples - Examples enhance your meaning and make your ideas concrete. They are the proof.
Here are some ideas of popular persuasive essay topics:
 Anorexia or model body
 Encouraged abortions
 School uniform
 Drinking age
 Free public transport
 Smoking
 Human cloning
 Professional sport
These essay topic examples are debatable, it is important to choose the topic that is interesting for you.

Research Essay
Thesis
Take care in selecting your thesis. This is really a type of persuasive essay, but you don't want to be stuck either just repeating someone else's opinion, or citing
all the same sources. Try to come up with an original thesis or take an aspect of someone's thesis and develop it. You can also take a thesis and "transplant" it
into different circumstances. For example, use tools of modern economics to argue about the role of medieval guilds in the development of early European
settlements. Or take a study done on children in France and try to show it is/isn't applicable to elderly Florida residents. An original thesis is the best start you
can make to get a high grade in a research essay.
Your thesis is the most critical aspect of your research essay. It not only organizes the material you are presenting, it also focuses your research efforts.
Body
Again, it's a marshalling of facts to support your argument. Make sure you have found out in any academics have made similar arguments and acknowledge
them in your essay, even if you did not draw directly from them. If they said things, which don't support your argument, say why these statements are either
wrong or not applicable in the circumstances.
Conclusion
Typically you summarize your arguments. You can also end with an example or a quote, which sums up your arguments.
What are markers looking for?
As usual, a clearly-written, well organized essay. Top marks would go to an original thesis, which showed thorough research and good writing. If you have a
tired old thesis, no matter how well you write the essay, your grades will be limited.
Usually you are given the topic for your research essay by a teacher, but if not you need to choose the essay topic that you are familiar with. It is important that
the topic you choose to write your essay on is interesting both to you and your readers. Below are the examples of popular research essay topics:
 The Early Empires
 Advertising with Search Engines
 The Culture and History of Timor Island
 History of Japanese Theater
 The History of Automobile Industry in America
 Human Cloning
Response Essay
Thesis
A thesis might be about some trends in the use of images in the work or about parallels with the author's own life.
Body
The body of the response essay is a careful working through of the work in question, examining all relevant aspects of it. Usually there is too much to work
with so you need to focus your work on a limited number of points.
Some of the ways you read through a work of literature include
 identify literary devices such as simile, metaphor, image, alliteration, assonance, onomatopoiea and others and show how they help to convey the
overall meaning of the work.
 find themes which are addressed in various parts of the work and show how they contribute to the overall meaning.
 find the roots of words such as the Greek or Latin roots or archaic usage and show how the writer has used these deeper meanings to add layers of
complexity to his work.
 relate aspects of the work to the author's own life or experience.
Conclusion
All you have to do is state that the bulk of your evidence supports your thesis. If there are any major arguments against your thesis, you can take one more shot
at them.
What is the maker looking for?
A new analysis of an old work might be a good start. Find subtle points, which support your argument, which you haven't seen, presented in other essays. A
creative thesis is a good start, but beware of trying to make a work of art say something, which the author couldn't have possibly intended. (There's a whole
bunch of critical theory around this,but unless you are working on a graduate level essay, just stick to things relevant to the author.)
Here are the examples of the popular response essay topics:
 The Movie I Can Watch Over and Over
 The Article That Changed My Philosophy
 Responses to Documentaries
 Yellow Press
 The Fashion Tendencies of Fall 2010
 The New Album of My Favorite Band
 New Theories in Business Environments
These essay topics can give you an idea where to start. Whatever your subject will be you should show your personal thoughts, personality and attitude.

Scholarship Essay
Scholarship essays vary dramatically in subject. However, most of them require a recounting of personal experience. These tips will be more helpful for
writing personal essays, like for the National Merit Scholarship, than for writing academic essays.
The most important aspect of your scholarship essay is the subject matter. You should expect to devote about 1-2 weeks simply to brainstorming ideas. To
begin brainstorming subject ideas consider the following points. From brainstorming, you may find a subject you had not considered at first.
 What are your major accomplishments, and why do you consider them accomplishments? Do not limit yourself to accomplishments you have been
formally recognized for since the most interesting essays often are based on accomplishments that may have been trite at the time but become
crucial when placed in the context of your life. This is especially true if the scholarship committee receives a list of your credentials anyway.
 Does any attribute, quality, or skill distinguish you from everyone else? How did you develop this attribute?
 Consider your favorite books, movies, works of art, etc. Have these influenced your life in a meaningful way? Why are they your favorites?
 What was the most difficult time in your life, and why? How did your perspective on life change as a result of the difficulty?
 Have you ever struggled mightily for something and succeeded? What made you successful?
 Have you ever struggled mightily for something and failed? How did you respond?
 Of everything in the world, what would you most like to be doing right now? Where would you most like to be? Who, of everyone living and dead,
would you most like to be with? These questions should help you realize what you love most.
 Have you experienced a moment of epiphany, as if your eyes were opened to something you were previously blind to?
 What is your strongest, most unwavering personality trait? Do you maintain strong beliefs or adhere to a philosophy? How would your friends
characterize you? What would they write about if they were writing your scholarship essay for you?
 What have you done outside of the classroom that demonstrates qualities sought after by universities? Of these, which means the most to you?
 What are your most important extracurricular or community activities? What made you join these activities? What made you continue to contribute
to them?
 What are your dreams of the future? When you look back on your life in thirty years, what would it take for you to consider your life successful?
What people, things, and accomplishments do you need? How does this particular scholarship fit into your plans for the future?
It is often hard for applicants to come up with the genius essay topic for scholarship essay. Here are some examples of the popular scholarship essay topics to
give you an idea:
 The Person Who Influenced My Views
 The Goals I Will Achieve in 10 Years
 What I Do Best, My Biggest Success
 999999
 My Inspiration
 The Destiny in My Hands
 The Doors I Have Opened
 The Tea

Writing Guides
In this section your every question about writing is answered in a simple and clear way. We don’t overload you with useless information, because we have
created this guide to give you the needed information, not to get you bored and yawning.
You will find the style guide, great writing tips and most common citation styles guide here.
Style Guide
In our free online style guide we are trying to address all the questions concerning abbreviations, addresses, capitalization, English grammar, Internet
terminology, numbers, plurals, possessives, punctuation, spelling, and word usage.
Our style guide also focuses on U.S. standards for spelling, punctuation, definitions, usage, style and grammar. We frequently enhance the style guide with
new or improved entries.
This guide can help you be clear, concise, correct, and consistent in your use of the written word. It also provides clear alternatives to long, pompous or
bureaucratic words and phrases. Use this guide for help in writing articles, books, brochures, correspondence, essays, fliers, newsletters, reports, Web pages
and other documents.

Abbreviations and Acronyms

Use abbreviations and acronyms only when they will help your readers by making written text simpler and less cumbersome. Do not use an abbreviation or
acronym that would confuse your readers, that they would not recognize quickly. When in doubt, spell it out. (An abbreviation is a shortened version of a word
or phrase, like Mr. and Corp.; an acronym is an abbreviation formed from the first letter or letters of a series of words, like AIDS, Garbl, NAACP and radar.)
Always spell out terms, common names and the complete proper names of organizations, projects, programs or documents the first time you use them, and
repeat the complete term or name at the beginning of sections in longer documents. Although the abbreviation or acronym is capitalized for some common or
generic nouns and terms, lowercase the spelled-out form.
If an abbreviation or acronym of the term or name would not be clear on second reference, avoid using it. Instead, use a shortened version of the name or a
generic word, such as the agency, the committee, the department or the company.
If using unfamiliar abbreviations and acronyms is necessary, follow the complete name with the shortened form set off between commas: The Endangered
Species Act, or ESA, affects many projects. Later references could use the abbreviation, a shortened version of the name or a generic word.
Whenever possible, avoid following the name of an organization, project or program with an abbreviation or acronym in parentheses or set off by dashes:
Endangered Species Act (ESA).
Do not provide an abbreviation after spelling out a term if the abbreviation isn't used elsewhere in the document.
Omit periods in most abbreviations and acronyms unless the result would spell an unrelated word. Use only one period when a sentences ends with an
abbreviation that includes periods.
Don't use the before acronyms pronounced as words instead of letter by letter: OSHA, CAD. With other abbreviations, apply the same rules for the full name
and the shortened version: the ESA, the state DOT, IBM. When placing either a or an before an abbreviation or acronym, determine how it would sound when
spoken; see a, an, the entry above.
To form most common plural abbreviations, add an s: ABCs, CDs, chaps., Drs., IOUs, TVs, UFOs. Sometimes, an apostrophe may go before the s: when the
abbreviation has internal periods (M.A.'s, M.B.A.'s, Ph.D.'s), when the abbreviation is composed of lowercase letters (pdf's), when the abbreviation is a single
letter (A's, S's) and when the abbreviation would be confusing if only the s were added (OWS's instead of OWSs). In the last example, if your readers might
misinterpret an abbreviation like OWS's as showing possession, leave out the apostrophe.
Avoid using e.g., i.e.; et al.; etc.
Many abbreviations may be used in charts, tables and certain types of technical writing.
If the meaning is clear, abbreviations may be used in headlines and headings.

Addresses
Always use numerals for an address number: She lived at 456 N.E. 81st St.
Spell out and capitalize First through Ninth when used as a street name: The bus drove down Fourth Avenue South. Use numerals with two letters for 10th and
above: She lived on 81st Street.
Abbreviate compass points (N.W., S., etc.; all caps with periods) used to show directional ends of a street or quadrants of a city in a numbered address: The
building is at 543 S.W. 32nd St. The periods for abbreviated compass points in numbered addresses may be omitted in correspondence, maps, charts and
tables.
Abbreviate only avenue, boulevard and street as Ave., Blvd. and St. in a numbered address: Main Street Center is at 103 Main St.
Spell out and capitalize words such as alley, drive, road, way and terrace when part of an address or name: He worked on Burton Road Northwest and lived at
200 Burton Road N.W. Lowercase them when used alone or in plural forms: The crew will repave Cavanaugh and Ballinger roads.
When first used without a number, always spell out and capitalize the full name of a street, avenue, road or boulevard: He lived on Southwest Harbor
Boulevard. Also spell out compass points (South, Northwest, etc.) if omitting the number: The building is on Southwest 32nd Street.
If the location is clear, common names (Avenue, Street, etc.) and compass points (East, Southwest, etc.) may be left off in later references.
Lowercase street, avenue, boulevard or road and the compass point when using the plural form: The shopping center is between 35th and 37th avenues
southwest on Southwest 10th Street. But don't lowercase those words when the form is not plural: You can catch a bus on Second or Third Avenue. Also,
lowercase and spell out street, avenue, boulevard or road when used alone: He drove down the tree-lined boulevard.
Capitalization
Avoid unnecessary capitalization. Use capital letters to begin proper nouns, sentences, headings and the important words in publication titles. Proper nouns are
the particular names of people, places and things. Excessive capitalization for other purposes distracts the reader and hinders reading. Do not capitalize the first
letter of a word (or words in a phrase) simply to highlight it or to express its importance.
Check this or another style manual for capitalization of a particular word or type of word. If not listed there, check your dictionary. And if still in doubt,
lowercase.
Except for acronyms and some abbreviations, avoid capitalizing all the letters in a word, sentence, heading, headline or phrase--including brand names, logos
and trademarks. If necessary for emphasis, try other typographical uses, such as boldfacing, italics,color,type sizeand different butcomplementary typefaces.
Also see headlines, headings; underlining.
Capitalization of abbreviations and acronyms varies. For guidance, see abbreviations and acronyms, entries in this style guide for specific words and terms,
and your dictionary. Although the abbreviation or acronym is capitalized for some common or generic nouns and terms, lowercase the spelled-out form; for
example, see environmental impact statement.
Capitalize the first word of every sentence, heading and headline, including quoted statements and direct questions. Even if a person, business or organization
begins its name with a lowercase letter, capitalize the first letter of the name at the beginning of sentences, headings and headlines: Gary de Shazo won the
design award. De Shazo expressed appreciation for the support of his colleagues.
Capitalize proper nouns that specifically name a person, place or thing, unless a person, business or organization requests a lowercase first letter. If a name
begins with a lowercase letter, capitalize the first letter of the name at the beginning of sentences and headlines.
Capitalize common nouns such as party, river and street when they are an integral part of the full name for a person, place or thing: Ballinger Street, Rheinard
River, Democratic Party, Puget Sound. Lowercase these common nouns when they stand alone in later references: the party, the river, the street, the sound.
Lowercase common noun elements of names in all plural uses: Democratic and Republican parties, Ackley and Messer streets, 154th and 156th avenues
southeast. But don't lowercase the common nouns when the form is not plural: She can catch the bus on Third or Fifth Avenue.
Capitalize the proper names of nationalities, peoples, races, tribes and so on: African American, American Indians, Arab, Asian, Jewish, Latino, Muckleshoot,
Tulalip, Puyallup. Lowercase black, white, red and so on.
Many organizations adopt specific capitalization guidelines for their governing boards, facilities, job titles and descriptions, organizational structure, and
programs, projects and plans. It's efficient to develop styles consistent with a standard, readily available, published reference source.
 committees On first reference, spell out and capitalize the full name of committees: the Neighborhood Action Committee. Refer to the committee
(preferred) or abbreviate on later references (all caps, no periods): NAC. Lowercase committee when it stands alone: The committee voted to
endorse the recommendation. See subcommittee, task force.
 facilities Lowercase facilities when the name describes only what the facility does: parking lot, substation. Capitalize proper nouns that are part of
the facility's name: Southgate parking lot. See facility. When using part of a facility's name, capitalize only the proper noun. Lowercase the
common nouns when shortening the name: Sunset Maintenance Center, the maintenance center, the center.
 job titles and descriptions Consistency is key. Capitalize official job titles when used immediately before a name as part of a name: Finance
Department Director Virginia Schwieterman, Accounting Manager Billie Burke, Budget Planner Mary Munchkin, Computer Technician George
Bailey, Media Specialist Tim Wright. Lowercase titles when used alone or when set off descriptively from a name by commas, often after a name;
when applicable, capitalize only the names of departments, divisions and other groups: Virginia Schwieterman, Finance Department director; Billie
Burke, manager of the Accounting Division; Billie Burke, accounting manager; Mary Munchkin, budget planner; George Bailey, computer
technician; Tim Wright, media specialist.
 organizational structure Capitalize the official (proper) names of all organization departments, divisions, sections, offices, units and groups: the
Englehart Department of Finance, Accounting Division, Customer Services Section, Property Tax Information Office, Marketing Unit,
Documentation Group. Use the whole name on first reference.
For later references, shortened versions of organizational names - without the common nouns department, division, section and so on - are
acceptable. Capitalize the "proper" name part of full names when using only that part of the name and dropping the common noun: Finance,
Accounting, Customer Services. Don't capitalize those words, however, when describing the general role or work of a group. Also, lowercase the
"common" (or generic) name part of the full name when using only that part of the name: the department, the division, the section. Be sure the
context makes clear the organizational unit the common name is mentioning. See cities and towns, county, governmental bodies, office.
 programs, projects and plans Capitalize the full name of official programs, projects or plans. Otherwise, avoid capitalizing them. Always
lowercase program, project or plan when the word stands alone or when using only part of the formal name.
Myths
For decades and even centuries, respected authorities on writing, reading, editing, grammar and word usage have disputed the following 11 myths and
superstitions of writing. Unfortunately, they continue to be taught and followed in education, business, law and government.
Superstitions: "unintelligent applications of an unintelligent dogma." - H.W. Fowler, 1926
Never split an infinitive.
"There is no point in rearranging a sentence just to avoid splitting an infinitive unless it is an awkward one" - Porter G. Perrin, 1965.
Never begin a sentence with But or And.
"One cannot help wondering whether those who teach such a monstrous doctrine ever read any English themselves." -- Charles Allen Lloyd, 1938
Other references on and: Lowth, 1782; Bryant, 1947; Fowler & Gowers, 1965; Follett, 1966; Amis, 1977; Copperud, 1980; Morris & Morris, 1985; Gowers,
1988; Johnson, 1991; Stott, 1991; Burchfield, 1992; American Heritage, 1996; O'Connor, 1996; Lederer & Dowis, 1999; Sabin, 1999; Lovinger, 2000;
Wallraff, 2000; Walsh, 2000; Bryson, 2002; Merriam-Webster, 2002; Chicago, 2003; Garner, 2003; Williams, 2003.
Other references on but: Baker, 1962; Pence & Emery, 1963; Payne, 1965; Follett, 1966; Amis, 1977; Gowers, 1988; Johnson, 1991; Stott, 1991; American
Heritage, 1996; O'Connor, 1996; Lederer & Dowis, 1999; Sabin, 1999; Trimble, 2000; Wallraff, 2000; Walsh, 2000; Merriam-Webster, 2002; Chicago, 2003;
Garner, 2003; Williams, 2003.
Never end a sentence with a preposition.
"In English prepositions have been used as terminal words in a sentence since the days of Chaucer, and in that position they are completely idiomatic." -
Theodore M. Bernstein, 1971
Other references: Lowth, 1782; Bryant, 1947; Evans & Evans, 1957; Fowler & Gowers, 1965; Skillin, 1974; Gowers, 1988; Stott, 1991; American Heritage,
1996; O'Connor, 1996; Lederer & Dowis, 1999; Sabin, 1999; Lovinger, 2000; Trimble, 2000; Wallraff, 2000; Woods, 2001; Bryson, 2002; Merriam-Webster,
2002; Chicago, 2003; Garner, 2003; Williams, 2003.
Never use between with more than two objects.
"Between essentially does apply to only two, but sometimes the 'two' relationship is present when more than two elements are involved." - Theodore M.
Bernstein, 1977
Never split a verb phrase.
"Because of their misconception as to what a split infinitive really is, some have reached the erroneous conclusion that an adverbial modifier must never be
placed between parts of a compound verb phase ..." - R.W. Pence & D.W. Emery, 1963
Other references: Lowth, 1782; Brown, 1852; Fowler, 1926; Baker, 1938; Partridge, 1942; Bernstein, 1965; Follett, 1966; Skillin, 1974; O'Connor, 1996;
Sabin, 1999; Lovinger, 2000; Trimble, 2000; Walsh, 2000; Associated Press, 2002; Bryson, 2002; Chicago, 2003; Garner, 2003.
Never use contractions.
"Your style will obviously be warmer and truer to your personality if you use contractions like 'I'll' and 'won't' when they fit comfortably into what you're
writing." - William Zinsser, 1985
Other references: Lowth, 1782; Bryant, 1947; Flesch, 1967; Ewing, 1974; Stott, 1991; O'Connor, 1996; Sabin, 1999; Trimble, 2000; Garner, 2003.
Never use the first-person pronouns I and me.
If you want to write like a professional just about the first thing you have to do is get used to the first person singular. ... Never mind the superstitious notion
that it's immodest to do so. It just isn't so." - Rudolf Flesch, 1958
Other references: Lowth, 1782; Bryant, 1947; Stott, 1991; Lauchman, 1993; O'Connor, 1999; Trimble, 2000; Chicago, 2003; Garner, 2003.
Never use since to mean because.
"There is a groundless notion current in both the lower schools and in the world of affairs that since has an exclusive reference to time and therefore cannot be
used as a casual conjunction. ... No warrant exists for avoiding this usage, which goes back, beyond Chaucer, to Anglo-Saxon. ..." - Wilson Follett, 1966
Other references: Copperud, 1980; O'Connor, 1996; Walsh, 2000; Chicago, 2003; Garner, 2003; Williams, 2003.
Never begin a sentence with Because.
"So novel and absurd is this superstition that seemingly no authority on writing has countered it in print. It appears to result from concern about fragments." -
Bryan A. Garner, 2003
Other references: Lowth, 1782; Bryant, 1947; American Heritage, 1996; Merriam-Webster, 2002; Williams, 2003.
Never write a paragraph containing only a single sentence.
"To interpose a one-sentence paragraph at intervals - at longish intervals - is prudent." - Eric Partridge, 1942
Other references: Hill, 1896; Lauchman, 1993; Lovinger, 2000; Trimble, 2000; Garner, 2003.
Never refer to the reader as you.
"Keep a running conversation with your reader. Use the second-person pronoun whenever you can. Translate everything into you language." - Rudolf Flesch,
1962

Numbers
Spell out most whole numbers below 10. Use figures for 10 and above: five, nine, 15, 650. See cross-references below for exceptions to those guidelines. If
you're not already doing so, use the number 1 key on your computer keyboard to create the number 1. Don't use the old-fashioned, potentially odd-looking
lowercase L key to create the number l.
In amounts more than a million - unless the exact amount is essential - round off to one decimal point. Write out the word million or billion: The grant was for
$6.5 million. Always include the words million, billion or trillion when giving ranges: The project could cost $20 million to $25 million, not $20-$25 million.
When numbers must be spelled out, use a hyphen to connect only two-digit numbers twenty-one through ninety-nine. Don't use either a hyphen or the word
and when spelling out numbers in the hundreds and thousands: fifty-two, fifty-two thousand, fifty-two million, nineteen fifty-two, one hundred fifty-two
students, two thousand fifty-two trips, two thousand two.
Also, spell out ordinal numbers first through ninth when they show sequence in time or place: first base, Third Avenue. Exceptions include county, legislative
and congressional districts: She lives in the 2nd District.
Most ordinal numbers 10th and above (21st, 215th and so on) are usually not spelled out. When particular ordinals must be spelled out, use a hyphen to
connect two-digit numbers twenty-first through ninety-ninth: twenty-fifth anniversary.
Avoid beginning a sentence with a number. If unavoidable, spell it out. Also, spell out casual expressions: thanks a million, a thousand bucks.
Avoid following the word for a number with a figure in parentheses for the same number. It's redundant. Avoid: The contract will run out in eight (8) days.
Plurals
Follow the rules below for forming words to show more than one of the things named:
 For most words, add s: books, guitars. Except when making a plural of single letter, do not add an apostrophe to words or numbers to make them
plural.
 Add s to compound words written as single words: cupfuls, handfuls. For compound words that use separate words or link the words with a
hyphen, make the most significant word plural: assistant attorneys, attorneys general, daughters-in-law, deputy chiefs of staff.
 Add s to figures: General Motors built the car in the 1940s. The Boeing Co. sold 12 more 767s.
 Don't change the spelling of proper nouns when making them plural. Add es to most proper names ending in es or z: Gonzalezes, Jameses, Joneses,
Parkses. Add s to other proper names, including most proper names ending in y even if preceded by a consonant: the Clintons, the Abernathys, not
the Abernathies.
 Add es to most words ending in ch, s, sh, ss, x and z: churches, buses, foxes, fuzzes, glasses.
 Change is to es in words ending in is: parentheses, theses.
 Add es to most words ending in o if a consonant precedes o: echoes, heroes. There are exceptions: pianos.
 Words with Latin roots: Change us to i in words ending in us: alumnus, alumni. Change words ending in on to a: phenomenon, phenomena. Add s
in most words ending in um: memorandums, referendums but not addenda, curricula, media.
 Avoid using a possessive name as a plural: The free passes are available at four McDonald's restaurants. Not: The free passes are available at four
McDonald's.
 Do not use 's when writing about words as words: His speech had too many ifs, ands and buts.
  To avoid confusion, add 's to single letters: Dot your i's. She earned two A's and three B's on her report card. Add s to multiple letters: He knows
his ABCs. They have three color TVs.
Possessives
Follow these rules for forming nouns and pronouns to show possession:
 Add 's to singular nouns not ending in s: the church's members, the girl's parents, Xerox's profits.
 Add 's to singular common nouns ending in s unless the next word begins with s: the bus's engine, the bus' seats, witness's answer, the witness'
story.
 Use only an apostrophe for singular proper names ending in s: Drakes' decision. And add only an apostrophe to plural proper names ending in s: the
Parkses' home.
 Add 's to plural nouns not ending is s: children's passes, men's bike, women's rights, women's room.
 Add only an apostrophe to plural nouns ending in s: the girls' books, boys' bike, plants' supervisors, families' cars.
 When a plural noun is possessive but each person "owns" only one item, the item should also be listed in plural form. To confirm correctness,
rephrase the possessive relationship as an of phrase: the children's brains or the brains of the children; the teachers' hands or the hands of the
teachers.
 Follow the rule above (and its test for correctness) when using plural nouns and possessive pronouns: The children became upset when their
mothers left the room or the mothers of the children. Gerry and Lena took their dogs for a walk or the dogs of Gerry and Lena.
 When two or more people jointly own an item, put the apostrophe after the noun closest to the item: Gary and Gina's car (they jointly own car),
Gary and Gina's cars (they jointly own more than one car). But when two or more people separately own items, put an apostrophe or an 's after each
noun: Gary's and Gina's cars.
 When writing about a family in the plural, add s and then an apostrophe: the Abernathys' Christmas greeting (but Bob Abernathy's Christmas
greeting).
 Add only an apostrophe to nouns plural in form, singular in meaning: mathematics' rules, United States' wealth.
 Treat nouns that are the same in singular and plural as plurals, even if the meaning is singular: the two deer's tracks. See collective nouns.
Many pronouns have separate forms for the possessive that don't use an apostrophe: yours, ours, his, hers, its, theirs, whose. Use an apostrophe with a pronoun
only when the meaning calls for a contraction: you're (you are), it's (it is). Follow the rules listed above in forming the possessives of other pronouns: another's
plan, others' plans, one's rights, someone else's umbrella.
Do not add an apostrophe to a word ending in s when using the word as an adjective - describing the following noun. If the prepositions for or by would be
more appropriate than the possessive of, do not use an apostrophe: a radio band for citizens, citizens band radio; a guide for writers, a writers guide; a day for
veterans, Veterans Day; a union for carpenters, a carpenters union. Add 's, however, when a term involves a plural word that does not end in s: a children's
hospital. If you're giving the proper name of an organization or other item, try to respect the style it uses - even if that style differs from these guidelines: the
Metropolitan Teacher's Association, The World-Class Speller's Guide.
Follow the rules above for possessive words that occur in such phrases as a day's pay, two weeks' vacation, four years' experience, your money's worth.
Avoid excessive personalization of inanimate objects. Use an of construction instead when appropriate: the rules of mathematics instead of mathematics' rules.

Punctuation
Use common sense. Punctuation should help reading - to make clear the thought being expressed. If punctuation does not help clarify the message, it should
not be there.
When more than one punctuation mark (not including quotation marks, parentheses or brackets) could be used at the same place in a sentence, use only the
"stronger" - or more necessary - of the two. Question marks and exclamation points, for example, are stronger than commas and periods: "Have all the ballots
finally been counted?" asked the reporter. (The question mark fills the role of the comma.) The topic of his speech is "We demand justice now!" (No period
following the exclamation point.)

Ampersand (&)
Use the ampersand when a company uses it is part of the company's full name. Do not use the ampersand to replace and in other text. The ampersand may be
used in tables and abbreviations.

Apostrophe (')
This punctuation mark has two main functions: First, it often shows possession: Dan Lindler's appointment. And second, it often marks the omission of letters
in contractions and other words or numbers in years and decades: he'll, won't, finger lickin' good, the class of '68, the '90s.
Apostrophes never make a word plural, but they may be used to mark the plural of single letters and abbreviations with internal punctuation: Dot your i's. She
got straights A's on her report card, M.A.'s Ph.D.'s. Don't use it in forming plurals of decades: the '70s, the 1980s, not '70's, the 1980's.

Brackets ([ ])
Avoid using. Use commas, dashes or parentheses instead. In quotations, however, brackets may be used to show the words in brackets were added or changed
by the editor to clarify the meaning. Avoid altering quotations. If a speaker's words are clear and concise, use the full quotation. If cumbersome language can
be paraphrased fairly, use an indirect construction. "We strongly disagree with the [Lincoln County] council's decision," she said. Square brackets also may be
used occasionally to insert words into a statement that's already enclosed in parentheses.
Colon (:)
The colon has three main uses, all of which involve pointing the reader toward the words that follow the colon. The colon always follows a whole sentence in
these uses. Don't combine a dash and a colon.
The most frequent use is to introduce a list, often after expressions such as the following or as follows: Loretta Schwieterman appointed three people to the
committee: David Allen, Greg Edwards and Jean Rheinhard. The Parks Department has scheduled open houses in the following communities: Valley View,
April 5; Gantry, May 6; and Sierra Hills, Aug. 7.
Don't use a colon immediately after a verb. Incorrect: Loretta Schwieterman appointed: David Allen, Greg Edwards and Jean Rheinhard to the committee.
Correct: Loretta Schwieterman appointed David Allen, Greg Edwards and Jean Rheinhard to the committee.
Second, the colon can be used to stress the word, words or sentence that follows it: He had only one thing on his mind: flowers. The news was good: No one
would be laid off. When used this way, the colon replaces such words as that is, namely and for example. Capitalize the first word after a colon if it is a proper
noun or the start of a whole sentence.
Third, use a colon to introduce a quotation longer than one sentence within a paragraph and to end a paragraph that introduces a quotation in the next
paragraph. Use a comma, however, to introduce a quotation of one sentence that stays within a paragraph.
Also, use a colon to separate numbers in times (7:15 a.m.), to separate a title and subtitle, and after a business salutation (Dear Mr. Hyde:).

Comma (,)
The following guidelines treat frequent questions about eight essential uses of the comma.
First, in a series of three or more terms with a single conjunction, use a comma after each term: She opened the closet, grabbed a coat, and picked up an
umbrella. In a complex series of phrases, the serial comma before the final conjunction aids readability. In a simple series, the comma is optional before the
conjunction: The van is economical, roomy and dependable. Also, put a comma before the concluding conjunction in a series if an integral element of the
series needs a conjunction: He likes jazz, rock, and rhythm and blues. Don't put a comma before the first item in a series or after the and in a series.
Second, use a comma to join two independent clauses with a conjunction. An independent clause is a group of words that could stand on its own as a complete
sentence; it begins with its own subject. The most common conjunctions are but, and, for, nor, or, so and yet: The council's Water Resources Committee will
go over the resolution Jan. 12, and the full council is scheduled to act Feb. 11. Don't create run-on sentences by combining two or more independent clauses
with only commas. Either insert conjunctions after the commas or break the clauses into separate sentences.
Third, use a comma to separate an introductory phrase or clause from the rest of the sentence: After graduating from college, he joined the Peace Corps. It may
be omitted after short introductory phrases (less than three words) if no ambiguity would result: On Thursday the Kennewick City Council will decide the
issue. When in doubt, use the comma, especially when it separates two capitalized words.
Fourth, enclose parenthetic expressions between commas. Parenthetic expressions are word groups that are not essential to the meaning of a sentence. If a
parenthetic expression is removed, the sentence would still make sense: The social services manager, who toured the Snoqualmie Valley last week, will make
her recommendations today. They took one of their sons, Leif, to the concert. His wife, Donna, is a middle school teacher. As shown in the examples, commas
always go both before and after a parenthetic expression within a sentence. If you'd prefer to stress a parenthetic phrase, put it between dashes; you can play
down such a phrase by placing it between parentheses.
Also use commas to set off a person's hometown when it follows the name: Rachel Solomon, Danbury, opened a new restaurant. If using a person's age, set it
off by commas: Tom O'Rourke, 69, opened a new restaurant.
Do not use commas to set off an essential word or phrase from the rest of a sentence. Essential words and phrases are important to the meaning of a sentence:
They took their daughter Jennifer to school. Their son Nils works at Ticketmaster. (They have more than one daughter and more than one son.)
Fifth, use commas to set off words and phrases such as however, meanwhile, in fact, in addition, moreover, nevertheless, as a result, thus, therefore, for
example, finally and in other words. Usually, place a comma after such expressions when they begin a sentence, and place commas before and after the
expressions when they are within a sentence.
Sixth, use commas to separate a series of adjectives equal in rank. If the adjectives could be rearranged without changing the meaning of a sentence or if the
word and could replace the commas without changing the sense, the adjectives are equal: A sleek, new car. A thick, black cloud.
Use no comma when the last adjective before a noun outranks its predecessors because it is an integral element of a noun phrase: a silver articulated bus.
Seventh, use a comma to set off a direct one-sentence quotation within a paragraph: Theodore Roosevelt said, "It's not the critic who counts." Use a comma
before the second quotation mark in a quotation followed by attribution: "No comment," said Jerry Carson.
And eighth, use a comma to separate the parts of numbers, dates and addresses. Use a comma for figures higher than 999: More than 5,000 people attended the
event.
Use commas to set off the year in complete dates: The department released its report Nov. 16, 2002, for public review. But don't separate the month from the
year when not using a date. They held their first retreat in January 1994.
Use commas to set off cities from names of states or nations: She went to Vancouver, Wash., to tour the bridge retrofit program. He traveled to Paris, France,
on vacation.

Dash (—)
Long dashes, called em dashes, have three main uses. In these uses, em dashes are usually less formal but more emphatic substitutes for other typical
punctuation marks. To preserve the impact of dashes, avoid overusing them.
First, use an em dash to explain, justify or stress in the second part of a sentence something in the first part: Fans filled all the seats - the concert hall was
packed! The new shopping mall will open Tuesday - if the air-conditioning works. The project was finished on time, within scope - and under budget. The
manager was new to the agency - brand new.
Second, use a pair of em dashes to make an emphatic pause or abrupt, parenthetic change in thought within a sentence: The new auditorium - opening six
months behind schedule - is getting praise from both critics and audiences. If you'd prefer to play down such a phrase, consider placing it between parentheses
instead, or between commas.
Third, use a pair of em dashes to set off a phrase that has a series of words separated by commas: Leif Hansen described the qualities - intelligence, initiative
and assertiveness - he wants in a supervisor.
As shown in the examples above, do not put a space before or after an em dash (an exception to the rule followed by the Associated Press for newspaper use).
Avoid using more than one pair of em dashes in a sentence.
A short dash, called en dash, may be used to mean up to and including when placed between numbers, times, dates and other uses that show range: 1993-96,
$25-50, $432,000-$560,000 (but $25 million to $50 million), 55-65 years, 2:30-4 p.m. (but 9 a.m. to 3:30 p.m.), ages 15-20, pages 167-78. It also may be used
to replace to and versus in capitalized names: the Chicago-New Orleans train, the Huskies-Cougars game. Do not put spaces before and after the en dash. See
between ... and, from ... to, dates, ranges.
Note: A hyphen (-) is not a dash. Most current word processing and design software can create em dashes and en dashes. If not possible, use two hyphens to
create an em dash, and substitute a hyphen for an en dash. In Microsoft Word, if you don't space after the second hyphen, the two hyphens become an em dash.

Ellipsis ( ... )
Avoid. An ellipsis is usually used to show the deletion of one or more words in condensing quotations, texts and documents. It also shows hesitation or trailing
off in a quotation: "I wonder what I will say after we ..."
Treat an ellipsis as a three-letter word, with three periods and a space on each end. Some software can create an ellipsis that can replace three separate periods.

Exclamation Point (!)

Use sparingly and only to express a high degree of surprise, disbelief or other strong emotion. The exclamation point goes within the quotation marks when it
applies to the quoted matter only.
F. Scott Fitzgerald: "Cut out all those exclamation marks. An exclamation mark is like laughing at your own joke."
Hyphen (-)
Hyphens are joiners. They link words. Use a hyphen to avoid ambiguity or to form a single idea from two or more words: She recovered her health. She re-
covered the torn seat. He is a small-business man. He is a foreign-car dealer. Unclear: He is a small businessman. He is a foreign car dealer. Also see
guidelines at composition titles, compound words, initial-based terms, race.
Do not hyphenate most compound nouns - two or more words that work together as a noun: Pilot testing is scheduled to begin in May. But consult this style
manual or your dictionary for preferred or commonly excepted terms: president-elect, sister-in-law, good-for-nothing.
To avoid ambiguity, use hyphens to link words in compound adjectives (or compound modifiers) before nouns. If you can insert and between the modifying
words before a noun and make sense of the new construction, you do not have a compound adjective: And would make sense in a sunny, warm day; sunny,
warm is not a compound modifier. But and would not work in a well-rounded employee; well-rounded is a compound modifier. Another test: If your sentence
would make sense if you reversed the order of the modifying words or even eliminated one of them, don't connect the words with a hyphen.
If two or more consecutive words make sense only when understood together as a single idea modifying a noun that follows, hyphenate that compound
adjective: a well-prepared plan, special-interest money, high-frequency sounds, minimum-height requirement, used-record store, 250-square-mile area, 5-ton
truck, short-term solution, little-known man, better-qualified woman, long-range plan, know-it-all attitude, pilot-testing schedule.
Leave out hyphens in compound modifiers only when no reader confusion would result from their omission - or if the modifying words are commonly
considered as a unit: post office box, high school classes. If necessary, rewrite sentences to avoid stringing together a long, potentially confusing series of
modifying adverbs and adjectives before nouns.
Hyphens are unnecessary after already, most, least, less and very and after all adverbs that end in ly: already named manager, most used service, less expensive
project, least liked alternative, a very good time, an easily remembered rule, randomly selected addresses. See comma, very.
Do not hyphenate most compound modifiers if they occur after the noun being modified, even if hyphenating them before the noun: The plan was well
prepared. The man was little known. The woman was better qualified. His boat is 42 feet long, but He has a 42-foot-long boat.
Here's the form for suspensive hyphenation: The students recommended a 15- to 20-minute break between third and fourth periods.
Hyphenate co- when forming nouns, adjectives or verbs that show occupation or status: co-pilot, co-chairman, co-worker. See prefixes and suffixes and
separate entries for the most often used prefixes and suffixes.
A hyphen is not a dash. For example, this organization mail stop, KSC-TR-0824, has hyphens, not dashes.
A hyphen may be used to divide a word at the end of a line, especially to remove large gaps at the end of an adjacent line. Here are some guidelines for
hyphenation to aid readability and reduce reader confusion:
 Divide words only between syllables, but don't add a hyphen to a word or phrase that already has a hyphen, such as decision-maker or re-election.
Instead, break the word or phrase at the existing hyphen.
 Avoid ending more than two consecutive lines with hyphens.
 Don't hyphenate a word at the end of a line unless you can leave a syllable of at least three characters on both the first and second lines. Avoid
dividing words with fewer than six letters.
 Don't divide the last word in a line when the second part of the word would be the only "word" on the second line.
 Don't hyphenate abbreviations, contractions and numbers. Also, don't hyphenate words in headlines and headings.
 Avoid hyphenating proper nouns.
 Don't hyphenate words that jump from one page to another page.
 Avoid hyphenating words that jump from one column to another column or that jump over a graphic image or photo.

Parentheses ( )
Parentheses may be used to surround words, phrases or even whole sentences that are relatively unimportant to the main text. But they can distract the reader
from your main point. Think about deleting the unimportant text. If a sentence must contain incidental information, setting off the information with a pair of
commas or a pair of dashes may be more effective. Also try placing the extra information in a separate sentence - with no parentheses.
Parenthesis marks always come in twos, one opening and one closing ( ). Don't use one without the other, including if they're used in numbered or
alphabetized lists.
Place a period outside a closing parenthesis if the material inside is not a sentence (such as this fragment). If a parenthetical sentence (here is one example) is
part of a sentence, don't capitalize the first word or end the parenthetical sentence with a period. But if the parenthetical sentence ends with a question mark or
exclamation point, put a period after the closing parenthesis (here's another example!). If the material in the parentheses is an independent sentence, capitalize
the first word and place the period before the closing parenthesis. (Here is an example.)

Period (.)
This punctuation mark has two main purposes. It ends all sentences that are not questions or exclamations, and it's used in some abbreviations.
Use periods to break up complicated sentences into two or more readable sentences. "There's not much to be said about the period except that most writers
don't reach it soon enough." William Zinsser, On Writing Well: An Informal Guide to Writing Nonfiction, 1980. See sentence length.
Use a period, not a question mark, after an indirect question: He asked what the score was.
Don't put a space between two initials: T.S. Eliot.
Use periods after numbers or letters in listing elements of a summary: 1. Wash the car. 2. Clean the basement. Or: A. Punctuate properly. B. Write simply.
Periods always go inside quotation marks.
Put only one space after a period (and other sentence-ending punctuation, including colons).

Question Mark (?)

Direct questions always take question marks: Who is going with you? Did he ask you if you were going? Indirect questions never take question marks: He
would like to know who's going with you. For multiple questions, either use a single question mark at the end of the complete sentence: Did she plan the
project, manage the budget and supervise the staff? Or stress each element by breaking up the sentence: Did she plan the project? Manage the budget?
Supervise the staff? Put only one space after a question mark (and other sentence-ending punctuation).
The question mark replaces the comma normally used when attributing a quotation: "Who is going?" she asked. The question mark may go inside or outside
quotation marks depending on the meaning: Who wrote "Everybody's Got Something to Hide Except Me and My Monkey"? She asked, "How long will it
take?" Also, use a single question mark, inside the quotation mark, in sentences like this: Did you hear him say, "Who wrote all the reports?"

Quotation Marks (" ")

Put quotation marks around direct quotations: "No comment," he said. She said, "Report to work on time." If a full paragraph of quoted material precedes
another paragraph that continues the quotation, do not put quotation marks after the first paragraph. But do put quotation marks before the second paragraph.
Put quotation marks around words used ironically or unfamiliar terms used on first reference: The "tycoon" turned out to be a pauper. But avoid putting single
words or terms in quotation marks to draw attention to them as slang, informal or cute.
Avoid fragmented quotations. Do not use quotation marks to report a few ordinary words used by a speaker or writer.
Don't put the words of one person into the mouths of many: Witnesses at the accident said there was "a tremendous bang, and then all hell broke loose."
Quotations within quotations: Use single quotation marks for passages contained within a direct quotation ("She said, 'Ouch!'").
Punctuation: The period and comma always go within the quotation marks. The dash, question mark and exclamation point go within the quotation marks
when they apply to the quoted matter only. Colons and semicolons go outside quotation marks.
In headlines, use single quotation marks: Man cries 'Fire!' in theater, causes panic

Semicolon (;)
The semicolon has three main uses, although the first use below is the most common. The semicolon shows a greater separation of thought and information
than a comma but less separation than a period.
First, use semicolons to separate parts of a series when at least one item in the series also has a comma. A semicolon also goes before the final and in such a
series: Attending were Tina Lopez, 223 Main St.; Ron Larson, 1414 Broadway; and Robert Zimmerman, 1976 E. Pine St.
The following two uses can add variety, eliminate a word or two, and closely link contrasting or related ideas. But breaking a long sentence with a semicolon
into two or more shorter sentences can aid readability and clarity.
Second, use a semicolon to link two (or more) closely related statements that could stand alone as independent sentences (or clauses): The train arrived on
time; the passengers were overjoyed. If a coordinating conjunction such as and, but or or separates the two independent clauses, a comma would replace the
semicolon: The bus arrived on time, and the passengers were overjoyed.
Third, use a semicolon between two independent clauses when the second clause begins with transition words such as therefore, however, thus and for
example: The department had planned to drop the service; however, overwhelming customer demand persuaded officials to keep it.
Place semicolons outside quotation marks. Put only one space after a semicolon.

Virgule (/)
Avoid using the virgule - also called a slash, forward slash, diagonal or slant - to stand for omitted words or letters. Examples include per in 40,000 tons/year,
to in price/earnings ratio, or in his/her and oral/written tests, versus in parent/child issues, with in table/mirror, w/o for without and c/o for in care of. The
virgule may replace and in some compound terms: the Vancouver/Portland area, the May/June issue, an innovative classroom/laboratory. Using and, however,
may be less ambiguous. When using the virgule, don't separate the punctuation mark from adjacent words or numbers with spaces.
The virgule may be used to separate the elements of dates and the numerator from the denominator in numbers containing fractions.
Spelling
Frequently misspelled words are listed alphabetically throughout this style manual. Also listed are preferred spellings for words with more than one possible
spelling. Based in the United States, this manual prefers American spellings to British spellings, except for names of British publications and organizations.
For spelling and definitions not covered in this manual, check a dictionary. If two (or more) spellings are listed, use the first one unless this manual lists a
specific exception. If your dictionary provides different spellings in separate entries (gray and grey, for example) use the spelling followed by a full definition
(gray). If a dictionary entry is listed as usually or often, use that entry.
Use computerized spelling checkers carefully; they don't catch mistyped words that are spelled correctly - not instead of now--or words that sound alike but
are spelled differently - too, two, to.

Writing Tips
We are offering you some tips, which can be very helpful to get started with any kind of writing and successfully complete an essay. Our tips can help you be
concise and easily convey your thoughts and ideas to any kind of audience. They also can be helpful to choose the topic, organize paragraphs and ideas, find
supporting evidence and appropriate words. The following tips can be used for any kind of academic writing.
Choosing The Topic
If you have not been assigned a topic, then the whole world lies before you. Sometimes that seems to make the task of starting even more intimidating.
Actually, this means that you are free to choose a topic of interest to you, which will often make your essay a stronger one.
Define Your Purpose
The first thing you must do is to think about the purpose of the essay you must write. Is your purpose to persuade people to believe as you do, to explain to
people how to complete a particular task, to educate people about some person, place, thing or idea, or something else entirely? Whatever topic you choose
must fit that purpose.
Brainstorm Subjects of Interest
Once you have determined the purpose of your essay, write down some subjects that interest you. No matter what the purpose of your essay is, an endless
number of topics will be suitable.
If you have trouble thinking of subjects, start by looking around you. Is there anything in your surroundings that interests you? Think about your life. What
occupies most of your time? That might make for a good topic. Don't evaluate the subjects yet; just write down anything that springs to mind.
Evaluate Each Potential Topic
If you can think of at least a few topics that would be appropriate, you must simply consider each one individually. Think about how you feel about that topic.
If you must educate, be sure it is a subject about which you are particularly well informed. If you must persuade, be sure it is a subject about which you are at
least moderately passionate. Of course, the most important factor in choosing a topic is the number of ideas you have about that topic.
Even if none of the subjects you thought of seem particularly appealing, try just choosing one to work with. It may turn out to be a better topic than you at first
thought.
Before you are ready to move on in the essay-writing process, look one more time at the topic you have selected. Think about the type of paper you are
expected to produce. Should it be a general overview, or a specific analysis of the topic? If it should be an overview, then you are probably ready to move to
the next step. If it should be a specific analysis, make sure your topic is fairly specific. If it is too general, you must choose a narrower subtopic to discuss.
For example, the topic "KENYA" is a general one. If your objective is to write an overview, this topic is suitable. If your objective is to write a specific
analysis, this topic is too general. You must narrow it to something like "Politics in Kenya" or "Kenya's Culture."
Once you have determined that your topic will be suitable, you can move on.
Here are a few guidelines to help you through the process:
1. Pick a topic that you are interested in. You will express yourself with more clarity and insight if you are interested in the topic that you are writing
about.
2. You should pick a topic based on the assigned texts that you understood. While writing your essay, the majority of your energy will be focused on
explaining and supporting your individual perspective and thesis, so it is important that you understand and feel comfortable talking about the
primary (and possibly secondary) material that will form the basis of your essay.
3. Select a topic that is challenging and thought provoking. You want to write about a topic that is interesting to you. Your essay should reflect your
own individual and unique perspective on your chosen topic. It should not be a mere restatement of the already existing academic ideas on the
topic. So, you should choose a topic that challenges you and allows you room to express yourself in relation to the primary source text, and the
secondary sources (if they are applicable to your assignment).
4. Your topic should be specific enough that you can form an opinion about it, but general enough that you can find enough information to support
your perspective and write a comprehensive and substantial essay.
Narrowing Down The Topic
In narrowing down your topic, you should consider the following ideas:
1. Identify and define the main elements of the topic that you have chosen and look at the different ways that they can be applied to the primary
material of your essay.
2. Pay attention to the length that the professor has assigned for the essay. The length can dictate the amount of information that you will be able to fit
into your paper. The length will also dictate the number of body parts that you will be able to use to support your thesis. As a general rule, the
shorter the essay, the more limited and precise the topic will be. The longer the essay, the more space you will have to explore your topic and its
implications and complexity.
3. In narrowing down your topic, pay attention to the specific aspects of the topic that are addressed within the primary text(s) for your essay and
within class discussion. This will give you an indication of the specific ways that you can write about your source material. Professors are usually
looking for a specific topic that addresses one of the central ideas of the material that you are studying. Choose the specific aspect that you feel runs
through as much of the text as possible. This will afford you a topic that can be developed through the course of the primary source(s) to present
your reading audience with a clearer view of the text or the ideas that dominate the material.
4. If you have any doubts about how you can find a specific aspect to address within the assigned topics, or if you are unsure as to which aspect you
should focus on, do not hesitate to contact your professor for guidance. Often, this can save you a great deal of wasted effort and can help to focus
your attention on a specific avenue for researching your topic.
Organizing The Essay
Introductory Paragraph
Introductory paragraph consists of general points or attention grabbing details leading to the main idea. For instance, there are several means that effective
writers use to "hook" their readers: beginning with an amusing or interesting anecdote, beginning with a question, beginning with a quotation, and beginning
with a startling or paradoxical statement. The main idea is often written at the end of this paragraph in a thesis statement, which may also contain three or more
reasons (written very succinctly) for supporting this main idea. Each of these reasons should be elaborated on in the body paragraphs that follow. Note: A
thesis statement does not always come at the end of the introductory paragraph--some essays have the very first sentence as the thesis statement.
Body Paragraph #1
Body Paragraph #1 often begins with a transition word or words like "First" or "The first of these reasons" and gives examples and/or details relating to the
first supporting reason.
Body Paragraph #2
Body Paragraph #2 often begins with a transition word or words like "Next" or "Second" or "Another reason" or "The second of these reasons" and gives
examples and/or details relating to the second supporting reason.
Body Paragraph #3
This often begins with a transition word or words like "Finally" or "Last" or "The final reason" and gives examples and/or details relating to the third
supporting reason (which is often the strongest of the three supporting reasons).
Concluding Paragraph
This paragraph may begin with "In conclusion" or "To conclude" (although some markers find these somewhat mundane) or "Clearly" and often restates the
thesis statement in different words. It may move from there to a general comment about life, or to a final important point, or to a suggestion about future action
that may be needed. Some writers like to end with a relevant quotation, or end with a question, or end with a prediction or warning.
Another concluding technique is to end with some idea or detail from the beginning of the essay (thus bringing this idea full circle). Yet another means of
concluding is to end with an allusion to a historical or mythological figure or event.
Organizing The Paragraph
Make sure that each sentence flows logically. The traditional way to do this when writing an essay is to use connecting words or phrases, often conjunctions
(linking words) such as "although", "because", "so", "moreover", or "therefore". In this way, you build your logic and arguments. These connections come in
simple and complex forms.
Simple connections
also, although, and, as, because, but, despite, first, however, if, next, now, second, then, therefore, third, until
Although we sometimes need words to show the logic and connection between sentences and paragraphs, many connecting words make your style more
complex and academic than necessary.
Complex connections
accordingly, as you are aware, consequently, for this reason, furthermore, hence, in addition, inasmuch as, likewise, more specifically, moreover,
nevertheless, nonetheless
Use the connections to make sure your reader can follow the flow of information, ideas and arguments within sentences, from sentence to sentence and
between paragraphs. But don't let too many connections creep into your writing and keep to the simple ones recommended.
Using Active Verbs
Using active verbs is essential if you want to write with a direct authoritative style. Instead of using the impersonal passive verbs and third person viewpoint,
you should write with strong, active verbs.
Almost every authority on writing encourages you to use active verbs. Here's some typical advice to authors publishing research papers for The American
Society for Testing Materials.
"As most everyone has agreed for some time now, use the third person in a paper not only adds nothing to scientific objectivity, it renders the paper gutless
and lifeless ... Scientists of the 19th century such as Darwin and Huxley wrote sensibly and clearly in the first person and turned out some very respectable
prose. Let us begin anew ... use active verbs."
Look at these examples:
Passive:
An improvement in quality has been made leading to the decision being taken to raise the standard test so a higher mark means the same success
rate being accepted. (29 words)
Active:
As quality improved, the standard test rose, leading to a higher standard mark to gain the same acceptable success rate. (20 words)
Notice the passive example sounds academic but takes extra nine words to say the same information. It is no more objective than the alternative with active
verbs. Although we naturally speak with active verbs, even when discussing academic subjects, the traditional academic writing style litters writing with
unnecessary passive verbs. Any sentence can be either active or passive. It is your choice as the author.
Whatever the subject of the essay, you can write with active verbs to make your writing style more direct, clear and forceful. If there's one piece of advice on
writing style you should follow, it's to use active verbs throughout your essays.