UGANDA CHRISTIAN UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF LAW
EQUITY AND TRUSTS

Course Facilitators:
Ms. Rita Kenkwanzi (Lecturer)
Ms. Rachel Nasana Abulo (Tutorial Assistant)
Ms. Comfort Kakama Kihembo (Tutorial Assistant)

COURSE OUTLINE AND READING LIST

Course Description

The course unit deals with the law that governs equity and trusts in a fairly detailed
manner and under one designated course. This takes a different approach from the
norm, where the doctrines of equity and trusts are often injected into other standing
course units, such as the Law of Contract, the Law of Property. Family Law, Succession
and Administration of Estates, Conveyancing, et cetera.

This course unit focuses on preparing you to obtain knowledge of the two legal
concepts; Equity and Trusts. In addition to lectures, the course employs participatory
methodology through group discussions, research and presentation to enable you,
inter alia, gain in depth knowledge on this area of law.

Course Objective:
This course unit is intended to equip students with knowledge and application of the
rules and doctrine of Equity and Trusts in Uganda, and how the law has evolved over
the years, starting with England, being the origin of the legal systems in most
Commonwealth Countries. At the end of the course unit, students are expected to
have a working knowledge of the said rules and doctrine of equity and the law of
trusts and to apply the same as required by the exigencies of legal scholarship,
practice, and research.

Course Coverage:

The course will consider the history of equity, maxims of equity, and the basic
principles which dominate its jurisprudence and the relevance of equity today; the
nature of equitable rights and interests and the doctrine of notice; the doctrines of
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 equity and the remedies thereof; the concept of a trust with emphasis on
classification and creation of trusts. The course then shifts its focus to equity more
generally by considering the equitable rules for assignment of property and the
remedies of specific performance and injunctions.

Through interactive lectures, group discussions, presentations and research, students

should be able to;

a. Analyse the historical development of equity and its influx in the Ugandan Legal
System.
b. Identify the principles of Equity and its practical application.
c. Develop an understanding of the Law of Trusts in Uganda.

Learning outcomes:

A student who has satisfactorily completed the Equity and Trusts class should be able
to:

• Explain and apply to any factual problem the law relating to equity and trusts
(including constructive and resulting trusts), equitable remedies and equitable
assignment.
• Describe and evaluate both fundamental themes underlying and connecting the
specific doctrines covered, and the relationship of equity to other parts of the
law.
• Make oral and written legal presentations on equity and trusts.

Abbreviations:
AC: Appeal Cases (England)
AD: Appellate Division (South Africa)
All E.R: All England Law Reports
Cr. App R. Criminal Appeal Reports (England)
Crim. L.R: Criminal Law Report (England)
E.A: P .L.R East African Protectorate Law Reports
EA: East African Law Reports (East Africa)
EACA: East African Court of Appeal
EALJ: East African Law Journal (East Africa)
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 HCB: High Court Bulletin (Uganda)
HL: House of Lords (England)
KB/KBD: King's Bench Division (England)
KLR: Kenya Law Reports (Kenya)
LLR - LB Lesotho Law Reports and Legal Bulletin
LQR: Law Quarterly Review (England)
LRNR: Law Report of Nyasaland and Rhodesia (Zambia Malawi)
M.L.R: Modern Law Review (England)
R.N: Rhodesia and Nyasaland (Zambia and Malawi)
SA: South African Law Reports (South Africa)
ULR: Uganda Law Reports (Uganda)
W.L.R: Weekly Law Reports (England)

Basic Texts:

➢ Bakibinga D.J, Equity and Trusts in Uganda (Fountain Publishers, 2003)

➢ Curzon, Equity and Trusts (Cavendish Publishing, 1995)
➢ Hanbury&Maudsley, Modern Equity (Sweet & Maxwell, 15th Edition, 1997)
➢ Snell, E.H.T. et al, The Principles of Equity (Sweet & Maxwell, 29th Edition,
1991)
➢ Pettit, Equity and the Law of Trusts, (7th Edition, Butterworth, 1993)
➢ Spry, J.C.F Equitable Remedies (Sweet & Maxwell, 4th Edition 1990)
➢ Todd, P. Equity and Trusts: Texts, Cases and Materials (Blackstone Press, 1989)
➢ Meggary, The Law of Real Property (Stevens 3rd Ed, 1966) Chapter 4
➢ Hayton& Marshall, Cases and Commentary on the Law of Trusts and
Equitable Remedies (10th Ed)
➢ Keeton, An introduction to Equity (6th Ed.)
➢ Nathan & Marshall, A Case book on Trusts (5th Ed)
➢ Maitland, Equity (Brunyate Ed.1949)
➢ Story on Equity (Randall, 3rd Ed.)

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 The course unit deals with the Doctrines of Equity, including Equitable Remedies, and
Trusts and related matters in Uganda.

(A) Definition, Description, Characterisation and Conceptualisation of Equity

Generally

● For Definition See, Osborne’s Law Dictionary, Black’s Law Dictionary, Glanville
Williams, Morcom, Meagher Gummou and Lehane, Petit Curson, Bakibinga, etc.
● On the Moral Content of Equity see, Ralph A. Newman, THE HIDDEN EQUITY: An

● Analysis of the Moral Content of the Principles of Equity, Hastings Law Journal
Vol 19, Issue 1, Article 6, (1 – 1967) This may be accessed at < https://
repository.uchastings.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1963&context=hast
ings_law_journal >

● For background reading: Origin of EQUITY see, 7 Part F Common law,

equity and statute law <https://www.open.edu/openlearn/society-politics-
law/judges-andthelaw/content-section-7.1 >

● See, Andrew Burrows, We Do this at Common law, But That in Equity, Oxford
Journal of Legal Studies, Vol 22, No. 1, (29002) pp.1-16. < https://www.jstor.org/
stable/3600632?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents >

(B) Foundation and Institution of Equity in Uganda

(C) Nature, Rationale, Application and Enforcement of Equity by Courts
(D) Development and Evolution of Equity in England and the Commonwealth
(E) Equity and Customary Law: Nature of Customary Law, the Repugnancy Clause
and the Standard to be employed when Evaluating Customary Law vis a vis
Morality, Good Conscience and Equity.
(F) Equity and Common Law: Historical Perspective, and the Resultant
Developments for Uganda
(G) The Maxims of Equity and Corresponding Equitable Defences

• Equity will not suffer a wrong without a remedy

• Equity follows the law

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 • Where equities are equal, the law prevails (Qui prior est tempore, potior est
jure)

• Where equities are equal, the first in time prevails

• Whoever comes to equity must do equity

• Whoever comes to equity must come with clean hands

• Delay defeats equity/Doctrine of Laches (Equity Assist the Diligent not the
Tardy) (Vigilantibus, non dormientibus aequitas subvenit)
• Equality is equality (Aequitas est aequalitas)

• Equity looks at the substance (intent) rather than the form

• Equity looks at that as done which ought to be done.

• Equity imputes an intention to fulfil an obligation

• Equity acts in personam

(H) Equitable Rights and Interests and the Doctrine of Notice
(I) Rights interests based on Common Law
(J) Equitable Interests exclusively created by Equity

• The Doctrine of Notice

• Assignment of Equitable Interest
• Novation
• Acknowledgement
• Power of Attorney
• Equitable Assignment

(K) Equitable Remedies

• Injunctions
• Prohibitory and Mandatory Injunctions
• Perpetual and Interlocutory Injunctions
• Ex parte Injunctions
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 • Interim Injunctions

• Quia Timet Injunctions

• Specific Performance
a. Contracts to Pay Money
b. Volunteers
c. Contract which require supervision by Court
d. Contracts for a Personal Service
(L) Defences to an Order for Specific Performance
a. Mistake and
b. Misrepresentation
c. Conduct of the Plaintiff
d. Lapse of Time
e. Misdescription of the Subject Matter
f. Public Policy

Uganda Statutes
• Arbitration and Conciliation Act
• The Insolvency Act
• The Bills of Exchange Act
• The Business Name Registration Act
• The Civil Procedure Act
• The Civil Procedure and Limitation (Misc. Provisions)
• The Companies Act
• The Contracts Act
• The Copyright and Neighbouring Rights Act
• The Evidence Act
• The Government Proceedings Act
• The Income Tax Act
• The Judicature Act
• The Land Act
• The Law Reform (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act
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 • The Limitation Act
• The Magistrate Courts Act
• The Matrimonial Homes Act
• The Tier 4 Microfinance Institutions & Money Lenders Act
• The National Social Security Fund Act
• The Partnership Act
• The Industrial Property Act
• The Pension (Amendment) Act
• The Pensions Act
• The Trustees Act
• The Registration of Titles Act
• The Sale of Goods and Supply of Services Act
• The Succession Act (Amendment) Act
• The Succession Act
• The Succession
• The Trademarks Act
• The Public Trustees Act
• The Uganda Order in Council 1902 and 1911

Reading List

1. Definition, Description, Characterisation and Conceptualisation of

Equity Generally:
• Roger Bird (Editor): Osborn's Concise Law Dictionary, Seventh Edition, Sweet
and Maxwell, 1983, p.l34.
• Glanville Williams: Learning the Law, Ninth Edition, London, Stevens and Sons,
p. 24 – 27.
• Bryan A. Gamer: Black's Law Dictionary, Seventh Edition, West Group, St. Paul
Minnesota 1999, p. 560.
• J. Brian Morcom: (Editor), Equity in a Nutshell, Sweet and Maxwell, London,
1956, p. 3.
• R. P. Meacher et al: Equity Doctrines and Remedies, Third Edition,
Butterworths, 1992, p.3

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 • Philip Pettit: Equity and the Law of Trusts, 8th Edition, Butterworths, 1997, p.1.
• L. B. Curson: Equity and Trusts, Second Edition, Cavendish Publishing Ltd, 1996,
p.1.
• J. D. Bakibinga: Equity and Trusts in Uganda, Professional Books Publishers and
Consultants, Kampala, Uganda, 2003, p.1-2.

Christian Perspective of Equity:

Christian Critique of Equity, > https://www.cchf.org/resources/h-and-
dachristiancritique-of-equity/

Bryce Young, Only Christians Understand True Social Justice https://

www.desiringgod.org/articles/only-christians-understand-true-social-justice

Philip Kapusta: Equity Encyclopedias – International Standard Bible Encyclopedia –

Equity https://www.biblestudytools.com/dictionary/equity/

Foundation and Institution of Equity in Uganda

The 1995 Constitution of Uganda, Article 28

Further consider the National Objectives and Directive Principles of State Policy -
Objective XII, contained in the 1995 Constitution of Uganda.
The Judicature Act Cap 13 Laws of Uganda, 2000, (See - Sections 14 (1 - 5), Section 15
The Magistrates Court Act, 1970 (Section 11) Refer to appropriate cases in Uganda.

Nature, Rationale, Application and Enforcement of Equity by Courts

• Equity in a General Juristic Sense

• Equity in the Technical Juridical Sense
• The Judicature Act Cap 13, Laws of Uganda, Volume II, 2000, Section 14 (2) (i)
and (4)

• Stephen Mabosi v Uganda Revenue Authority, 1995, see- also Bakibinga infra,
p.2.

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 Development and Evolution of Equity in England and the Commonwealth

• Errington v Errington and Ano. [1952] 1 All E.R 149, per Lord Denning, at p.
155.

• Apata Iamh of Akuku v Freeman Ogbeki 1955 - 56 WRNLR p.73 at p.77,

(Nigerian Case) See also Bakibinga infra p. 4.

• Ashugban v Oduntan [1935]12 NLR 7. (Nigerian Case) See also Bakibinga p. 4.

• For another comparative view see: Jajbahay v Cassim 1939 AD 537. (South
African Case), also found in Farlam and Hathaway: A Case Book on the South
African Law of Contract, Second Edition, Juta and Company, 1979, 204, per
Stratford C.J, particularly on page 205 and 206.

Equity and Customary Law: Nature of Customary Law, the Repugnancy Clause
and the Standard to' be employed when Evaluating Customary Law visa a vis
Morality, Good Conscience and Equity.

• The Judicature Act Cap 13, Laws of Uganda, Volume II, 2000, Section 14 (2) (b)
(i), (c) (4) (5) Section 15 (1) (2)

• The Magistrates' Court Act 1970, Section 10 (1) and (iii), Section 11, (1), (2) and
(3)

• Background reading: See Morris and Read: Uganda: The Development of its
Laws and Constitution, 1966, p.256.

• Refer also to Halsbury’s Laws of England, on Custom; Also refer to White:

'African Customary Law: The problem of Concept and Definition' in William
Barnett Harvey: Introduction to the Legal System in East Africa, 1975, EALB pp.
439;
• A.N Allot: 'Customary Law: Its Place and meaning in Contemporary African Legal
Systems' in: Harvey supra p. 443; A.N. Allot: 'Judicial Precedent Revisited'
Journal of African Law, Volume 12, Spring 1968, No. I, pp3 - 31.

9

 • Angu v Attah (Ghana),

• Van Breda v Jacobs 1921 A.D 330, (South Africa)

• Kajubi v Kabali (1964) 11 EACA,

• Rex v Amkeyo (1917) E.A.L.R. 14,

• Mohammed v R [1963] E.A 188;

• It is important for the students to remember that when dealing with decisions
of the Privy Council and its successor that the rule established in Dohia v
National Grindlays Bank Ltd and Another 11970] E.A 195, should be borne in
mind; Students are also reminded to familiarise themselves with the holding in
Uganda Motors v Wavah Holdings Ltd Civil Appeal 19 of 1991, as this will help
them in understanding the relevance of English Court decisions and the
applicability of the Law of England in Uganda ..
• Maleftsane v Mpho 1959 HCTLR 107. (Lesotho); This case is also discussed by
A.M. Makara, in George W.K.L. Kasozi, (editor): Introduction to the Law of
Lesotho: A Basic Text on Law Judicial Conduct and Practice, Volume 1, 1999,
(This book is available in the UCU Main Library.);
• Koykoy Jatta v Menna Camera and Another, Gambia Supreme Court Civil Suit
No.64 of 1960, (see Bakibinga Supra p. 10).
• Omwoyo Mairura v Bosire Anginde 6 Court for Review Reports 4 (1958), Harvey
supra p 517, also Bakibinga supra p 10.

• Maurono Onchoke v Kerebi dlo Ondieki 6 Court of Review Reports, 2 (1958),

Bakibinga supra pl1, Harvey supra.

• Tumina Olenja v Elam Kaya, 10 Court of Review Reports 8 (1961), Harvey supra
517.

• R v Luke Marangu1a 1949 -54 Law Reports of Northern Rhodesia 140, Bakibinga
supra p.11, Harvey supra p.518.

• Ole Oloso v Nalulus Ole Kidoki (1915) 5 E.A.L.R 210 (Kenyan Case), also in
Bakibinga p.ll and Harvey 518.

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 • Gwawobin Kilimo v Kisunda bin Ituti (1938) 1 TLR (Rev) 403, Bakibinga supra
p.l1, Harvey p.508 - 511.

• Kweku Kodieth v Kwami Afram (1930 1 W.A.C.A 12, Bakibinga supra p.12,
Harvey supra p.506 -508.

• Karuru v Njeru [19681 E.A 351, Bakibinga supra p.12, Harvey supra p.515-516.

• Ashiemoa v Bani (1959) GLR 130, Bakibinga supra p.12, Harvey supra 524.

Equity and Common Law: An Historical Perspective, and the Resultant

Developments for Uganda
• The Chancery Amendment Act 1852 (Britain)
• Lord Cairn's Act 1858 (Britain)
• British Judicature Act 1873 (section 25 (11) and 1875.
• The Uganda Order in Council 1902, 1911
• The Judicature Act Section 16 (2) (4) (Uganda)
• The Magistrates Courts Act Cap 16, section 10 (3) (Uganda)
• Robert B. Seidman: 'The Reception of English Law in Colonial • Africa', Volume
2 Eastern Africa Law Review, 47 (1969) pp. 56- 60.
• Hohefield: 'Fundamental Legal Corporations- The Relations between Equity and
Law' 11 Michigan Law Review 537 (1913).

• Earl of Oxford (1656) 1 Rep. Ch.l

• Marquis of Waterford v Knight (1844) 11 C 1 & F.653, Bakibinga supra p.14.
• Transbridge Co. Ltd v Survey International Ltd [1986] 4 N.W.L.R 56 (Nigeria)
• Crosse v Smith (1806), Bakibinga supra p. 15
• Job v Job [1877] 6 Ch D. 562, Bakibinga supra p. 15
• Walsh v Longsdale, [1882] 21 Ch. D 9, Bakibinga supra p. 16
• Savage v Sarrough [1937]13 N.L.R 141, Bakibinga supra p. 16
• Chidiak v Coker [1954] 14 W.A.CA 506, Bakibinga supra p. 16

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 • West v Blake way (1841) Bakibinga supra p. 17 10 High Trees Case [1947] K.B
130 (which volume??) 11 Ajai v Brisco [1964] 3 All E.R 556.
• Nelson v Laholt [1948] 1 K.B 339 per Lord Denning p.443.
• Errington v Errington [1952] 1 K.B 290
• Pugh v Heath (1882 7 A.C 235, at 238,
• Joseph v Lyons [1882] 15 QBD 280, per Lindley L.J at 286.

2. The Maxims of Equity and Corresponding Equitable Defences

Equity will not suffer a wrong without a remedy

Schierhout v Minister of Justice 1926 AD 99 per Innes C.J

Equity follows the law

• Re Bostock's Settlement [1921] 2 Ch. 469 (Norish v Bostock).
• Sexton v Horton (1926) 8 CLR 240
• Holmes v Millage [1893] 1 QB.
• Edward v Pickard [1907] 2 KB 903.
• Colverson v Bloemfield [1885] 29 Ch. 341 per Lord Cotton LJ at p 341.
• Arab Allied Bank Ltd v Hajjar [1988] Q.B 787
• Graf v Hope Building Corp. (1920) 254 NY 1 at 9, (per Cardozo J.
• Berry v Berry [1929] 2 KB 316.
• Steeds v Steeds (1889) 22 QB 537.

Where equities are equal, the law prevails (Qui prior est tempore, potior est jure)
Bailey v Barnes [1894 J 1 Ch. 25

Where the equities are equal, the first in time prevails

12

 • Latec Investments Ltd v Hotel Terrigal Pty Ltd (1965) 113 CLR 2.
• General Finance Agency v Perpetual Executors (1902) 27 VLR 739.
• Re: Samuel Allen Ltd [1907]1 Ch 575.
• Cave v Cave (1880) 15 Ch. 639.

Whoever comes to equity must do equity

• Australian Hardwoods Pty Ltd v Commissioner for Railways [1961U All E.R 737
(PC) Wolverhampton and Wallsall Railway Co. v London and North

• Western Railway Co. (1873) LR 16 Eq 433.

• Lodge v National Union Investment Co. [-1907] 1 Ch. 300

• Kasumu v Baba Egba [1956] AC 539 (PC) (Bakibinga supra p.2l)

• Chillingworth v Chambers [1896]1 Ch 685

• Cherry v Boultbee [1839] 4 My & C 442.

• Ramsden v Dyson (1866) LR 1 H.L 129.

• The High Trees House Case [1947] K.B 130.

• Combe v Combe [1951J 2 K.B 215 (Per Denning L-J)

Whoever comes to equity must come with clean hands

• Bakibinga supra Chapter 2: pp 18 - 31.
• Meager et al supra pp 71 - 100.
• Richard Francis, Maxims of Equity, 1728.
• Hanbury, Modem Equity, 6th Edition, p.45
• Halsbury Laws of England, 4th Edition, Volume 16, para 1305. View 1065.
• Professor Zecharia Chafee's views: 'Coming to Equity with Clean
• Hands' (1949) 47 Michigan Law Review
• Gummow' Abuse of Monopoly: Industrial Property and Trade Practices Control'
(1976) Sydney Law Review 399.
13

 • Gill v Lewis [1956J 2 Q.B 1.
• Coatsworth v Johnson (1886) 54 LT 529.
• Martin v Mitchell (1820) 2 Jac & W 413.
• Mortlock v Buller (1840) Ves 292.
• Mason v Clarke [1954] 1 Q.B 460.
• Cory v Gertcken (1816) 2 Madd 40; ER 250.
• Overton v Bannister (1844) 3 Hare 503.
• Laughran v Laughran 292 US 216
• Craig v Craig (1942) 16 NLR (Bakibinga supra p 22.
• Kellogg v Kellogg 171 Michigan 518 (1912) l1. Eshugbayi v Dauda 1909 1 NLR 7
• Denning v Winshelsea (1787) Cox Eq.
• Gascoigne v Gascoigne [1918]1 K.B 223.
• Haywaymans Case (1893) 9 Law Quarterly Review 197.
• Kennedy v Steenkamp 1936 CPD 113 (also found in Farlam and Hathaway, A
Casebook on the South African -Law of Contract, Second Edition, 1979, Juia
and Co. Ltd, p.202.
• Cardman v Horner (1810) 18 Ves 10; 34 ER 221)
• Viscount Clement v Tasburg (1819) 1 Jac & W W 112, ER318.
• Kettles and Gas Appliances Ltd. v Anthony Horden and Sons Ltd.
• (1934) 35 SR (NSW) 108.
• Kiefer- Stewart Company v Joseph E. Seargram and Sons Inc. 340 US 211 (1950)
at 214.
• Simpson v Union Oil Company of California 377 US 13 (1964) at 16
• Perma Life Mufflers Inc. v International Parts Corp 392 US 134 (1917) at 138 -
140.

Delay defeats equity/Doctrine of Laches (Equity Assist the Diligent not the Tardy)
(Vigilantibus, non dormientibus aequitas subvenit)

14

 • Limitation Act Cap 80, Laws of Uganda

• Smith v Clay (1768) 23 Broc C 639.

• Lindsay Petroleum Co v Hurd (1874) LR 5(PC) 221.
• Fagbemi v Aluko [1968] 1 All NLR 233.
• Duke of Leeds v Earl of Amherst (1846) 2 Ph 117 at 124, ER 886 at 888.
• Erlanger v New Sombrero Phosphate Co. (1878) 3 AC 1218 at 1279 (per Lord
Blackburn)
• Mitchel v Homfrey (1881) 8 QB 587.
• Allcard v Skinner (188736 Ch 145; and Bullock v Lloyd's Bank 11955]2 W.L.R 1
(Where there is no Statutory limitation)
• Mubiru and Ano. v Byensiba 1985 [1985] HCB 106.
• Uganda Spinning Mills Ltd. v Iga [1988 -1990] HCB 144

Equality is equality (Aequitas est aequalitas)

See Pettit, Halsbury's Laws of England, 4th Edition vol. 16 para 747.
Succession Act
Partnership Act
• Lake v Gibson (1729) 1 Eq (CA Arb. 290.
• Burrough v Philox (1840) 5 M & Cr. 72. (Brian Morcom supra 10).
• Re Bower's Settlement [1942] Ch. 197(Brian Morcom supra 10.)
• Ipaye v Aribisala (1930) 10 NLR 10.
• Brown v Raindley (1796) 3 Yes 256 (Bakibinga supra p.26.
• Jones v Maynard [1951] Ch. 572

Equity looks at the substance (intent) rather than the form

Constitutional provision: See article 126 (2) (e)
• Uganda Revenue Authority v Stephen Mabosi supra.

15

 • Salt v Northhampton [1892] AC 1 at 18 per Lord Bramwell (see Meager et al
supra p.88.p, footnote 28.
• Parkin v Thorold (1852) 16 Beav 59 at 66,51 ER 698 at 701, per Lord Romily MR,
(Meager et al supra p 89)

• Smith v Hamilton [1951J Ch. 174 (Meager et al supra p 91

• Raineri v Miles [l981]AC 1050

• Greer v Kettle [1938] AC 156 at 171

• Luke v South Kensington Hotel Co (1879) 11 Ch 121 at 125

• Jaffer Bros Ltd v Hajj Bagalaaliwo Civil Appeal 43 of 1997 (Court of Appeal of
Uganda) (Bakibinga supra p.28)

• Ambalal and co v Durga Das Bawa 23 EACA 68, or (1956) EACA 16.

• Branndit's Sons' and co. [1905J AC 454, at 462.

Equity looks at as done, that which ought to be done.

• Walsh v Lonsdale (1882) 21 Ch. 9
• Grosvenor v Rogan Kamper [1974]
• De Beers Consolidated Mines v British South Africa Co. [1912] AC 52 at 66 and
66.
• Ewing v Or Ewing (1883) 9 AC 34 at 40.
• Mason v Clarke [1955] AC 788

Equity imputes an intention to fulfill an obligation

• See also Halsbury Laws of England, 4th Edition
• Ewing v Or Ewing (1883) 9 AC 34 at 40
• Vanlone v Liddal(1624)

Equity acts in personam

Civil Procedure Act Cap 71

16

 Civil Procedure Rules Order 19 Rule 13

Judicature Act

Chaffee: Equity Cases and Materials, 1958, 4th Edition p41

• Baker v Archer [1927] AC844.
• Cook Industries Inc. v Galliger [1979] Ch. 439
• Morocco Bound Syndicate v Harris [1895]1 Ch.534
• Ewing v Off Ewing (1883) 9 AC 34 at 40
• Vanlore v Lindall (1624)

3.Equitable Rights and Interests and the Doctrine of Notice

Rights interests based on Common Law

• Judicature Act 1873 - 75 (UK)
• Judicature Act 1996, sec 16 (2)

Equitable Interests Exclusively created by Equity

Lwanga v Registrar of Titles [1980] HCB 23

The Doctrine of Notice

Registration of Titles Act Cap 205 see 51, 65
• Buckland v Gibbins (1863) 32 LJ Ch 39, per Lord Westbury
• Perham v Kempter [1907J 1 Ch 379
• Lowton v Gordon (1869) 37 Cal 202, 206
• Lloyds v Banks (1868) Ch 488
• Williamson v Brown (1857) 15 NY 354, 362
• Sharpe v Foy (1868) 4Ch. App 35

17

 4. Assignment of Equitable Interest
Novation

Rassbora Ltd v JCL Marine Ltd [1977] 1 Lloyds Rep. 645

Acknowledgement

Wilson v Coupland (1821) 5 B & Aid 228, 232

Liversidge v Broadbent (1859) 4 H&N 603
Power of Attorney
Equitable Assignment
Judicature Act See 16 (2)
Ct Alloway v Phillips (Inspector of Taxes) [1980]1 W.L.R 888, 893
Crouch v Martin (1707) 2 Vem 595
Ambalal and Co. v Durgo Das Bowry 23 EACA 68

5. Equitable Remedies
Injunctions
Judicature Act See 40 (l)
The Magistrate Court Act 1970, S ec 10
J .Briam Morcom supra p 210
Prohibitory and Mandatory Injunctions
Sky Petroleum Ltd v VIP Ltd [1974] WLR
Perpertual and Interlocutory Injunctions
Babumba v Bunju [1988-90] HCB 179
Exparte Injunctions
Civil Procedure Rules Order XXXVII Rule 3
Yeseri Mugenyi v Wandera [1987] HCB
Wasswa v Kakooza [1987] HCB 79
Interim Injunctions
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 Quia Timet Injunctions

Constitution of Uganda 1995, article 50

For more information on Injunctions see Bakibinga supra pp 64 - 88
Civil Procedure Rules Cap 65, Order 37 Rule 2(3)
Government Proceedings Act Cap 69 s 15 (1) (a)
See Also:
• Fletcher v Bearly (1885) Ch 688
• A.G v Exrel McWhirtner v IBA [1973] QB 629
• A.G v Dean and Chapter Ripon Cathedral [1945] Ch. 239
• Day v Browmrigg (1879) 10 Ch 294 (PC)
• Adam v Cuke [1927] 8 NLR
• A.G v Sharpe [1931] 1 Ch. 121
• A.G v Bastow [1975] 1 Q.B 514
• Matovu and Others v A.G [1991] HCB 514

Specific Performance

Petit: Equity and the Law of Trusts 6th Edition p.542

Story: Equity Jurisprudence, See 272, also Quoted in Farlam and Hathaway: A Case
Book on the South African Law of Contract, 2nd Edition Juta and Co 1979, p.309.
Bishari v. Vitaform Ltd. Civ. App. No. 29/92 Supreme Court Case.
Australian Hardwoods Pty Ltd v Commr for Railways [1961] 1 All ER 737 (PC)
Woolverhampton and Walsall Railway Co. v London and North Western Railways
Co. (1873) LR 16 Eq 433 at 439.
Hajji Lutakome v Salongo [1988 - 90J HCB 95
Cohen v Roche [1927] 1 KB 649
Behnke v Bede Shippin Co [1927] 1 KB 649
Specific Performance to be ordered where the defendant can comply Jones v
Lipman [1962]1 W.L.R 832
Specific Performance usually granted after there has been a breach of contract
19

 Marks v Lilley [1959]1 W.L.R 749
Hasham v Zanab [1960] AC 316
Specific performance to be granted where the remedy of damages would be
inadequate
Sky Petroleum v VIP Petroleum Ltd [1974] 1 W.L.R 576
Specific Performance to be granted goods must be specific or ascertained goods
agreed upon at the time the contract Bushari v Vitaform Uganda Ltd [1991] HCB 107
Where damages are adequate to compensate, Specific Performance will not be
granted
Hajji Lutakome v Salongo [1988 – 90] HCB 95
Specific Performance to granted where chattels are unique, of special value and
peculiar; Where the subject matter would be obtained else where
Falcke v Grey (1859) 4 Drew 651
Cohen v Roche [1927] 1 K.B 169
Behnke v Bede Shipping Co. [1927]1 KB 649
Compare with Haynes v King Williams Town Municipality 1951 (2) SA 370 (AD) also
found in Farlam and Hathaway infra p.308 - 311

(a) Contracts to Pay Money

Beswick v Beswick [1968J AC 58
Ashton v Corrigan (1871) L.R 13 Eq 76
(b) Volunteers
Re Pryce [1917] 1 Ch 234 at 241
(c) Contract which require supervision by Court
Ryan v Mutual Tone Tine Westminster Chambers Association [1893] Ch 116
Cooperative Insurance Society v Argyll Stores Ltd [1996] 128
Woolverhampton and Walsall Railway Co. v London and North Western Railways Co.
(1873) LR 16 Eq 433 at 439.
(d) Contracts for a Personal Service
Bakibinga supra p.95 - 98.
20

 J. Brian Morcaom supra p 198, 199.
Giles v Morris [1972] 1 All ER 960 at 964

Defences to an Order for Specific Performance

(a) Mistake
Webster v Cecil (1861) 30 Beavan 62
Tamplin v Jones
Malins v Freeman (1837) 2 Keen 25
Compare with Maritz v Pratley (1894) 11 SC 345 (also in Farlam and Hathaway infra
p77.
(b) Misrepresentation
(c) Conduct of the Plaintiff
(d) Lapse of Time
(e) Misdescription of the Subject Matter
(f) Public Policy
Wroth v Tyler
Tinsley v Milligan [1993] 65
(g) Undue Hardship
Wroth v Tyler [19741 Ch 30
See also Haynes v King William's Town Municipality 1951 (2) SA 370 (AD) for
comparison, (also found in Farmland and Hathaway infra p.308 - 311)

Note: Other cases and reading materials will be issued in class from time to time.

Trusts

1. General books of Reference

(a) Basic Texts
Iwobi, A. Essential Trust Law (Cavendish Publish 1995)
21

 Kodilinye, G. An Introduction to Equity in Nigeria (1975)

Fabunmi: Equity & Trusts In Nigeria [1986] University of Ife Press, (1986)
Adigun, Cases Texts on Equity Trusts & Administration of Estates in Nigeria
(1987)
Todd, P. Textbook on Trust (2nd Ed 1993 Blackstone Press)

Bakibinga D.J. Law of Trusts in Nigeria (1989)

Hayton & Marshall, Cases & Commentary on Law of Trusts (9th Ed, 1991)
Bakibinga, D.J. Equity & Trusts in Uganda (Professional Books Publishers, 2nd
Edition, 2006).

Keeton, G.W. & Sheridan, Law of Trusts (1994)

H.G. Hambury, etal Modern Equity: The Principles of Equity (14th Ed, 1993)
E.H.T. Snell, etal The Principles of Equity (29th Ed. 1991)
Petit, Equity and the Law of Trusts (7th Ed, Butterworths, 1993) Parker
Mellows Modern Law of Trust (6th Ed, 1994)

THE CONCEPT OF A TRUST

Essence-Property held by trustees under duty to apply for benefit of Cestuis
Que Trust
See: Pilcher v Rawlins (1872) L.R. 7ch. App 2.
Distinction from other Legal Relations
(i) Bailment
Factors’ Act 1899, Ss 2,8,9 (U.K.)
Sales of Goods Act, Cap 82, SS 23-27

(ii) Agency
Bankruptcy Act, Cap 67, Ss. 35, 36, 63; Companies Act; S. 315
Re Hallet’s Estate (1880) 13 Ch. D. 696 Lister v Stubbs [1890]
45 Ch. D.!.

(iii) Contract

22

 Distinction – difficult to draw in relation to – Settlements and Covenants
to settle Beswick v Beswick [1968] A.C. 58;
Tweddle v Atkinson (1861) 1 B & s. 393; [1861-73] E.R. Rep. 124 – Third
Party Rights
Fletcher v Fletcher (1844) 4 Hare: 67; 141 L.J.C. 66

- Unincorporated Associations - Statutory

Exceptions:
Married Women’s Property Act 1882, S. 11

(iv) Debt
Potters v Loppert [1973] Ch. 399
Morley v Morley (1678) 2 Ch. Cos 2; 22 ER 817
Rees v Engel back (1871) L.R. 12 Eq. 225
Re Cowley (1885) 53 L.T. 494
Re Lester (1942) Ch. 324
Barclays Bank Ltd. v Quistclose Investments Ltd. [1970] A.C. 567
(v) Conditions & Charges
Re: Frame [1939] 2 All E, R. 865
Re: Cowley, supra
A.G.v The Cordwainer’s Co. (1863) 40 E.R. 208
Re: Oliver (1890) 62 L.T. 533
Parker v. Judkin [1931] 1 Ch.475

(vi) Office of Personal Representative a Trustee?

Adeniji v Probate Registrar 1966 NMLR 125

Harvell v Foster [1954] 2 Q.B. 367

Re Cockburn Will Trusts [1957] Ch. 438
Succession Act Cap 162

Trustees Act Cap 164 Attenborough v Salomon [1913] A.C. 76

Limitation Act cap 80

23

 (vii) Power of Appointment
Re Gestetner’s Settlement [1953] 1 All E.R 1150; [1953] Ch. 672.
Burrough v Philcox (1840) 5 My & Cr. 72
Brown v Higgs (1799) 4 ves 708. [1800 – 137]
All E.R. Rep 146
Re Weekes Settlement [1897] 1 Ch. 289
Re Coombe [1925] Ch 210
Re Perowne [1951] Ch. 785
Re Gestetner’s Settlement [1953] 1 All E.R. 1150; [1953] Ch. 672

CLASSIFICATION OF TRUSTS

Express Trusts – Subdivided into:-

Executed & Executory Trusts Soar v Ashwell (1893) 2
Q.B. 390
Re Bostock’s Settlement [1921] 2 Ch. 469
Cook v Fountain (1676) 3’ Swan 585
Re Flavell’s Will Trusts (1969) I.W.L.R. 445
Completely& Incompletely Constituted Trusts

Statute of Frauds, 1677, S. 7.

Implied Trusts
Statute of Frauds, 1677, S. 8.
Bannister v Bannister (1948) 2 ALLE. R. 133
Re Llanover Settled Estates [1926] Ch. 626
Resulting Trusts
Re Llanover Case Supra
Constructive Trusts
Bannister v Bannister (Supra)

Keech v Sandford (1726) Sel Cast T. King 61

24

 Boardman v Phipps (1967) 2 A.C. 46
Industrial Development Consultants v. Cooley (1972) IWLR 443
Soar v Ashwell, (Supra)
Selangor Unted Rubber Estates v Cradok (1968) I.W.L.R. 1555
Cook v Fountain (Supra)
Re Barney (1892) 2 Ch. 265
Eves v Eves (1975) 1.W.L.R. 1338
Re Densham (1975) 1 W.L.R 1519
Binions v Evans (1972) Ch. 359
Re Llanover Settled Estates (Supra)
Nasr v Berini Beirut Riyadh (Nig) Bank Ltd. 1968 NCLR 370
Statutory Trusts Cook v Fountain (Supra Succession Act Cap 162, S.27,50
Public and Private Trusts Keeton & Sheridan, Pp. 38 – 39

THE CREATION OF A TRUST

(A) Capacity (i) Monors: Edwards v Carter [1893] A.C. 360

(ii) Mental Abnormality

(iii) Married Women

Married Women’s Property Act, 1882
Jackson v. Hobhouse (1817) 2 Mer. 483

(iv) Companies

Companies Act Cap 110, Sched 1 Table A, Art 79,

General Auction Estate & Monetary Co. v. Smith [1891] 3 Ch.
432

(B) Formalities for Creation of Trust

- Intervivos
- Testmentary

25

 - Succession Act Cap. 162; s. 50
- Jones v. Lock (1865) L.R. 1 Ch. App. 25
- Statute of Frauds, Ss 7, a - Trust of Land
Registration of Titles Act, s. 92
Grey v I.R.C. (1960 A.C.1
Vandervell v I.R.C. (1967) A.C. 291
Grainge v. Wilberforce (1889) 5 T.L.R. 436
Re Lashmar (1891) 1. Ch. 258,

(C) Secret Trusts

(i) Nature
Succession Act Cap 162, S. 50
Crook v Brooking 2 Vern 50 (1688)
Pring v Pring 2 Vern 99 (1689)
Padmore v Gunning (1836 7 Sim 644
Blackwell v. Blackwell (1929) A.C. 318, 344-345
Jones v. Badley (1868) L.R 3 Ch. App 362, 364
- (1868) L.R. 3 Ch. App 362, 364
Per Lord Cairns
Statute of Frauds, 1677
Re Rees (1950) Ch. 304

(ii) Classification of Secret Trusts NB Maudsley, Modern Equity P. 715

Nathan & Marshall Cases & Commentary on the Law of Trusts
Stckland v Aldridge (1804) 9 Ves Jr. 516
Mc Cormick v. Grogan (1869) I.R. 4H. L. 82
Blackwell v Blackwell (Supra)
Re Young (1951) Ch. 344

(iii) Where the settlor Discloses to Legatee Existence of a Trust but Not its
Terms
26

 Re Boyes (1884) Ch. D. 344
Re Gardner (1920) 2 Ch. 23

(iv) Communication
(v) Additions To Secret Trust
Re Colin Cooper [1939] Ch. 586,811
(vi) Promise to leave By Will
Re Gardner (No. 1) (1920) 2 Ch. 523
Ottaway v Norman (1972) [1972] Ch 698

(vii) Half-Secret Trust

Moss v Cooper (1861) I J & H 352, 367
Blackwell v Blackwell (Supra)
Re Fleetwood (1880) 15 Ch. D. 694
Re Huxtable (1902) 2 Ch. 793
NB Per Lord Summer, Blackwell’s Case Pp 339-340
Holdsworth (1937) Law Quarterly Review 501
Re Keen (1937) Ch. 236
Distinguishing
Blackwell v Blackwell

Re Fleetwood
Re Huxtable

Succession Act Cap 162, S. 50

Re Bateman’s W.T. (1970) 1 WLR 1436

Completely & Incompletely Constituted Trusts:

- Definition
- Importance of distinction: Completely & Incompletely Constituted
Trusts
Ellison v Ellison (1802) 6 ves. 656, 662.

27

 TRANSFER OF PROPERTY TO TRUSTEES ON TRUST
Milroy v. Lord (1862 4 De G.F. & J. 264, 274 per Turner L.J.
Companies Act, Cap. 110, S 77
Copyright Act Cap 81
Re Cole (1964) Ch. 175.
Bills of Exchange Act, Cap 68, S. 30
Re Rose (1958) Ch. 498

Re King (1819) 14 Ch. D. 179

Jafferys v Jefferys (1841) Cr & Ph. 138
Gilbert v Overton (1864) 2H & M 100
Kekewich v Manning (1851) 1 D. Gm & G 176
Re Bowden (1936) Ch. 71

Declaration of Trust by Settlor

Re Rose supra
Jones v Lock (1865) L.R. 1 Ch. App. 25
Lady Naas v. Westminster Bank Ltd. [1940] A.C. 366
Richards v Delbridge (1874) L.K. 18 Eq. 11
Middleton v Pollock (1876) 2 Ch. D. 104
Francois v. Bank of West Africa Ltd 3 WA LR 439

Covenants to Settle

Keeton & Sheridan (10th Ed), P. 85

De Mestre v West (1891) A.C. 264

Newslead v. Scarles(1737) 1 Atk. 265
Clark v. wright (1861) 6 H & N 849
Re Plumptre’s Marriage Settlement (1910) 1 Ch. 609

28

 Cannon v Hartley (1919) Ch. 213
Plullan v. Koe (1913) 1 Ch. 9
Re. Cook’s Settlemetn Trsuts [1965] ch. 902

EXCEPTIONS TO THE RULE THAT EQUITY WILL NOT ASSIST A VOLUNTEER

Donation Mortis Causa Cain v Moon (1896) 2 Q.B 283

Wilkes v Allington (1931) 2 Ch. 104

Re Weston (1902) 1 Ch. 680
Birch v Treasury Solicitor [1951] Ch. 298
Delegate v Fader [1939] Ch. 922

Non-Applicability to Wills

Rule in Strong v Bird (1874) L.R. 18 Eq. 315

Re James [1935] Ch. 449; Re Ralli’s W.T. [1964] 2 Ch. 288

Re Ralli’s W.T. [1964] 2 ch. 288

Re Freeland [1952] Ch. 110

Re Wale [1952] 1 W.L.R. 1346

Re Innes [1910] 1 Ch. 188

Re Greens [1949] ch. 333

Equitable Estoppel
Kadilinye Chap. 15
Fabnmi Chap. 6

Central Land Trust v. Hightrees House [1947] K.B. 130

Statutory Exceptions

Requirements for a Valid Trust

Knight v Knight (1840) 3 Beav 148, 172-173

29

 Certainty of words

Lambe v Eames (1871) L.R. 6 Ch. 597

In Re Adams & the Kensington Vestry (1884) 27 Ch. D 394

Musssoorie Bank Ltd. v Raynor (1882(7 App. Cas 321

Comiskey v Bowning-Hanbury (1905) A.C. 84

Re Steele’s Will Trusts (1981) Ch. 603

In Re Burley ((1910) 1 Ch. 215

Succession Act Cap 139, S. 76

Certainty of Subject Matter

Re Diggles (1888) 39 Ch. D. 253

Curtis v Rippon (1820) 5 Madd 434
Bardswell v Bardswell (1839) 9 Sim 319
Knight v Knight (Supra)
Re Jones (1898) 1 Ch. 438
Re Golay’s will Trusts (1965) 1 W.L.R.R. 969
Sprange v Barnard (1789) 2 Bro C.C. 585
Burrough v Philcox (1840) 5 Myl & Cr. 72
Mcphail v Doulton (1971) A.C. 424

Certainty of objects
Re Endacott (1960) Ch. 232; [1959] 3 All E, R, 562
Re Vandervell’s Trusts (No. 2) [1974) Ch. P. 319
Morice v Bishop of Durham (1804) 9 Ves. 399 (1805) 10 Ves. 522
Re Astor’s S.T [1952] Ch. 534; [1952] 1 All E.R. 1067
Re Flavel’s W.T. [1969] 1 W.L.R. 444
Mcphail v Doulton (Supra), Houston v Burns [1918] A.C. 337
Houston v. Burns (1918) A.C. 337

30

 Re Gulbenkian’s Settlements [1970] A.C. 508
Harland v Trigg (1782) 1 Broc. C. 142 Meredith v Heneage
(1824) 1 Sim 542; Sale v Moore (1827) 1 Sim 534
Re Wood [1949] Ch. 498

Effect of Uncertainty
Word
Subject Matter
Re Jones (1898) 1 Ch 438

Discretionary and Protective Trusts

Discretionary Trusts
Nature
Abasi v Kopon (1921) 5 N.L.R.
Re Coleman [1936] Ch. 528
Re Allen, - Myrick’s W.T. [1966] 1 W.L.R. 499
C. f Re Gulbenkian’s Settlements (No.2) [1970] Ch. 408
Re Gulbenkian’s Settlement [1970] A. C. 508
McPhail v Doulton [1971] A.C. 424
Houston v Burns [1918] A.C. 337
Article: Paul Matthews, “A Heresy and A half in Certainty of
Objects” (1984) Con v.

Protective Trusts
Rochford v Hackman (1852) 9 Hare 475
Brandon v Robinson (1811) 18 ves. 429
Re Baring’s Settlement Trusts [1940] Ch 737
Re Gourju’s Will Trusts [1942] Ch. 24
Re Wittke [1944] Ch. 166
Re Parot’s Settlement Trusts [1952] Ch. 427
Re Richardson’s W.T. [1958] Ch. 504
Holmes v Penney (1856), 3 K. & J. 90
Re Ashby [1892] 1 Q.B. 872

31

 Godden v Crowhurst (1842). 10 Sim 642
Page v Way (1840), 3 Beav. 20
Trustees Act Cap 164, S. 33

Trusts To Pay Creditors

Smith v Hurst (1852) 10 Hare 30, 47

Cornthwaite v Frith (1851), 4 De G & sm 552
Bankruptcy Act, Cap 67 S. 17
Garrard v Lauderdalo (1830), 3 Sim 1; (1831) 2 Kusa & M 451
Harland v Binks (1850), 15 Q.B. 71
Bankruptcy Act, Supra,S. 18 (13), (14)
Synnot v Simpson, (1845) 5 H.L.C. 121
Re Fitzgerald’s Settlement (1887) 37 Ch. D. 18
Mackinnon v Steward (1850) Sim N.S. 76
Sharp v. Jackson (1897) 2 Q.B. 19. (1899) A.C. 419
Bankruptcy Act, (Supra) ss. 18 (14), (15), (16), (18), 46
Smith v. Cooks [1891] A.C. 297

Trusts for Sale

Trustees Act, Cap 164, S. 13
Settled Land Acts 1882-1884
Re Atkins’ Will Trusts [1984] 1 W.L.R. 761
Re: Norton [1929]
Re: Leigh’s Settled Estates (No. 1) [1926]
Re: Parker’s Settled Estates [1928] Ch. 247
Howe v Dartmouth (1801), 7 Ves. 137

Additional cases on Equity & Trusts

Sempa Mbabali v Kidza [1985] He B46 bonafide purchaser for value.

urono Onchoke v Kerebi c/o Ondieki 6 Court of Review Reports 2 (1958).
Timina Olenja v. Elam Kaya 10 Court of Review Reports 8 (1961).
R v. Luke Maranjula (1949-54) Law Reports of N. Rhodesia 140.
Ole Olos v Nalulus Kidoki (1915) 5 E.A.L.R. 210 (Kenya)
Guao bin Kilimo v. Kisunda bin Ifuti (1938) I T.L.R. 403 (Tanganyika).
Kwe Ku Kodieh v Kwami Afram (1930) I W.A.C.A. 12.
Ashiemoa v Bani [1959] G.L.R. 130.
32

 Karuru v. Njeri [1968] E.A. 361.
John Oitamong v Mohammed Olinga [1985] HCB86 Delay & acquiescence.
Mubiro & Anors v Byensiba & Anor [1985] HCB 106.
Sekayombya v. Uganda Steel Copr [1984 HCB42 restituo in intergrum.
Sheikha Kagimu Mulumba & Ors [1980] HCB 110 temporary injunction.
Bishari v. Vitafoam Ltd. Civil Appear No. 29/92 (S.C.) Specific Performance.
In the Matter of Kasiita Estates Ltd. [982] HCB 107 rectification of Company’s
register.
Kenyi v. Grindlays Bank (U) Ltd [1982] HCB 116 discovery of documents.
Odido v Lebel (EA) Ltd & 20rs [1987] HCB 77 temporary Injunction.
Yesero Mugenyi v. Wandera [1987] HCB 78 temporary Injunction. Wasswa
v Kakooza [1987] HCB 79 temporary Injunction.
Devani v Badressa [1972] EA 22 temporary Injunction
Musoke v Kezaala [1987] HCB 81 temporary Injunction
Serunjogi v Katabira [1988-90] HCB 149 specific performance
Mugalula v. Musoke & Ors [1984] HCB 53 constructive trust
Mugimu v Basabosa [1991] HCB 70 Mareva Injunction
Farah Alli v Mayambaza [1991] HCB 97 temporary Injunction
UCB v General Parts (U) Ltd. [1992-1993] HCB 210 Injunction

Repugnancy Doctrine
Rex v. Amkeyo (1917) 7 F.A.L.R. 14.
Mohammed v. R. [1963] E.A. 188.
Koy Koy Jatta v Menna Camera & Anor. Journ of Af Law 35 1964.
Omwoyo Mairura v Bosire Ayinda 6 Court of Review Reports 4 (1958).

33