Module 1: Land
Land as a Resource
Land is a vital natural resource that supports life, provides space for agriculture, forests,
settlements, and industries.
Types of Lands
Agricultural land – used for farming.
Forest land – covered by trees and vegetation.
Grazing land – used for livestock.
Wasteland – degraded or unproductive land.
Urban land – used for cities and infrastructure.
Conservation of Landforms
Involves protecting natural features like mountains, valleys, and plateaus through afforestation,
controlled mining, regulated construction, and eco-friendly tourism.
Deforestation
The large-scale removal of forests, leading to habitat loss, soil erosion, and climate change.
Effects of Land Use Changes
Loss of biodiversity
Soil erosion and degradation
Water scarcity
Urban sprawl
Decline in agricultural productivity
Soil Health
Refers to the soil's ability to function effectively, supporting plant growth, regulating water, and
sustaining biodiversity.
Ecological and Economic Importance of Soil
Ecological: Supports ecosystems, filters water, stores carbon.
Economic: Essential for agriculture, construction, and industries.
Impact of Soil Degradation
Reduced crop yields
Increased food insecurity
Higher use of fertilizers
Loss of livelihood for farmers
Need for Soil Conservation
To maintain fertility, prevent erosion, and ensure long-term food security.
Sustainable Land Use Planning
Involves using land efficiently and responsibly to balance development needs with
environmental protection, ensuring long-term productivity and ecological balance.
Module 2: Water
Water Resources Overview
Global water resources: About 97% of Earth’s water is saline; only ~3% is freshwater,
of which most is locked in glaciers and groundwater. Usable surface water is very
limited.
Indian water resources: India has ~4% of global freshwater resources for ~18% of the
world’s population. Average annual water availability ~4000 billion m³, but usable
potential ~1122 billion m³ (surface + groundwater).
Resource System Planning
Planning ensures efficient use of water for different sectors and regions through storage,
distribution, and management (dams, canals, groundwater recharge, etc.).
Water Use Sectors
1. Domestic – drinking, sanitation, household use.
2. Industrial – cooling, processing, manufacturing.
3. Agriculture – irrigation is the largest consumer (~80% of India’s water use).
Water Deficit & Surplus Basins in India
Deficit basins: e.g., Cauvery, Krishna, Pennar, Sabarmati, etc. (mainly southern &
western India).
Surplus basins: e.g., Brahmaputra, Ganga, Mahanadi, Godavari (eastern & north-eastern
India).
Equitable Distribution & Inter-Basin Transfers
Aim: balance between surplus and deficit basins.
Interlinking of rivers (ILR):
o Himalayan component – large storages & long canals to transfer water from
north to drought-prone areas.
o Peninsular component – linking east-flowing and west-flowing rivers to share
water.
Issues: displacement, environmental impacts, cost, interstate disputes.
Groundwater in India
Accounts for ~60% of irrigation and ~85% of drinking water supply.
Potential: ~430 billion m³ annually, but over-exploited in states like Punjab, Haryana,
Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu.
Conjunctive use: combined use of surface and groundwater to reduce over-dependence.
Recharge methods: rainwater harvesting, check dams, percolation tanks, recharge wells.
Groundwater Problems
Contamination: arsenic (Bengal, Bihar), fluoride (Rajasthan, AP), nitrate (fertilizer use).
Sea water ingress: in coastal areas due to over-extraction (e.g., Gujarat, Tamil Nadu).
Solutions: regulated groundwater extraction, artificial recharge, desalination, better irrigation
practices (drip, sprinkler), wastewater treatment and reuse.
Module 3: Air
Air – Introduction & Composition
Air composition: ~78% nitrogen, ~21% oxygen, ~0.93% argon, ~0.04% CO₂, plus trace
gases (ozone, water vapor, pollutants).
Clean air is vital for respiration, climate regulation, and ecosystems.
Air Pollutants
Sources:
o Natural – volcanoes, forest fires, dust storms, pollen.
o Anthropogenic – industries, vehicles, burning of fuels, agriculture (fertilizers,
stubble burning).
Classification:
o Primary pollutants – emitted directly (SO₂, CO, NOx, PM, hydrocarbons).
o Secondary pollutants – formed by reactions (ozone, PAN, photochemical smog).
National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS – India, CPCB)
Set for pollutants like PM₁₀, PM₂.₅, SO₂, NO₂, CO, O₃, Pb, NH₃, Benzene.
Provide permissible concentration limits for public health and environment.
Air Quality Index (AQI)
Composite measure of air quality for pollutants.
Categories: Good, Satisfactory, Moderate, Poor, Very Poor, Severe.
Helps public understand daily air pollution levels.
Effects of Air Pollution
Human health: respiratory diseases (asthma, bronchitis, COPD), cardiovascular
diseases, cancers, eye/skin irritation.
Economic effects: reduced agricultural productivity, damage to buildings (acid rain),
increased healthcare costs, reduced labor productivity.
Control of Air Pollution
Equipment/techniques:
o Cyclone separators, electrostatic precipitators, scrubbers, filters.
o Catalytic converters in vehicles.
Smoke control: use of cleaner fuels (LPG, CNG), improved combustion, chimneys, flue-
gas desulfurization.
Ozone Depletion
Cause: CFCs, halons, and other ODS releasing chlorine & bromine in stratosphere.
Photochemical changes: breakdown of ozone (O₃) into oxygen due to catalytic
reactions.
Impacts: increased UV radiation, skin cancer, cataracts, reduced crop yields, marine
ecosystem damage.
Module 4: Biodiversity & Ecosystem
🌱 Biodiversity
Introduction
Biodiversity = variety of life forms (flora & fauna) at genetic, species & ecosystem
levels.
India is a megadiverse country with rich flora & fauna.
Flora & Fauna
Flora: plants, trees, shrubs, herbs, grasses.
Fauna: animals, birds, insects, reptiles, amphibians, aquatic species.
Importance of Biodiversity
Ecological: balance of ecosystems, nutrient cycling, pollination.
Economic:
o Medicinal plants & drugs – Ayurveda, allopathic medicines from plants (e.g.,
neem, cinchona, periwinkle).
o Fisheries – food & livelihood.
o Biogeochemical cycles – carbon, nitrogen, oxygen cycles maintained.
Threats to Biodiversity
Natural disturbances: floods, earthquakes, droughts, forest fires.
Anthropogenic (human-caused): habitat loss (deforestation, urbanization),
overexploitation, invasive species, pollution, climate change.
Conservation of Biodiversity
In-situ conservation (protect species in natural habitat):
o National parks, Wildlife sanctuaries, Biosphere reserves.
Ex-situ conservation (outside natural habitat):
o Zoological gardens, gene banks, seed banks, pollen culture, botanical
gardens.
Ecological restoration: restoring degraded ecosystems.
Social forestry: community-based afforestation & sustainable use of forests.
🌍 Ecosystem
Definition
Functional unit of nature with biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) components
interacting.
Types of Ecosystems
1. Terrestrial:
o Forest, Grassland, Desert.
2. Aquatic:
o Marine – oceans, seas.
o Freshwater:
Lotic (running water – rivers, streams).
Lentic (still water – lakes, ponds).
o Wetlands & Estuarine – transition zones, highly productive.
Components
Abiotic: soil, water, air, temperature, minerals, sunlight.
Biotic:
o Producers (plants, algae),
o Consumers (herbivores, carnivores, omnivores),
o Decomposers (fungi, bacteria).
Module 5: Global warming
🌡 Global Warming
Concept
Long-term rise in average temperature of Earth’s atmosphere due to greenhouse gases
(GHGs) like CO₂, CH₄, N₂O, CFCs.
Indicators
Rising global surface temperature.
Melting glaciers & polar ice caps.
Rising sea levels.
Increased frequency of extreme weather (heat waves, cyclones).
Factors
Natural: volcanic eruptions, solar activity.
Anthropogenic: burning fossil fuels, deforestation, industrial emissions, agriculture.
Effects
Glacial retreat, desertification, droughts.
Sea level rise → flooding of coastal areas.
Ocean acidification.
Threats to agriculture & food security.
🌍 Global Climate Change
Indicators
Increased average global temperature.
Changes in precipitation patterns.
More intense storms, floods, droughts.
Health Impacts
Heat strokes, respiratory problems (air pollution), spread of vector-borne diseases
(malaria, dengue).
Effect on Biodiversity
Habitat loss, species extinction.
Coral bleaching.
Shifts in migration & breeding cycles.
🌱 Global Efforts in Conservation of Biodiversity
International agreements:
o CBD (Convention on Biological Diversity, 1992 – Rio Earth Summit).
o CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species).
o Paris Agreement (2015) – climate action & biodiversity link.
National efforts: Wildlife Protection Act (1972), Biological Diversity Act (2002),
National Biodiversity Authority.
📑 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) – India
Regulations
Governed under EIA Notification, 2006 (MoEFCC, India).
Mandates assessment of environmental impacts of proposed projects.
Status in India
EIA is mandatory for certain categories of projects.
Public participation & expert appraisal committees are included, but implementation is
often weak (issues: delays, poor monitoring, political pressure).
Projects requiring Environmental Clearance under EIA Notification
Mining, thermal power plants, hydropower, highways, ports, airports, townships, river
valley projects, cement plants, etc.
⚡ Case Studies
Hydropower (Tehri Dam, Uttarakhand):
o Pros: renewable power, irrigation, flood control.
o Cons: displacement of people, submergence of forests, landslides, biodiversity
loss.
Thermal Power (Singrauli, MP/UP):
o Pros: energy generation for industries & cities.
o Cons: air pollution (SO₂, NOx, fly ash), health hazards, groundwater depletion,
displacement.
