PRODUCTION

AUDIOVISUAL

Otavia Alves Cé
Script models
Learning objectives
At the end of this text, you should present the following learnings:

Define script.
Recognize the main screenwriters in the history of cinema.
Apply scripts for organizations.

Introduction
In this chapter, you will learn definitions and concepts regarding the
script, one of the fundamental components of the pre-production process of
any audiovisual piece. At first, you will get to know the
movie scripts and then the scripts applied to communication
of companies and brands. Finally, you will get to know some of the main names
from the construction of the film script.

Script: concepts and definitions

The figure of the screenwriter appeared in cinema with the division of labor in the medium.
cinematographic: actor, producer, director, and screenwriter. From 1912, Thomas
Harper Ince, the first great producer, introduced modern techniques of
production and began to require its directors to present and execute
perfectionist scripts, elaborated in detail. However, D.W. Griffith,
your contemporary did not write a line of his scripts, and in films
As Intolerance, the director solidified this idea, bringing it to the recording and
In editing. In silent film comedies, no script was written,
having only one screenwriter specialized in jokes (gagman), who thought
in the scenes and the visual jokes that permeated the story told. In the years
1930, with the arrival of sound cinema, the script became a necessity-
dude, due to the introduction of dialogues as a fundamental element for the
building of the plot.
2 Script models

But after all, what is a script? Also called a descript, it is the tool
fundamental on which an audiovisual work is built. It is the materialization
in words of the set of images viewed in the author's imagination
from the idea and with which he will build the story. According to Cook and Bernink
(1999, p. 322):

History is understood as a series of events, characters, and actions inter-

related from which the audience creates a diegesis or a world
more broadly fictional. Since the stories come to us with flaws and in-
narrative formation out of order, one of the primary tasks of the viewer is
to reconstruct the tale in terms of its fictional time and space, but also
clarify the cause and effect relationships between elements.

Based on the script, one can begin the preparation of pre-production (budget-
mentos, purchase or transfer of rights, location plan, distribution,
work plan, etc.). The script can be original or a result of an adaptation,
whether it originally be a play, a story, or a novel.
Every script must have two intrinsic characteristics: flexibility and
modifiability. A script should never be considered fixed or closed
(especially those for TV). A script does not have fixed guidelines, that is,
each format and each screenwriter is a particular case.
Although there is no fixed formula, scripts can be classified
according to your needs, according to the type of production to which
will be applied:

1. Those who demand a complete and total script (drama, movies, design-
animated cartoons) are what is considered "iron writing", also called
of 'montagema priori'. conceived by the Russian director Vsevolod
Pudovkin. In this model, everything is planned and exposed.
2.Those without a script use only a simple outline.
giving a guide of the intentions of what is intended with the work. Examples of
its use can be found in news reports, interviews,
etc. Initially conceptualized by the Russian filmmaker Dziga Vertov as
"cinema-eye", this type of script is born with the editing, starting from the
possibilities that the recorded material presents.
3. Finally, there are scripts that allow partial scripts. Sergei Eisenstein
talk about a script in a state of equilibrium in relation to the previous ones.
These scripts would be applied to documentaries, major reports,
variety shows, competitions, sports broadcasts, etc.
 Script models 3

Phases of script construction

According to Field (2001), the following phases mark the production process of
a script. Each of them has its function, as well as its delimitations.
techniques and narratives.

1. The idea: the idea is the principle and motivation of all production. It will be
present throughout the entire production process. The narrative will be
her service. It is a pre-literary phase, that is, undocumented, it is a
declaration of intention or purpose. The inspiring sources of the idea
will be as broad and ambiguous as reality or the imagination of
each individual.
2. The argument: it is the first literary phase in the process of writing the
script. In it, the idea is developed, and the content is briefly summarized,
the history and future goal of production. The plot is told in
present tense and must describe the essential events of the story and
its main characters.
3. Treatment or adaptation (sequential script):describe the scenarios,
the action and the characters, as well as their relationships. It is structured
sequentially, without distinguishing some scenes from others. He omits
secondary details of the action and does not include dialogues. With it, one can
to know the shooting plan, the preventive budgets, to have a
location idea, etc.
4. Synopsis: a word that comes from Greek and can be translated as something that
"can be recognized at a glance." It is a brief and concise narrative of the
history and its characters. Its narrative structure follows an order
sequential events. It serves as a form of promotion of produ-
terms of service (of interest to the advertising promotion department or
sponsorship acquisition.
5. Outline or technical production synopsis: consists of a list
ordered from the various scenes with a brief description of the action and the
characters involved in each of them. One should include an esti-
time motivation to know how long the action should last. It can facilitate
the preparation of production in terms of plan preparation
shooting schedule, budget or production cost. It is essential in
non-dramatic programs. Very useful in TV news genres,
like a report.
4 Script models

6. Literary script: it can be considered as the final phase of the script.

The actions, relationships, and locations are perfectly
developed, as well as the dialogues. It should not contain any
indication or observation of a technical nature. The dialogue should enrich
to dialetically create the image. As in the entire writing process
of the script (the idea, the plot, etc.), in the literary script, simple sentences
they must be used, without adverbs, without subordination, with adjectives
essential and descriptive; there should be punctuation patterns for rhythm; and
the structure "approach-development-result" is used.
7.Work script: develops the narration through scenes or sequences
mechanics (the action occurs in a unit of space and time). All
actions and dialogues are incorporated. It can be considered a script
technical, to which all the necessary precisions are added for the
recording: props, hours and order of recording, special effects, etc.
8.The technical script is the basis for the filming of the audiovisual work.
It is the sole responsibility of the director. The director adapts the content.
the literary script and incorporates precise technical notes. It is a
rigorous planning, which must be segmented into sequences, scenes
and plans. It must have two fundamental characteristics so as not to affect the
work plan and the final budget, which are: precision (objectivity
not that will be filmed) and concreteness (effective possibility of realization
than what is described).
9. Graphic script: also called storyboard, is a set of
illustrations shown in sequence, with the aim of serving as
guide to understanding a story, visualizing an animation or following the
structure of a movie before its filming. It is used in advertising,
animation and in complicated and expensive sequences.

Parts of a script
A script is a story told in images, dialogues, and descriptions, loca-
analyzed in the context of the dramatic structure. As such, it has a beginning, middle and
film. For its realization, the scripts follow a kind of paradigm that
keeps the story cohesive. The paradigm should be seen as a form,
and not as a formula. Figure 1, below, presents a model of
paradigm of a movie script.
 Script models 5

Figure 1. Paradigm model of a movie script.

Source: Field (2001, p. 13).

Act I - the presentation: it is the beginning of the narrative, the introduction of the topic.
It must present: the story, the characters, the dramatic premise (the
the subject that the movie deals with), the situation (circumstances surrounding the
action) and the relationship between the main character and the other characters
that inhabit the scene. Field (2001, p. 14) presents an example:

In Witness, written by Earl Wallace and William Kelley, the

the first ten pages reveal the world of the Amish (traditionalist religious people)
established in the north of the United States) in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania,
the death of Rachel's husband, which motivates her trip, with her small child
no, to Philadelphia, where the boy witnesses the murder of a police officer
secret, and this leads to the relationship with the main character, John
Book, represented by Harrison Ford. The entire first act is conceived.
to reveal the premise and the dramatic situation, and the relationship between a
Amish woman and a tough cop from Philadelphia.

Act II — the confrontation: in this part, the main character faces

obstacle after obstacle, preventing her from reaching her need
dramatic. The dramatic necessity is what the main character
want to overcome, win, have, or achieve during the journey. What drives her
through action? What does the character desire? What is their need?
The screenwriter, who knows the dramatic necessity of the character, is
capable of creating obstacles that she must overcome. It should be emphasized
that all drama is conflict. Without conflict, there is no character. Without
character, there is no action. Without action, there is no story. Without a story, there is no
there is a script. As illustrated by Field (2001, p. 15):
6 Script models

In Chinatown, a detective story, Act II shows Jack Nicholson in

clash with people who try to prevent him from discovering who was responsible
guilty of the murder of Hollis Mulwray and who is behind the scandal
of the water. The obstacles that Jake Gittes encounters and overcomes dictate the action dra-
mathematics of history.

Act III — the resolution: resolution does not mean end, but rather solution.
Nela, the initial question presented in Act I is resolved.
positive or not). A script that does not address this issue is a script
it fails, as it does not meet the expectations of its audience. Unlike
In resolution, the ending is the scene or sequence that concludes the narrative.
leaving questions open to be resolved in a
possible sequence, or just to stimulate the audience's imagination. And
How are the transitions between one act and another made? Through the points.
turning points (plot twists/plot point). Turning points are incidents,
episodes or events that align the action and reverse it in another direction,
driving the narrative towards resolution. For example:

In Witness, after John Book has tried all the confrontations and
police photographic files to identify the murderer, he is on the phone
and we follow Samuel, the boy, as he walks around the police station. He stops
in front of the showcase, examines the trophies lined up inside and catches a glimpse of the cut
from a newspaper clipping in the interior. He looks closer at the photo of
Cut out and identify the man depicted as the killer of the undercover policeman.
on page 10 of the script. Book looks at the boy, puts down the headphone, approaches the
boy in slow motion and kneels beside him. Samuel points at the portrait and
He nods his head in sign of understanding. He knows who the killer is.
Now he has to deliver it to justice. This is the Turning Point I (PlotPoint
What occurs on page 25 of the script (FIELD, 2001, p. 16).

It is important to emphasize that the backbone, the skeleton, and the history is that
they determine the structure, never the opposite. That is, the format of the script
it must always fit the narrative to be portrayed, and not the other way around. Not
there is, for example, a correct number of pages to be written for it to
each of the acts is effective.

In general, one page of a script equals 1 minute of projection.

 Script models 7

Screenwriters who made history

When asked about what is necessary for the achievement of a good
In the film, a phrase is attributed to Alfred Hitchcock, who is said to have stated that, in order to

"You need three things: the script, the script, and the script." Define what
a good script is an essential role of audiovisual production and intersects
subjective questions.
To compile a list of the best and most influential screenwriters in history
In cinema, it is necessary to question: what is the essence of the screenwriter's art?
Plot? Dialogues? Characters? All this and more? Taking as a basis the
criteria of the American Film Association (AFI), among them popularity and the
level of contribution to narrative stylistics, some names can be mentioned
as representatives whose works must be taken into account when
it is about writing a screenplay. They are:

Ingmar Bergman (1918–2007): Bergman is widely regarded

one of the best authors in cinema. Any aspiring filmmaker
must study The Seventh Seal and Persona, both brands of direction and
writing. Bergman's stories are dark and surreal, often
shocking, focusing on the subconscious. However, it was his work of
seminal drama Fanny and Alexander that firmly established its
status as one of the true greats.
Woody Allen (1935): titles like Annie Hall, Manhattan, Hannah
and your sisters, more recently, Midnight in Paris gives the
Woody Allen the title of master of satire. His work is permeated
through insightful dialogues. However, the most relevant aspect of his work is the
frequently addressed theme: universal themes such as loneliness
urban, alienation and living a life of pretense.
Billy Wilder (1906–2002): memorable lines, memorable characters
voices, honest stories, these are the main marks of the work of
Wilder. The Apartment, Some Like it Hot, Sunset Boulevard
Indemnity is examples of its narrative.
Jean-Luc Godard (1930): Godard defined the cinematographic movement
known as the French Nouvelle Vague, featuring masterpieces
Breathless A Band of Outsiders. Your work has influenced many
modern masters of cinema, such as Martin Scorsese, Quentin Tarantino
and Steven Soderbergh.
8 Script models

Charlie Kaufman (1960): representative of the new Hollywood generation

Diana, Kaufman is considered one of the most original screenwriters and
Daring of the modern era. I want to be John Malkovich Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind

a mind without memories carries the mark of its work: shocking,

surreal and at the same time comforting.
Stanley Kubrick (1928–1999): Kubrick was famous for being controlling,
demanding nothing short of absolute perfection. Two of its adaptations,
A Clockwork Orange and The Shining are controversial in the sense that
they deviated significantly from the original material, much to the
ira of the original creators. However, it was the adapted writing from Kubrick.
which gave the cited films the status of classics and works of art.
Quentin Tarantino (1963): considered one of the greatest masters of
Tarantino masters the art of dialogue and staging, making
use of voltage escalation with only a few lines. Examples of its
Writing includes the renowned Pulp Fiction and Inglourious Basterds.
Francis Ford Coppola (1939): considered one of the best directors
of all time, Coppola is also celebrated when it comes to
your work as a screenwriter. Among your most notable works are
the trilogy of The Godfather and Apocalypse Now.
Joel (1954) and Ethan Coen (1957): the Coen brothers perfected the art
to write neo-noir plays with intelligent dialogues. Considered
masters in technical script, are also celebrated for creative aspects
in the writing and adaptation of his works. An example of his work
It is the adaptation of the novel Where the Weak Don't Have a Chance.

Akira Kurosawa (1910–1998): the best known and probably the

most celebrated filmmaker of Japan, Akira Kurosawa was a presence
global and influential in the context of cinema. It brought attention
unprecedented for Asian films and paved the way for
other filmmakers from their country were recognized worldwide. Their
films challenged all conventions, inaugurating a new style
of entertainment, with wide-eyed visuals and fascinating sequences
of action. Their narratives had elements to disturb, enchant and
surprise, with its distinct and indelible characters. Illustrate your
I work on the films The Seven Samurai and The Hidden Fortress.
 Script models 9

Are you curious to know what are considered the best movie scripts of
All times? Check out, through the following link, the listing made by the Writers Guild.
of America.

Unable to translate the provided link as it does not contain text.

Scripts in practice: beyond the film script

Despite being the most representative model of the category, the movie script
(master scenes) is truly complex and, at times, very subjective when the
the subject deals with the communication of organizations. Thus, other mo-
simpler and more straightforward, are used when the topic is television
or commercial or institutional audiovisual production.

Television schedule
On television, the term 'escaleta' is used to refer to the document that defines
schematically the progression of a program, marking the elements that
they make up the continuity — such as the input of characters, videos, connections
live or advertising breaks - with a detailed description and the most
As soon as possible. The main function of the outline is to sequence the elements.
that make up continuity. Each of these elements must be identified
unequivocally (and uniquely) identified, to avoid confusion, mainly
in live moments. These elements depend on the genre or type of
content, but they can be the sections that make up the program, the characters
involved, the videos that are released or the content of each segment (p.
e.g., previously edited news). In certain multi-camera programs
live (like news programs), the script refers only to the order of the blocks (or
primary divisions of the program) or to the sections (which are usually assigned
to a specific screenwriter or editor.
10 Script models

Script in two columns

A two-column audiovisual script is a preparatory document that is ge-
commonly used to establish a first approach to what will be presented
on the screen, in formats such as news or advertising films. In the case of
news broadcast frequently evolves from what was previously imagined and recorded
during filming, adapting to the statements obtained in the interviews, by
Example. It is separated into two columns, which describe what is seen and
what is heard. When confronting the text being written with the images
what are considered ideal to illustrate it, there is a very close idea
how the product will be, which allows for the preparation of the necessary material
to complete it more accurately. On occasions when the document is
elaborated, more columns can be added to include the number of each
cut (which would correspond to the number of each line), the file number, the
original material start time code and duration, constituting the
what could be called a mounting description. It is also useful, for example,
when an editor and a filmmaker work together and share the work,
so the editor or screenwriter expresses the vision of how they would like the
audiovisual work was developed, and the filmmaker is responsible for obtaining
images and sounds and to achieve it. Table 1 below presents an example
illustrative script in two columns.

Table 1. Illustrative example of a two-column script for an advertising film

Client Customer name

Name of the audiovisual production company

Producer

Job Type of video (e.g., promotional institutional, etc.)

Service Script

Data Date of execution

(Continues)
 Script models 11

(Continuation)

Figure 1. Illustrative example of a two-column script for an advertising film

Video Audio

1 Description of the images. SOUNDTRACK: music

Example: environment.
Girl arrives home with a sad look.
Mother notices. MOTHER: What happened, daughter?

2 Girl's room. The door is closed. MOTHER: Can I come in?

Mother knocks on the door.

3 Interior of the room. Girl is looking. GIRL: My colleague doesn't give me

your soccer jersey. let's play soccer.
MOTHER: And why doesn't he allow it?
GIRL: Because he said that
girl doesn't play ball.
4 Soccer field. Girl arrives with VOICEOVER (OFF)
the mother accompanied by a team of Don't let your dreams be
football composed only of women. They regrets from others.
I'm playing ball.

Expanded two-column script

In some bibliographies also referred to as a technical script, the script
in two columns expanded is similar to the two-column script, however
includes the segmentation of sequences and scenes into numbered shots
correlative and all the technical information necessary to plan the recording:
identification of the plan, object(s) framed, size of the plan, angle of
filming, camera movements, lighting, sounds, decorations, accessories,
etc. The unit of the technical script is the plan, and the order in which they are shown
the elements is the order of the final assembly. It is a document addressed to everyone
the technical team serves as the basis for planning:

The producer expresses basic or general notions of the narrative-expressive style.

The producer uses it to break down, budget, plan, and coordinate the plan.
of the filming.
The production assistant, along with the production team, uses it.
to establish the filming plan.
All other technicians involved in image preparation or capture
and they use it to plan their respective tasks in the recording.
12 Script models

The director expresses, in the technical script, all the elements that compose the
film, and based on the reflected and chosen elements, its style of execution
is shaped. That is, it defines what will be shown to the viewer and what will be
hidden; shows a certain portion of space and, consequently, hides
the rest; shows a time, dilated or compressed, and eliminates elements
secondary.
When a technical script is prepared, what is understood and what is intended
emotionally transmit to the viewer is managed. Each shot must be
conceived in itself, but considering the plan that precedes it and what the
and even its position in the set of films. When planning a session,
it is also important to keep in mind the assembly of the material, so that
an artistic director must coordinate not only with the filmmaker and the director of
photography, but also with the editor. The following Figure 2 presents a
illustrative example of a part of a technical script.

Table 2. Illustrative example of part of a technical script

Action Plan FX Time

Mother watching Plan Som 5 seconds

on television. Daughter set environment
pass hurriedly (noises of
behind the sofa. television and
noise of the
door of
Scene 1 house opening
and closing)

Mom, still Medium plan I am 3 seconds

sitting on environment
sofa, you see (noises of
that something is television
wrong.

Closed door Medium plan Som 2 seconds

of the room environment
Scene 2 girl. Mother light beat
come and hit at the door)
at the door.
 Script models 13

Scripts applied to organizations

Despite the differences in formats, the structure of scripts applied to comu-
organizational communication is similar to the paradigm of movie scripts, or
be, it involves the exposure of the problem/complication/conflict (presentation/
development), climax (plot twist) and resolution (conclusion). According to Aumont
(1995, p. 106):

The film narrative is a statement that presents itself as discourse, as

implies, at the same time, a statement (or at least a focus of enun-
creation) and a reader-viewer. Its elements are therefore organized
and arranged in order according to many requirements: in first place,
the simple readability of the movie requires a 'grammar' (it is about a
metaphor), so that the viewer can understand, simultaneously,
the order of the narrative and the order of the story.

Due to the short duration of the narrative, when compared to feature films
cinematic, these elements are very close (if not
together). In general, a certain character, during the presentation phase, is already
in conflict. However, the conflict can also be the climax. In other words, the only
a really clear phase in the structure of an organizational video is the resolution.
And normally, the institution/product/service is this resolution. Just as
in cinema, the paradigm is not an unchanging and inflexible formula, since
the structure that supports imagination is flexible and changeable. Aumont (1995,
p. 106–108) highlights that:

This organization must establish the first level of reading of the film, its
denotation; [...] then, an internal coherence must be established
set of the narrative. [...] finally, the order of the narrative and its rhythm are
established based on a reading referral that is, thus,
imposed on the viewer. It is therefore also designed with effects in mind.
narratives. [...] it is a closed discourse, because it inevitably involves a
a beginning and an end, because it is materially limited.

When we deal with audiovisual for organizations, particularly regarding what

Regarding advertising and public relations, it is important to emphasize that this
must value a dynamic language. This audiovisual model needs
that something interesting is always happening. In these cases, the conflict/plot
becomes a key tool.
14 Script models

Conflict, in general, is understood as the interaction of the elements and

what happens between them. It is what makes a narrative interesting, dynamic
and stimulating. When bringing this concept into the realm of audiovisual production,
it can be concluded that every story — whether institutional or advertising —
needs a conflict. This is understood as action, and without action, there is no existence.
narrative. Something needs to happen. Through this fundamental concept, it occurs
the identification of the audience versus script, which creates empathy for the service/
product/brand, etc. Thus, create a story, a situation that could
happen with the target audience of a certain company, establishes a
relationship of complicity between both.
In cinema, in soap operas, in theater, and in series, it can gain strength.
when allied to conflicts and parallel intrigues — small stories that di-
we stimulate the interest of the interlocutor. However, it is not possible to do this in
an advertising film, for example. In 30 seconds, it is necessary to capture the
attention, make oneself understood, win over and provoke an action. In this sense,
write only what is strictly necessary to complete the message is
essential, thereby avoiding placing any element in the script that may
divert the interlocutor's attention away from the main message. After all,
It is easier for a message to be remembered if it is unique, and not more.
a lost element among various subjects.
As for the twist in corporate communication, it maintains its concept.
close to the original: it can be any incident, episode, or unexpected event
that takes the dramatic action in another direction or presents a situation that
the viewer did not expect. However, not every advertising film has a
plot twist. However, when this exists, it is the climax of the narrative, that is,
the moment of heightened emotion (e.g., surprise, humor, drama, fear).
As for the resolution, it remains as the solution to the history and the conflict.
In the advertising script, it is usually the product/service/brand being advertised. It is
It is important to be as clear as possible in the resolution of the applied script.
to organizations, showing in all letters, sounds, and colors what the 'protagonist is
"gonista" (that is, the brand/service/product advertised) of the piece.
According to Barreto (2010), there are two classical ways to present
the resolution in an advertising film:
 Script models 15

1. The product (solution) can accompany the entire narrative, part-

participating in the characters' actions and interacting with them. In this case,
the impact is smaller, but the product is shown throughout the entire time of
projection and inserted into an everyday action of the target audience. This makes
the brand appears to be closer, accessible and friendly.
2. The product only reveals itself at the end. Here, the impact is greater. After a plot.
twist, the product/brand emerges as a solution - whether just through intermediary
of a narrator, be in the hands of a character.

For the audiovisual applied to organizations and brands, consisting of

images and sounds, a unique narrative is used that attracts and is perceived by the
eye and by ear, simultaneously, causing the audience an experience
highly complex sensorial. The script is the basis for this experience
be efficient and achieve the desired communication goals.

AUMONT, J. The image. Campinas: Papirus, 1995.

BARRETO, T. Selling in 30 seconds: script manual for advertising film.
Paulo: Senac, 2010.
COOK, P.; BERNINK, M. (ed.)
FIELD, S. Screenplay Manual. Rio de Janeiro: Objetiva, 2001.

Recommended reading
ISAIAS, T. 20 best scripts in history according to the Writers Guild. 2019. Available-
or on: https://www.vix.com/pt/bbr/2172/20-best-routes-in-history-according-to-
-the-writers-union. Accessed on: August 20, 2019.