COURSE IN TOPOGRAPHY Terminal F4

GUIGUEMDE N Serge Landry

Surveyor - Topographer

Phone: 78 04 43 10 / 70 43 02 03

[email protected]
COURSE IN TOPOGRAPHY Terminal F4

PROGRAMME

Chapter I: Generalities

I. Definition of terms
II. The major categories of topographic work
III. Unit and Conversion of Angle
IV. The Plan and the Map
Definition
2. Notion of scale
3. Importance of the scale
V. Precision of observations
1. Generality
2. The mistakes
3. The errors
4. Tolerance
Chapter II: DIRECT MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCES

I. Introduction
II. Direct measurement of distance
III. Mistakes and errors in direct distance measurement
Chapter III: DIRECT LEVELING

I. Introduction
II. Principle
1. Lecture on target
2. Calculation of the altitude difference
3. Calculation of altitude
4. Calculation table

III. The different types of pathways

IV. Accuracy of observations
Closure of the pathway
2. The compensation
Chapter IV: MEASUREMENT OF HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL ANGLES

A. MEASUREMENT OF HORIZONTAL ANGLES

I. General
II. Measurement Instruments

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III. Measurement of a horizontal angle using a theodolite

Definition of a theodolite
1.1 Ordinary Theodolites
1.2 Modern Theodolites
2. Setting up a theodolite
3. General information on measuring a horizontal angle
4. The modes of observation
5. Reading Verniers
IV. Mistakes and errors in the measurement of horizontal angles
1. The mistakes
2. The mistakes

B. MEASUREMENT OF VERTICAL ANGLES

Chapter V: DEPOSIT AND DEPOSIT TRANSFER

I. The topographical angles

Definition
2. Calculation of V0 of a direction
II. Calculation of the dip of a direction
1.Definition
2.Calculation of the deposit of a direction
3. Calculation of the distance

III. Calculation table

Chapter VI: CALCULATION OF RECTANGULAR COORDINATES

I. Calculation of the rectangular coordinates of a point

Calculation
2. Calculation table
II. Transmission of deposit
III. Polygonal Pathways
1. Definition
2. Types of pathways
3. Calculation table
IV. Compensation of the pathway
1. Introduction
2. Planimetric and altimetric closure deviation
Chapter VII: INDIRECT MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCE

Chapter VII: INDIRECT LEVELING

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Chapter I: Generalities

I. Definition of terms
1. The Topography

The word topography comes from the Greek words topos, which means place, and graphein, which means to draw.
can then say that topography is the science that allows measurement and then representation on a
plan or a map of the shapes and details visible on the ground, whether they are natural (notably the
relief and hydrology) or artificial (such as buildings, roads, etc.).
Other definitions of topography

The topography is the technique of representing the shapes of the terrain on a plan with details.
natural or artificial that he carries.

Topography is the technique that aims for the execution, exploitation, and control of
observations regarding the planimetric and altimetric position, the shape; the dimensions and
the identification of geographic objects, objects or entities located in the real world, concrete elements
existing fixed and durable items on the surface of the ground at a given time.

2. The Topometry

Set of geometric measuring techniques used to determine the shape of objects and
places, without taking into account the curvature of the earth.

3. The Planimetry
Planimetry is the representation in a plane projection of all the details in two dimensions.
(X, Y) of the topographic map.

4. Altimetry
The altimetry is the representation of relief on a map or a chart; by extension, it allows for the
determination of the altitudes of points through leveling operations based on known benchmarks.

5. The Cartography
Cartography is the set of studies, technical and artistic operations that intervene in
based on direct observations (topographic data) or the use of documents
(aerial photography) for the development of a map or a plan.

6. The map
The map is the faithful representation of geographical information on a flat medium. Therefore, it is
a reduced geometric image of a part of the earth, which through a conventional symbolism
allows for simplified reading and exploitation of geographic information.

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7. Photogrammetry:
Science that consists of the study and precise definition of shapes, dimensions, and position in
the space of any object using only measurements made on one or more
aerial or terrestrial photographs.

8. Geodesy
Geodesy is the science that defines the shape and dimensions of the Earth; it encompasses
techniques aimed at determining the planimetric and altimetric positions of a number of
geodetic points and leveling benchmarks.

9. The Canvas :
Set of known points in planimetry and/or altimetry with a homogeneous absolute precision.

II. The major categories of topographic work

Topographical works can be classified into six (06) main categories in order
chronological of their execution.
The Topographic Survey
Set of operations aimed at collecting elements from the ground, but also from below.
soil and fill (dyke, culvert) necessary for the establishment of a plan or map.
2. The Topometric Calculations
It digitally processes observations of angles, distances, and elevation changes to provide the
rectangular coordinates X (abscissa), Y (ordinate) and Z (altitudes) of the points of the terrain as well as
the surfaces; in return, the topographical calculations use these values to determine the angles,
distances, and unmeasured elevation changes.

3. The topographic drawings

It is the conventional representation of the details of the terrain. Depending on the method of input and processing
based on implemented data, we can distinguish two types of plans: graphic plans and
digital plans.
4. The Development Projects
These are the projects that modify the planimetry and altimetry of a land: the developments
land, the VRD (roads and various networks), etc....
5. Implantation
Development projects are generally based on topographic data that
must be used in the field. To do this, the surveyor implants this data,
In other words, it implements the necessary planimetric and altimetric elements on the ground.
to this achievement.

Materialization on the ground of the main lines necessary for its realization (axes or limits)
of a project on paper or computer support.

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6. Monitoring and control of works

Artworks once built always require monitoring, that is to say, an inspection of
intervals of more or less regular time whose purpose is to check the stability of the structure,
settlement and tilting movements.

III. Unit and conversion of angle

1. Units of measurement for distance

Units Symbols Value in meters (m)

Kilometer Km 103
hectometer hm 102
decameter dam 10
Meter m 1
Decimeter dm 10-1
Centimeter cm 10-2
Millimeter mm 10-3
Micrometer µ 10-6

2. Surface units

Units Symbols Value in square meters (m2)

hectare ha 104
are a 102
centiare ca 1

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3. Units of angle measurement

3.1. The Degree (deg or °)

It's the 360thpart of the circle. It is usually expressed in decimal degrees.

(121,636°). It can also be expressed in sexagesimal degrees.

Sexagesimal degrees are presented in the form of a value in three parts.

ddd° mm' ss,ppppp"
Example 1: 209° 48' 07.4589"
The first part is about the encoding of degrees and the value is between 0 and 180.
The second part corresponds to the minutes and the value is between 0 and 59.
Finally, the third part corresponds to the seconds and the value is between 0 and 59.
The sexagesimal minute is equal to 1/60.°

The second of arc is equal to 1/3600.° or 1/60 min

3.2. The Radian (rd)

It is the angle at the center intercepting an arc on the circle with a length equal to its radius.
An angle of π radians intercepts a length of Rπ radians on the circle.
The perimeter of a circle with radius R is equal to 2.πR.

3.3. The Grade (gon)

By definition, the grade is 400.thpart of the circle, it is the usual unit of the surveyor. It is used
also often the submultiples of the grade, namely: decigrade (dgon), centigrade (cgon), milligrade
(mgon), decimilligrade (dmgon).

Degree (°) Grade (gon) Radian (rd) Circle

360 400 2π Circumference

180 200 π Right angle
90 100 π/2 Right angle

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4. Angle conversion

a. Sexagesimal degrees to decimal degrees

1 1 1
60' = 1° → 1’= 60 seconds = 1 minute → =
1 second =
60° 60 degrees 3600 seconds

Example: convert 93° 24’ 33’’ in decimal degrees

24 33
Decimal part: +
60 3600
0.4092° ; → 93° 24’ 33’’ 93.4092°

b. Decimal degrees to grade

Example: convert 93.4092° in grade

10 10
0.9gon gon → x° = x gone
9 9

10
93.4092° = ¿ 93.4092 = 103.7880gon
9

10 y Z
Similarly, we have: X° Y’ Z’’ = ¿ (x + + )
9 603600

From grade to sexagesimal degree

1eraStep: we converted the angle in gradians to decimal degrees by multiplying it by 9/10.

9
103.7880gon 103.7880 = 93.4092°
10 ¿

2fifth step one multiplies the decimal part to obtain minutes

0.4092 ¿ 60 = 24.55 which is 24'

3thwe multiply the remainder of the decimal part to get the seconds

0.55 ¿ 60 = 33''

Finally, our angle A = 93° 24' 33''

d. Radian to grade and vice versa

200 π
1.5708 gon π and 1 gon=
200 rd

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200 π
→ X rd = gon and X gon = rd
π 200

IV. The Plan and the Map

1. Definition
1.1 The Map
A map is a representation that is generally made on a flat surface and that shows either
the entire planet Earth, or parts of it. It can further show a series of
specific particularities regarding the geographic location and size.
1.2 The Plan
The plan is a schematic representation, to a certain scale and in two dimensions, of a
population, a construction, a plot of land, a house, etc. The importance of a plan focuses
on the scaled representation of something.
2. The maps and topographic plans
Topographic maps and plans allow for the graphical representation of the main objects of.
terrain, such as buildings, fences, roads, waterways, lakes, and forests, as well as variations of
levels presented by the reliefs, such as valleys and hills (that is, vertical relief).
The establishment of these plans or maps is based on the data collected during surveys.
topographic.
2.1 Main difference between a plan and a map
The scale at which we work represents the main difference that exists between a plan and a
map. In the plans, we do not use a cartographic representation to represent the elements,
while maps, which have a smaller scale, must use a certain type of projection to
level the curvature of the planet Earth.
2.2 Importance of plans and topographic maps
Maps and topographic maps facilitate the understanding of the topography of a terrain x, at
means of normal contour lines, shadows, and other systems used to represent
graphics. Furthermore, they allow for signaling general locations, characteristics
specific to an area and the administrative boundaries. The symbols and scale used are specified.
in the legend of each card.

3. Notion of scale
3.1 Definition
The scale is called the ratio of similarity between the plan figure and the terrain figure; in other words
It is the ratio between the distance separating two points on the map and the horizontal distance.
correspondent on the ground. This report is expressed by a simple fraction whose numerator is 1.
1
This report expresses itself on the format, with the scale of the plan or the map and
E
E = the scaling factor.
For example, for a map at 1/25,000 scale, the scale will translate to:
1 1mm 1mm
=
25000 25000 mm = 25m ,

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So 1mm on the map corresponds to 25m on the ground, or

1 1cm 1cm
=
25000 25000 cm
= 250m
;
1cm on the map corresponds to 250m on the ground, meaning that 4cm on the map corresponds to
1km on the ground.
Example 1: Let there be a distance of 5.5cm on a map at a scale of 1/50,000. What is the actual distance?
what does distance represent on the ground.
Solution 1:5.5cm gives 1cm gives 50,000cm = 500m; make a rule of three.
5 . 5 c m ∗500m
X= =2750m
1cm

Solution 1:
55mm means that 1mm gives 50m; make a rule of three.
55mm∗50m
X= =2750m
1mm

Note:
The scale is said to be large when the scale factor is relatively small (1/100)
The scale is said to be small when the scale factor is relatively large (1/50000)

3.2 Importance of scale for a surveyor

Unlike industrial drawings which are side drawings, the distances measured on a plan
Topographical must be accurate to the graphic error. This graphic error is the average error.
What the designer commits on the position of a point when he makes his transfer.
Experience shows that this graphical error is 2/10.emmm (0.2mm) on average. If a plan
is at scale 1/E, the graphical error will translate on the ground as an error dee=0.2mm* E.
A distance on the lower ground (<) of 0.2mm × E cannot be represented on the plan.
Reciprocally, the plane will be unable to represent a detail lower than this limit.
1
Example: E = e = 0.2mm × 1000 = 200mm = 20cm
1000
1
A distance less than 20cm on the ground cannot be represented on the map to scale.
1000

Accuracy of observations
1. Generality
The topographic measurements, like all physical measurements, are inevitably inaccurate. These
inaccuracies arise from measuring instruments, the observer's senses, and sometimes from

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measurement methods. In topometry, they are classified into two main categories: errors and
errors.

2. The mistakes
Faults, in the sense of physical and topographical measurements, are avoidable imperfections,
generally crude, due to operational oversights that a judicious organization and a
stricter discipline in the work allows them to be detected and eliminated. The errors come from
of a slip, a clumsiness, or an oversight. These errors may go unnoticed if no
excessive measurement or repetition of measures is not carried out. Examples:
fault of 1m on a reading on leveling target
omission of a range of chain in distance measurement
It is therefore essential to eliminate them.
For this, we use:
the direct control which involves repeating the measurement using the same method;
-indirect control with a measurement or calculation using a different method.

3. The mistakes
By definition, an error is the inaccuracy that arises from the imperfection of instruments and our
sens. Errors are generally small but their accumulation can become significant. The
knowledge of the laws of their combination is fundamental for the surveyor, as they are
those that condition the very organization of their work. Two types of errors are distinguished in
know the accidental errors and the systematic errors:
Accidental errors: Accidental or fortuitous errors are inaccuracies of low
values, variables in size and sign, sometimes positive, sometimes negative, independent of each other
of others, which affect the measurement results. They have complex, multiple causes that
escape precise analysis. However, when an operation is repeated a large number of
Sometimes, accidental errors tend to occur and compose themselves according to remarkable laws.
in the study constitutes the theory of accidental errors.
Systematic errors: An error is said to be systematic when, in the execution of a
series of measurements taken under absolutely identical conditions, these measurements are affected
of an error that is always the same in magnitude and sign. It results that systematic errors
are cumulative by addition, and, consequently, they are particularly to
to fear. If a measurement involves n measurements, each affected by a systematic error.
Yes, the determination is marred by a final error such that Es = es x n.

4. Tolerance
By definition, tolerance is the maximum limit within which the results must be contained.
Measurements taken. Tolerance is therefore a standardized value of validity criteria for results.
It depends on the type of materials used and the accuracy sought.

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Chapter II: LINEAR MEASURES

I. Generalities
Linear measurement, generally referred to as chaining, is the basis of all operations.
topographic. In the past, surveyors used a real chain made up of links
to measure a distance between two points. That's why this operation is called a
linking. Nowadays, the chain has been replaced by a measuring tape, usually
made of steel. These tapes are calibrated in meters (SI) and generally have lengths
of 30, 50 or 100 meters. It seems easy to measure a distance with a tape. However
The results obtained vary depending on the observation conditions. Therefore, it is necessary to use a
good measurement technique and appropriately correct observations.
The methods of measuring distances can be classified into two categories:
Direct Measurements and Indirect Measurements.
A distance measurement is said to be direct when one travels along the line to be measured while applying
end to end a certain number of times, as much as necessary a measuring standard. It is a
process that gives the ground distance between two points.
A measurement is said to be indirect when it is obtained without having to measure the length.
measure. The parallel stadimetric processes are used.
In general, the distance between two points is always reduced to the horizontal or
either by calculation or by the method used during the measurement.

II. CHAINING TECHNIQUES

1. Generalities
Chaining is done by two operators, the backward chain (the one that initially occupies
the starting point and which holds the zero of the ribbon) and the forward chain (the one that moves towards the
point by unrolling the ribbon). The operator (front chain) positions themselves at the back, and the assistant
(front chain) at the front, positioning itself on the side of the ribbon. The operator places the end 0
put the tape on the marker, align the help that stretches the tape and mark its end by pressing down
a peg in the ground. This peg must be inserted perpendicular to the ribbon. For
Long measures, the chainers must perform several spans with the nominal length.
of the ribbon. The accuracy of long-range measurement is limited and depends heavily on the
operators. The chaining technique adopted depends on the conditions under which the
measure must be taken.
A set of eleven tokens is generally used so that the exchange of ten tokens takes place.
at 100 m with a 10 m tape or at 200 m with a 20 m tape, one stick remaining on the ground
to materialize the last span. The ground being horizontal, a distance is obtained
horizontal.

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The distance D is given by the following formula:

D = (e*10*L) + (f*L) + appointavec :
e = the number of exchanges, L = the nominal length of the ribbon and f = the number of connectors

2. The different steps necessary for the realization of a good chaining

In order to achieve good chaining, it is advisable to:

• carry out an alignment between the two points, either by eye or with the device;
• apply tension to the chain to make it tight and straight;
• mark the scope with a stake planted vertically;
• register the chaining measurement as it progresses;
remove the chain from the implanted plug to avoid redoing the chaining;
never pull on the chain if you feel a certain resistance as it may be blocked by
an obstacle.

III. THE METHODS OF CHAINING

1. The supported chaining

When the ground is flat and horizontal, the chain can be supported throughout its length.
this technique can only be used under ideal conditions that are mostly found
in a laboratory or on a horizontal road. Furthermore, there should be no obstacles between the
two points to measure. We can also measure with a supported chain when the ground has
a uniform slope between the points. It will then be sufficient to correct the observations for the
bring to horizontal.

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2. The suspended chaining

It is quite rare for the ideal conditions (flat, horizontal surface and without obstacles)
prevalent during the measurement taking. Often the chains must be made on a
relatively flat surface but containing obstacles. The operators then
suspend the ribbon above obstacles high enough so that the ribbon is not
In contact with them. It is preferable to use milestones. We will place the zero on the placed milestone.
next to the first point. The other milestone will be placed opposite the graduation indicating the
nominal length of the ribbon. Operators can combine chain spans
supported with suspended chain spans provided it is clearly indicated in the
The suspended chain spans must be corrected by calculation to eliminate the effect
from the chain.

3. The chain suspended by cultellation or horizontal steps

In addition to the obstacles, it often happens that the chaining must be done on uneven terrain.
Accidental. The chaining by cultellation consists of breaking the work into horizontal sections.
In this case, it is the slope that forces the front chain to suspend the chain in the air.
The rear chainer aligns the zero of the chain with the point on the ground. The chainer
Before, suspend the ribbon above the ground at the same elevation as the rear chain.
The span length is usually less than the length of the ribbon. It depends on the
slope on which the chaining is carried out. The steeper the slope, the shorter the spans.
and the number of litters increases.

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4. The suspended chain in a slope

In rough terrain, one can measure a distance by chain surveying on a slope. For each
To assess the slope, we measure the angle of inclination of the tape with an inclinometer. The latter is quite precise.
for most of the work. The inclinometer can also be used to check the horizontal position of
chaining. For more precise chaining, the theodolite can replace
the inclinometer. The precision is greater with the theodolite.

The horizontal distance (Dh) is a distance along the slope (Dp) measured, under
a vertical angle (α) is given by the following relation: Dh = Dp cos α

IV. The instruments used during chaining

Among the instruments used in chaining, we can distinguish:
Chains (meter, double meter or pocket tape measure in steel for very short measurements
distances
iron stakes used to mark the end of a span. They are also used to
count the number of trips made.
The plumb line: is used to provide the vertical from the point where the stake is installed, as well as in the
chaining of uneven or sloped terrain (chaining by cultellation).
Milestones: used to mark alignment and indicate the direction to follow.

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V. Mistakes and errors in direct distance measurement

The mistakes

The mistakes are due to an oversight or the clumsiness of the operators. They can be avoided.
through constant attention to the work to be done. The most common mistakes are the
suivantes : Mauvaise identification de l'origine ; Oubli d'inscrire une portée ; Mauvaise
lecture due to the reversal of numbers; Wrong tension; Wrong transcription.

2. The mistakes
2.1 Accidental errors during chaining
By definition, an error is the inaccuracy that arises from the imperfection of instruments and of
we feel. The mistakes are usually small but their accumulation can become
important. Accidental errors are difficult to eliminate and quantify because they
are of a random nature. To quantify an accidental error, it is necessary to conduct an analysis
of precision. Only good technique and meticulous work can minimize this
types of errors. Among accidental errors, we can mention, among others: The defect of
verticality of the stake, Uncertainty about the reading of the ribbon, Uncertainty about the
temperature observations, the uncertainty regarding the voltage applied to the ribbon,
The uncertainty in reading the angle of inclination.

2.2 Systematic errors during chaining

Systematic errors are difficult to eliminate, but they are quite easy to quantify.
Although it is difficult to eliminate the source of a systematic error, it is relatively easy to
correct the measurement with an appropriate correction. As a systematic error we can
including among others: The calibration error; The alignment error; The error
d'horizontalité ; L’erreur due à l’élasticité du ruban ; L'erreur due à la chainette

V. Calculation of the distance between two points

Now that we know all the errors involved in a chaining, we can calculate the
distance between two points by applying corrections to the observed values:
D = L + Ce + Ca + Ch + Ct + Cp + Cc with:
L: Length measured over a span
Calibration correction;
Alignment correction;
Ch: Correction for horizontal reduction;
CT: Correction for the temperature;

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CP: Correction for the tension;

Cc: Correction for the chain.

Chapter III: THE DIRECT OR GEOMETRIC LEVELING

I. DEFINITION

Levelling in surveying is the set of operations consisting of measuring levels.

differences in level (or elevation or drop), generally to determine some
altitudes. In other words, leveling allows for measuring height differences and then deducing
the altitude of benchmarks or characteristic points of the ground or works. The altitudes can
to be reported to a local reference (which is typically chosen to be lower than the point the
lower part of the studied area to avoid negative altitudes, and sufficiently different
of the general reference level to avoid confusion), or to a more reference system
general. The geoid (mean sea level extended under the continents) constitutes the surface
reference for the altitudes of the general leveling of a country.

Levelling is the operation that involves measuring a difference in height between two.
points or to search for the height of the different ground points above a surface of
level taken as origin.

Levelling can be carried out using three methods which are:

Direct or geometric leveling

The indirect trigonometric leveling or geodetic leveling (the trigonometric designation
comes from simple trigonometric calculations giving ΔH and DH
Barometric leveling (a leveling method based on measurements of
atmospheric pressures

II. PRINCIPLE

Direct leveling involves determining the height difference ΔH between two points using a
device called a level and a vertical scale called a sight. The level consists of a
sighting optics rotating around a vertical axis: it thus defines a horizontal line of sight.

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Let the difference in level, also called altitude difference, between two points R and P be determined.
the mire is successively placed on points R and P and the level between points R and P and at
equal distance as much as possible.

The operator performs a backward reading (LAR = 1.252m) on the target placed at point S
which is the starting point of our operations and whose altitude is known (48.724m). This
The rear lecture LAR indicates that the reference plane nn' is 1.252m higher than point S.
He then takes a reading on point P called a fore reading (LAV= 1.338). The difference of
The level or difference between S and P is an algebraic value whose sign indicates the point the
higher.
The elevation difference from R to P noted ΔH RP or Dn RP is equal to the rear reading at point R.
reduced from the reading before to point P.

ΔH RP = LAR R – LAV P = 1.252 – 1.338 = -0.086m

We notice that in the chosen example, the elevation change is negative, which means
that point R is higher than point P.

Altitude is defined as the vertical distance of a point relative to the geoid.

(average sea levels extended under the continents). Knowing the altitude of the point of

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departure (The point R in the chosen example) we can calculate the altitude of the targeted point (The P in
the chosen example).

Alt P = Alt R + Dn RP = 48.724m + (-0.086m) = 48.724m - 0.086m = 48.638m

Sometimes, in isolated operations, the heights are not taken with respect to the geoid.
but from any level surface taken as the origin. It should then be noted
on the plan and indicate the surface arbitrary origin.
The range is the distance from the level to the target; it varies according to the equipment and precision.
sought, and must be a maximum of 60 m in ordinary leveling and 35 m in leveling
of precision. As much as possible, the operator places the level approximately evenly
distance between the two points.

1. Lectures on the target

The rod is a linear scale that must be held vertically (it has a level).
spherical) at the point involved in the elevation difference to be measured. The accuracy of its graduation
and its maintenance in an upright position greatly affects the accuracy of the elevation change
measured. The reticle of a level generally consists of four wires:

the upper stadimetric wire;

the leveling wire;

3. the lower stadimetric wire;

the vertical thread

III. THE TYPES OF PATHWAYS

When the two points are located such that a single leveling station is not sufficient to
determine their elevation difference (distance, mask, excessive elevation difference, etc.), it is necessary to
break down the total elevation change into elementary elevation changes using intermediate points.
The whole set of these decompositions is called leveling by pathing.

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The open pathway:

It is said that a route is open if it starts from a known point in altitude, passes through a
certain number of points and closes on a point different from the starting point and of which we
Ignore the altitude. This type of approach is not recommended as it allows for no control.

2. The guided pathway:

It is said that a path is framed if it starts from a known "origin point" in altitude, passes
by a certain number of intermediate points and closes on an "end point"
different from the point of origin and also known in altitude.

3. The closed path:

A path is said to be closed if it starts from a known point in elevation, forms a loop and
returns to its starting point.

4. The round trip journey:

When trying to determine the altitude of a point at endpoint B from the known altitude
From a point A, a pathway is generally made from A to A through B. This
allows for calculating the altitude of B and verifying the validity of the measurements by finding the altitude
from A.
5. Double pathway:

It consists of making two parallel pathways with two sight supports to address
stability faults of turning points.

6. Path by radiation:

When a significant number of points to be determined are within reach at the level, it is
preferable to use the radiation method. This method consists of making
a focus on a reference and to note the reading in reverse reading in order to determine
the altitude of the sighting plan and then to aim at all the other points to level in reading first. A

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from the altitude of the sighting plane, the altitudes to be leveled are determined by difference by
regarding this plan. This method allows for the quick lifting of a sowing of marked points.
(surveys, bank points, bottom...). In the figure below, starting from the station STon
Aim at point R (reference) while reading back and we take a series of readings forward on the
points 1, 2, and 3. The elevations of the radiated points (1, 2, 3) will be calculated from
the altitude of the benchmark from the rear reading done on this point.

7. Mixed pathway
From any station on the level in a pathway, and after having recorded the
backward lecture on the previous waypoint, the operator aims at several points of
detail and perform a unique reading on each of them, which is therefore a reading before. Then,
the station ends with the reading before the next route point. In the
mixed pathway, we first calculate the points of the main pathway without considering
count the points of radiated details. Then we calculate the radiated points.

IV. CALCULATION TABLE

Points LAR LAV Dn Altitudes

+ -
A LAR (A) Dn (AB) Alt (A)
B LAR (B) LAV (B) Dn (BC) Alt (B
C LAR (C) LAV (C) Dn (CD) Alt (C)
D LAR (D) LAV (D) Dn (DE) Alt (D)
E LAV (E) Alt (E)

Calculation of the elevation difference between the points based on the back and fore readings taken on
these points

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LAR (A) - LAV (B)

LAR(C) - LAV(D)
Calculation of the altitude of points B, C, D, E based on that of point A
Altitude (A) + Dn (AB)
Altitude_C + Dn_CD

V. THE NODAL POINT

A common vertex in several polygonal paths is called a nodal point.
practice, the results of the calculations obtained on the nodal point and carried out from different
the paths taken often present some discrepancies. When the observed discrepancies are
tolerable, necessary corrections are made to determine the final altitude of
point nodal.

VI. PRECISION OF OBSERVATIONS

In all types of measurements, there are basic and accidental errors that make up
to form a residual error.
So when we carry out a closed or enclosed path, there is always a gap between
our measurements and the elevation provided by the altitudes of the benchmarks. This difference called 'error of
"closure" (ef) must be less than the tolerance to be acceptable. To meet its
Spirit, we will distribute this closing error if it is acceptable throughout the
progression. The act of adjusting our measures does not make them better, the error is everything.
simply spread across all the measures. If the closure exceeds the tolerance,
We need to redo the process. Tolerance is the limit not to be exceeded by error.
closure. Beyond that, we must consider that there may be an error in our measurements.

1. Errors during leveling operations

We distinguish the mistakes of:
●bad alignment: forgetting to level the bubble, compensator stuck;
●bad reading: confusion of the leveling line with a stadimetric line; confusion of
graduation or unit;
bad transcription on notebook: bad retranscription of the read value.
2. Errors during leveling operations
2.1 Systematic Errors
The systematic errors are:

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COURSE OF TOPOGRAPHY Terminal F4

the calibration error of the gauge;

the lack of verticality of the target: bubble out of adjustment;

● the error of tilt of the optical axis: optical axis not perpendicular to the main axis;
the malfunction of the compensator.
2.2 Accidental Errors
Accidental errors are:
the parallax error which is a misfocus of the telescope;
the incorrect positioning of the bubble;

the reading error on the target due to the estimation of the millimeter;
the wrong choice of an intermediate point: unstable point;
● the mirage of the air: one should avoid aiming at the bottom of the sight near the ground when it is hot;
● object pointing error: it is due to the shape of the reticle (a single wire for a

3. THE STANDARD DEVIATION

The standard deviation noted σ is defined as the square root of the average of the square of
the gap between the measurement and the actual value. In leveling operations, they vary
depending on the levels and the targets used; the care taken in measurement, the stability of the points,
the force of the wind, etc.

4. TOLERANCE
Tolerance is the maximum limit within which the measurement results must be contained.
carried out. Tolerance is therefore a standardized value of validity criteria for results. It is
function of the type of equipment used and the accuracy sought.
Article 10 of the applicable standards for topographic works in Burkina states that
For leveling, the accepted standard deviation will be 7.6mm or a tolerance of 20.52√D
with D expressed in km''
Tolerance table

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5. Closure of the pathway

Knowing the altitude of point A, we can calculate that of B based on the ground measurements:
this value is called Alt Bla observed value, noted Alt B obs. It is defined by: Alt
B = Alt A + Δ Hi. The total elevation change ΔHAB from A to B is equal to the sum of the readings.
back diminished by the sum of the previous readings.

ΣLar – Σlav = ΣΔH i = ΔHAB.

Note: If the route is closed, the total elevation change must be equal to zero.
If the measurements were free of errors, we would find exactly the known altitude of B.
(AltB). In reality, there is a gap called path closure error (or more...
simply closure) which is subject to tolerance. This closure noted fHet is equal to: fH = Alt
B obs - Alt B. The closing gap may come from: one or more incorrect readings, from a
poor horizontal positioning of the device, a malfunction of the device.
If we call TΔH the regulatory tolerance for closing the pathway, we must therefore
check: |fH|<TΔH. If not, the measurements must be redone.
6. Compensation of the pathway
Compensation is the process of distributing the closure across all measures.
Compensation, noted CH, is therefore the opposite of closure, that is: CH = -fH.
adjustment consists of modifying the partial elevations by distributing the total compensation
On each of them. This distribution can be done in several ways:
If the closure error is low, that is to say less than the standard deviation, in this case
compensation is proportional to the number of elevation changes.
−fH
With H for the closure error and SNthe number of stations.
SN

If the closing error is significant, that is to say between the standard deviation and the
tolerance, in this case the compensation is proportional to the height of the differences in elevation.
¿ With H for the closing error and ΔHidifference
CH = - fH∗¿ Hi∨ Ʃ ∨Hi∨¿ ¿ ¿
height between 2 points

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CHAPTER IV: MEASUREMENT OF HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL ANGLES

A MEASURE OF HORIZONTAL ANGLES

I. GENERALITIES
In the history of positioning, angle measurement instruments occupy a place.
privileged.
Angular measurements are essential for surveying work. The angle is
one of the quantities used in topographic calculations. The horizontal angle (HA) called
The azimuthal angle (AZ) is defined as the planar angle of a dihedral (in geometry)
dihedral: which is determined by the meeting of two planes formed by the local vertical of a
place and the two (2) points targeted. In practice, this angle is calculated by the difference of readings.
performed on a horizontal circle graduated from 0 to 400 grades in the direction of the hands of a
watch called "limb". The angles can be obtained either in goniometric mode by

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TOPOGRAPHY COURSE Terminal F4

measuring the angles that the sides make with each other either in declined mode by measuring the angles
that each side makes with a given direction from a magnetic needle.
Horizontal angles (azimuthal) can be measured in two different ways:
Observed and drawn directly on a sheet of paper placed on a board.
horizontal. The instrument used is a goniograph consisting of a tripod, a
planchette, of a sighting device and a ruler.

Measured using a goniometer. In this case, the instruments used are as follows:
The optical squares that only allow for roughly drawing perpendiculars
or to align between two points.
The alignment circles with which horizontal angles can be measured. These
instruments were replaced by the theodolites.
The theodolites whose readings are no longer made on verniers but with the help of
microscopes allowing to appreciate, according to the degree of precision of the instrument: the cgon, the
mgon, the dmgon.
The choice of angular observation method will depend on the instrument used and the
precision sought.
In topography, two types of angles are used, namely horizontal angles and vertical angles.
verticals.

II. Angular measuring instruments

The most commonly used instrument for measuring angles is the theodolite (angle only) or the
theodolite (angle and distance) or Total Station (indirect measurement of angles, distances)
and elevations). The term tachymeter means 'quick measurement'. A tachymeter is by
consequently a "rapid measuring instrument". It is a theodolite equipped with a distance meter.
which simultaneously records the angles and distances measured.
There are four groups of angular measurement instruments which are:
The goniometers

III. MEASURING HORIZONTAL ANGLES USING A THEODOLITE

1 Definition of a theodolite

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TOPOGRAPHY COURSE Terminal F4

A theodolite is a device used to measure horizontal angles (projected angles.

in a horizontal plane) and vertical angles (angles projected onto a vertical plane). We
It distinguishes two types of theodolites: ordinary theodolites and modern theodolites.
2. Measurement of horizontal angles using a theodolite
The horizontal angle observed using a theodolite is a plane angle, counted positively.
in a clockwise direction. The observation telescope rotates in a vertical plane, regardless of the
altimetric positions of the points, the observed angle is identical 'AH'.

4. Angular observation modes

When the theodolite is in its normal position, the vertical circle must be on the left; one
the left circle call (CG), by turning the sight 200 degrees around its axis, the
the vertical circle is then to the right, we speak of right circle (CD). The measurement of the angles
horizontal in goniometric mode is done by various methods, including those that can be mentioned between.
others: repetition, reversal, double reversal, reiteration, alternation, the
sequence, the sequence pair, the overview. However, the modes of observation
depend on the number of directions to measure and the desired precision.

IV. Errors in angular measurements

Errors in angle measurement in surveying can be classified into two categories.
What are systematic errors and accidental errors also called employment errors.

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Systematic errors
We list in this paragraph the main construction errors that could not be
eliminated by adjustment, or whose adjustment would be too delicate. As a systematic error we
we can cite among others:
Horizontal collimation,
• Turbulence or vertical collimation,
Eccentricity edge/ sighting device
Graduation error.

2. Misuse or accidental errors

The main accidental errors are of instrumental origin (undetected misalignments or
ignored), meteorological (wind, sun, odors, poor lighting…) and human
(manipulation imperfections). As accidental errors, we can mention:
Stationing error
Poor alignment of the main shaft
Point error
Reading errors
Zero drift error

B. MEASUREMENT OF VERTICAL ANGLES

The vertical angle of a direction is the angle given by the position of that direction in relation to
at the vertical of the place. Like horizontal angles, vertical angles are used in
topographical calculations. The angle of inclination or site indicates the position of the target in relation to
horizontally.

V + i = 100gon
V + n = 200gon

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COURSE IN TOPOGRAPHY Terminal F4

n - i = 100gon

The vertical angle is determined using the vertical circle of the theodolite. The zero of the
the graduation of the limbus is fixed and directed towards the zenith, the vertical circle is attached to the
eyepiece and gives the angle according to its inclination (eyepiece).

1. Vertical collimation

The origin of the graduation does not necessarily coincide.

with the vertical of the place; the angle formed by the direction of
zenith with the direction of graduation zero is called
vertical collimation noted0or cv. We determine the
vertical collimation by inverting the scope (CG;
CD).
400−(LCG+ LCD)
Z0CV
2
The correction of the vertical collimation added
Algebraically at the vertical angle measured in a single position of the scope (CG) gives
the zenith angle.
Z = LCG + CV

Chapter V: Deposit and Transmission of Deposit

1. The topographic angles

The difference in angular readings is called topographic angle.

result between two (02) directions counted to the left in the direction of travel of the path.
The topographic angle is obtained by subtracting the reading before (LAV) and the
read back (LAR) in the direction of the path. If however the value of the reading before
is weaker than that of the rear reading, we add 400 degrees to the reading value
before.

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The topographic angle of the right (αd) is the angle formed by two consecutive sides of
pathway, measured in horizontal projection and located to the right of the pathway in the direction
of the chosen path. The left topographical angle (αg) will be such that αd + αg = 400gon.
2. The deposit of a direction

The bearing of a line (AB) is the angle measured clockwise.

between the positive Y axis and the considered direction. The azimuth AB is written GAB in the direction
the opposite is called orientation. The positive Y axis in a coordinate system
Attached to a general system indicates the direction of North on the map.
The magnetic North is indicated by the direction of the magnetized needle of a compass or
of a declinatory.
The geographic north is determined by the direction of the North Star.
The angle that a direction makes with magnetic north is called Geographic Azimuth.

3. V0 of a station

V0 of a station is called the azimuth of the zero of the scale of the limb or the azimuth of
the aim for which one would have done the zero reading
V0 = GOA - Lecture A or V0 = GOB - Lecture B

We calculate the average V0 of a direction by making the

arithmetic or weighted average. In a review,
the observations on the reference point are brought down to

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TOPOGRAPHY COURSE Terminal F4

zero, the V0 then becomes the direction of the line connecting the stationary point and the target point
in reference. The deposit of any other direction will be equal to:
GOP = V0 + Lecture P

4. Calculation of the bearing of a segment knowing the coordinates of its endpoints

The problem data are: XA, YA;

XB YB. You are asked to calculate the
deposit of the line AB (GAB)

4.1 Calculation of the strike

Let's consider triangle ABC

BC
tg GAB = BC = XB - XA = ΔX, AC = YB - YA = ΔY,
AC
Delta X
ΔX = AB * Sinus GAB
ΔY
In triangle ABC, ΔX and ΔY are positive (+) or negative (-) depending on the quadrant in which
The end of the vector is located relative to its origin.

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ΔX
Let's say :tgg =
ΔY

SUMMARY TABLE
After calculating g and based on the sign of ΔX and ΔY, deduce the value of G See table
above.

4.2

Calculation of the distance AB between two points A and B

ΔX ΔY
AB = sinGAB = cosGAB = √ Delta X2+ Δ Y 2

5. Presentation of calculations

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Chapter VI: Calculation of rectangular coordinates of a point defined by its

polar coordinates

I. The point and the line

The point
A point is defined in a plane if the distances from it are known in magnitude and sign.
point at the two axes.

2. The right
A line is defined in the plane:

When one knows two points of this line

When one knows a point and the bearing of its direction

II. Calculation of the rectangular coordinates of a point

The data of the problem are:

The rectangular coordinates of point A

- The deposit of the line AM - The length AM It consists of determining the coordinates
rectangular from point M

It is known that:

XM - XA = HM

YM - YA = AH

XM = XA + HM

YA + AH

HM
Without GAM = HM
AM
= AM Sin GAM

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AH
Cos GAM = AH = AM Cos GAM
AM

XM - XA = HM or HM = AM Sin GAM XM - XA = AM Sin GAM

XM = XA + AM Sin GAM
YM - YA = AH or AH = AM Cos GAM YM - YA = AH Cos GAM
YM = YA + AM Cos GAM

1. Presentation of calculations

III. Polygonal paths

1. Definition
A path is a broken line for which all the angles and sides have been measured in order to
determine the coordinates of each vertex.
When there is a polygonal path ABCDE...etc. The azimuth of each side
is obtained from the deposit on the previous side.

GBC = GAB + αg B 200gon

±

In topometric calculations, the clockwise direction (positive direction) is called the direction of ...
deposit, the opposite meaning is that of orientation.

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2. The different types of paths

The antenna path: It is a path without closure, this type of

The pathway is not recommended as it is without possible verification.

The routes developed between two known points: By comparison of

exact coordinates of the arrival point of the path and those resulting from the calculations, we have a
means of controlling calculations as well as the ability to assess the validity of measurements
of the land.

Closed paths: It is a polygonal that closes in on itself, that is to say

to say a polygonal whose endpoint coincides with the origin.

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3. Transmission of deposits
We know the GAB deposit
So we have: GBC = GAB + αg B±200gon

4. Presentation of the calculations

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5. COMPENSATION
5.1 Introduction
Field measurements are tainted by accidental or systematic errors that hinder
to obtain results that exactly conform to the theory; to exploit them with the
maximum possible precision, a correction called compensation will need to be applied.
However, the observed discrepancies should not exceed a certain magnitude called tolerance.
which depends on the nature of the work, therefore on the type of material used and the type of terrain.
5.2 Angular closure deviation
G'AR = Calculated arrival deposit = G departure + Σ αg ± nc* 200
Real arrival deposit (known)
Angular closure fα = G'AR - GAR
It will therefore be necessary to correct for cα = - fα

Example: G'AR = 266,422 and GAR = 266,418; fα = 266,422 - 266,418 = 0.004

→ cα = - 0.004gon = - 4 mgon
We will then need to distribute this correction across all angles.
By also compensating each of the angles, if the sides have roughly the same length.
Ca
αg compensated = αg gross + ns = number of vertices
ns
Note: Angular compensation must be carried out on the angles αg before recording the
deposits referred to as compensated in the table.

5.3 Planimetric closing gap

Let B be the actual destination point and B' be the calculated destination point.

XA + ΣΔXi
XB’ – XB = fx → cx = - fx ; YB’ – YB = fy → cy = - fy
If we consider the pathway of nc sides, we perform a so-called parallel compensation, we
use this type of compensation in cases where the sides of the pathway are significantly the
same length.
Cx Cy
Δxi compensated = ΔXi raw + Compensated Δyi = Gross Δyi +
nc nc
The proportional parallel compensation: it is valid in all cases and especially
when the sides of the path are of significantly different lengths.
Of Of
Compensated Δxi = Gross ΔXi + cx * ; Δyi compensated = Δyi gross + cy *
D D
With D = the total length of the pathway

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CHAPTER VII: INDIRECT MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCES

I. Definition
A distance measurement is said to be indirect when it is obtained without resorting to a
standard of measurement nor to travel the distance to be measured. A device is used for this purpose.
the ends of the length to be measured and a sighting rod or cane equipped with a marker from one to the other
end. The measurements taken either give the result directly (in the case of theodolites
electronics) is a quantity called the generator number that allows for obtaining the distance
after a simple calculation. These devices can be:
Stadiometers
Rangefinders
Telemagnetic wave devices

II. PARALLACTIC MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCES

1. Principle
Let there be a distance AB to be measured, at B there is a horizontal stadia perpendicular to the
line of sight AB and equipped with two indicators L and R symmetric with respect to the axis and
generally two meters away. A goniometer is placed at point A with which we aim
successively the lights L and R. We measure the angle α under which we see the length
LR = b lies between the two indicators.

2. Jobs and calculation

The leveling is made horizontal using a spherical level and leveling screws. One places the
measuring perpendicularly to the line of sight using a collimator,
then the horizontal angles on the two indicators.

LR = b
b α
AB = D = cotg
2 2

For a stadium of two (2m) meters, we will have

2
b=2 =1 we will therefore have
2

α
AB = D = cotg 2

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III. The Stadimetry

Stadimetry is a less precise method than direct distance measurement. It allows
the indirect measurement of a horizontal distance by reading the intercepted height on a target
by the stadimetric lines of the sight reticle. To take stadimetric measurements, one
use either a mechanical non-reducing optical tachymeter (the horizontal distance is
obtained after calculation) is a self-reducing optical mechanical theodolite (the distance
horizontal is given directly). The stadimetric process has the advantage of allowing for
measurements in uneven or obstacle-strewn terrain; however, it should be noted that the advent of
Electronic measuring devices (total station or electronic theodolite) have allowed for the
Stadimetry can replace chain measurement due to the precision offered by these instruments.
Depending on whether the angle or the length of the stadia is variable, there will be angle stadimeters.
variable or at constant angle.

Point A, the optical center of a theodolite, is located vertically above the stationed point S;
the operator aims at a target placed at P and reads the values intercepted by each wire on the
Let m1 and m2. The upper stadimetric line(s) reads the highest value m2 and the line
sub-metric(s) lower the value m1.
The horizontal distance can be expressed as:
m2−m1
D h= sine2v
∝
2tg( )
2
If the sighting is horizontal, the vertical angle V = 100 gon; We will then have
m2−m1
Dh=
∝
2tg( )
2

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Constant angle stadimetry

If the angle α is constant in the device used,
On a :Dh=K(m2 –m1) sin²V

The constant K called the stadimetric constant is:

It is generally worth 100; that is why the expression of Dh becomes:

Dh = 100(m2 – m1) sin²V

For a level, V=100gon; hence Dh = 100(m2 – m1)

2. Stadimetry with slope variation
The slope-varying stadimeters are based on the principle of self-reducing stadimeters.
In these stadimeters, the angle varies depending on the inclination of the telescope.

Slope-variable stadimeters allow measuring the distance between two points using
to an instrument placed at one of the points and a target placed at the other point. We perform
two sights on the target; each sighting will correspond to a reading on the target and a reading of
the angle of inclination. Two cases may arise:
1erCase: The two sights on the target are above the horizontal.
Let AB be the distance to be measured, we place an instrument at A and a target held vertically at B.
We take two inclination sights i and i’, to these two sights correspond the readings C
(L1) and D (L2) on the target

CH DH
CH = D tan i D = DH = D tg i’ D =
tgi tgi

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TOPOGRAPHY COURSE Terminal F4

CH - DH = CD = D (tg i - tg i')

CD = L1 - L2 = D= ❑
tgi−tgi
2emeCase: The two sights on the scope are on either side of the horizontal.

On a: CH = D tg i and DH = D tg i'; CH + DH = CD = D (tg i + tg i')

CD = L1 - L2 = D= ❑
tgi+tgi
Let's call P and P' the slopes, that is to say the tangents expressed in percentage (%) of
Lines OC and OD. By definition, the slope of a line is the quotient of the elevation difference by the
horizontal distance. It gives the value of the tangent of the angle of inclination.
Delta H ❑
P= We will have :D P−P ' OUD = P+❑P ' from wherePP±' ❑
D

The distance D is expressed in terms of and deP and P', thus if we have fixeP ± P’
there will be variable slope stadimeters if this variable we have P ± P'
constant, in this case we have constant slope stadimeters.

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Chapter VIII: INDIRECTLY LEVEL

I. INTRODUCTION

It is interesting to study this technique in detail since it is the means of measurement.

used by electronic theodolites (also called total station or TS). It is therefore called to
it generalizes even if it remains less precise on the gradients than direct leveling.

II. PRINCIPLE OF INDIRECT TRIGONOMETRIC LEVELING

Indirect trigonometric leveling allows for the determination of the elevation difference ∆H between the station
Theodolite T and a target point P aimed at. This is done by measuring the inclined distance along
the line of sight Di and the zenith angle (noted V).

From the diagram, we can write that: ∆HTP is the elevation from T to P; ht is the height.
the station (or height of the pegs); hv is the height of the sight or more generally the
height aimed above the point sought (a target can also be placed at P).
∆HTP = ht + Di.cosV – hv
We deduce the horizontal distance Dh: DhTPDi. Sinus V
We deduce the distance along the slope Dp: Dp = √(Δh² + dh²)
Note:
The term Di.cosV is called 'instrumental difference in elevation'. It is denoted ∆hi. It is the difference in elevation.
between the axis of the crosshairs (t) of the theodolite and the sighted point p.

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COURSE OF TOPOGRAPHY Terminal F4

● Dh does not depend on hv and ht: it only depends on Di and V.

The term "trigonometric" comes from simple trigonometric calculations giving ∆H and
Dh

III. INDIRECT GEODETIC LEVELING

This type of leveling allows for the determination of the elevation difference between the station point T and
a point P targeted from the knowledge of the planar coordinates of T and P and of the
measurement of the vertical angle V.

IV. INDIRECT LEVELING OVER SHORT DISTANCE

A range is said to be short if its length (horizontal distance Dh) is less than 500m.
1. Indirect leveling with an optical-mechanical theodolite
For very short ranges (Dh < 100 m), indirect leveling can be performed with a
optical-mechanical theodolite, a chain and a sighting staff. The obtained precision is poor (see
calculations § 4.1.1) but may be sufficient in some cases, for example, for the calculation
approximated elevations for a preliminary earthworks project.

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1.1 Cases where the distance along the slope Dp is measurable

This is the case if the terrain has a regular slope between S and A (fig. 6.3.). One can then
directly measure the distance Dp to the chain with correct accuracy (see estimate
below.
The method is as follows: from the theodolite stationed at S, the operator sights the target.
intercepting the graduation corresponding to the height of the pegs ht so that the sighting
is parallel to the line SA whose operator measured the length Dp. He reads the angle V
correspondent, it measures Dp and concludes that:

Dh = Dp.sinV
∆H = Dp.cosV
HS + ΔH

1.2 Cases where if the distance along the slope Dp is not measurable
This is the case if the slope is irregular, on a very bumpy terrain, for example, if there is
obstacles, etc.
The horizontal distance Dh from station S must be calculated based on the readings on a sighting device.
placed at A (fig. 6.4.). On an optical-mechanical theodolite, this can be done by
stadimetry with poor precision (see stadimetry in direct leveling, chapter 5).

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COURSE OF TOPOGRAPHY Terminal F4

We determine Dh by stadimetry based on the readings m1, m2, and V. The elevation difference ∆H is
then determined by: ∆H = ht + Dh . cotangent V - Lm
Dh.cotV is the instrumental elevation noted as ∆hi.

We are trying to calculate Dh based on the readings m1 and m2 on the stadimetric wires.

α is the stadimetric angle; the

stadiometric constant
correspondent is:

Let L be the length intercepted on the

look, at a:
hm2 - hm1

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TOPOGRAPHY COURSE Terminal F4

For V = 100gon, we find the expression derived from stadimetry for direct leveling.
Dh = K.L where L is the length intercepted on the sight. In practice, this expression is
simplified by considering that the term

is negligible compared to 1. V being the vertical angle read on any graduation of the sighting device,
we obtain the approximate expressions used below:

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