STATISTICS
Statistics is a branch of mathematics focused on collecting, organising, analysing, interpreting, and presenting data. It
provides tools for understanding patterns, trends, and relationships within datasets.
Key concepts include descriptive statistics, which summarise data using measures like mean, median, and standard
deviation, and inferential statistics, which draw conclusions about a population based on sample data. Techniques such
as probability theory, hypothesis testing, regression analysis, and variance analysis are central to statistical methods.
Statistics are widely applied in business, science, and social sciences to make informed decisions, forecast trends, and
FEATURES OF STATISTICS:
[Link] deals with numerical data. It focuses on collecting, organising, and analysing numerical
information to derive meaningful insights. Qualitative data is also analysed by converting it into
quantifiable terms, such as percentages or frequencies, to facilitate statistical analysis
[Link] emphasize collective data rather than individual values. A single data point is insufficient
for analysis; meaningful conclusions require a dataset with multiple observations to identify patterns
or trends.
[Link] consider multiple variables simultaneously. This feature allows it to study relationships,
correlations, and interactions between various factors, providing a holistic view of the phenomenon
under study.
[Link] aim to present precise and accurate findings. Mathematical formulas, probabilistic
models, and inferential techniques ensure reliability and reduce the impact of random errors or
biases.
[Link] is versatile and applicable in numerous fields, such as business, economics, medicine,
engineering, and social sciences. It supports decision-making, risk assessment, and policy
formulation. For example, businesses use statistics for market analysis, while medical researchers
OBJECTIVES OF STATISTICS:
[Link] of the primary objectives of statistics is to collect reliable data systematically. It aims to gather
accurate and comprehensive information about a phenomenon to ensure a solid foundation for
analysis. Once collected, statistics organise data into structured formats such as tables, charts, and
graphs, making it easier to interpret and understand
[Link] condense large datasets into manageable and meaningful summaries. Techniques like
calculating averages, medians, percentages, and standard deviations provide a clear picture of the
data's central tendency, dispersion, and distribution. This helps identify key trends and patterns at a
glance.
[Link] aims to study relationships and associations between variables. Through tools like
correlation analysis and regression models, it identifies connections and influences among factors,
offering insights into causation and dependency in various contexts, such as business, economics, and
healthcare.
4.A key objective is to use historical and current data to forecast future trends. Statistical methods like
time series analysis, probability models, and predictive analytics help anticipate events and outcomes,
aiding in decision-making and strategic planning.
[Link] provide a scientific basis for making informed decisions. By quantifying uncertainty and
evaluating risks, statistical tools guide individuals and organisations in choosing the best course of
action, whether it involves investments, policy-making, or operational improvements.
FUNCTIONS OF STATISTICS:
[Link] first function of statistics is to gather reliable and relevant data systematically. This involves
designing surveys, experiments, and observational studies to ensure accuracy and comprehensiveness.
Proper data collection is critical for effective analysis and decision-making.
[Link] organises raw data into structured and understandable formats. It uses tools such as tables,
charts, graphs, and diagrams to present data clearly. This function transforms complex datasets into visual
representations, making it easier to comprehend and analyse.
[Link] large datasets into concise measures is a vital statistical function. Descriptive statistics, such
as averages (mean, median, mode) and measures of dispersion (range, variance, standard deviation),
summarise data and highlight key patterns or trends.
[Link] analyse relationships between variables to uncover associations, correlations, and causations.
Techniques like correlation analysis, regression models, and cross-tabulations help understand how
variables influence one another, supporting in-depth insights.
[Link] enable forecasting future outcomes based on historical data. Predictive models, probability
distributions, and time series analysis allow organisations to anticipate trends, prepare for uncertainties, and
optimise strategies.
[Link] of the most practical functions of statistics is guiding decision-making processes. Statistical tools
quantify uncertainty and evaluate risks, helping individuals and organisations choose the most effective
solutions in areas like business, healthcare, and governance.
IMPORTANCE OF STATISTICS:
[Link] is essential for making informed decisions in business, government, healthcare, and personal life. It helps
evaluate alternatives, quantify risks, and choose the best course of action. For instance, businesses use statistical
models to optimise operations, while governments rely on it for policy-making
2. In the modern era, data is abundant, and statistics provides the tools to analyse it effectively. By summarising and
interpreting data, statistics reveal patterns, trends, and relationships that might not be apparent otherwise. These
insights are critical for strategic planning and innovation.
[Link] the modern era, data is abundant, and statistics provides the tools to analyse it effectively. By
summarising and interpreting data, statistics reveal patterns, trends, and relationships that might not be
apparent otherwise. These insights are critical for strategic planning and innovation.
[Link] enables accurate predictions about future events by analysing historical and current data. In
fields like economics, weather forecasting, and healthcare, statistical models anticipate trends and guide
proactive measures.
[Link] methods are foundational in scientific research. They validate hypotheses, measure variability,
and ensure the reliability of conclusions. Fields such as medicine, social sciences, and engineering heavily
depend on statistical tools for advancements and discoveries.
[Link] use statistics for quality assurance and process improvement. Techniques like Six Sigma and
control charts monitor and enhance production processes, ensuring product quality and customer
satisfaction.
IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGIES IN STATISTICS:
1. DATA
Data is information collected for analysis, interpretation, and decision-making. It can be qualitative
(descriptive, such as colour or opinions) or quantitative (numerical, such as age or income). Data
serves as the foundation for statistical studies, enabling insights into patterns, trends, and
relationships.
2. RAW DATA
Raw data refers to unprocessed or unorganised information collected from observations or
experiments. It is the initial form of data, often messy and requiring cleaning or sorting for
meaningful analysis. Examples include survey responses or experimental results.
3. PRIMARY DATA
Primary data is original information collected directly by a researcher for a specific purpose. It is
firsthand and authentic, obtained through methods like surveys, experiments, or interviews.
Primary data ensures accuracy and relevance to the study but can be time-consuming to collect.
4. SECONDARY DATA
Secondary data is pre-collected information used by researchers for analysis. It includes published
reports, government statistics, and historical data. Secondary data saves time and resources but
may lack relevance or accuracy for specific studies compared to primary data.
5. POPULATION
A population is the entire group of individuals, items, or events that share a common characteristic
and are the subject of a study. It includes every possible observation or unit, such as all students in
a school or citizens in a country.
6. SURVEY
A survey gathers information from respondents using structured tools like questionnaires or
interviews. It helps collect opinions, behaviours, or characteristics. Surveys are versatile and
widely used in research, marketing, and public policy analysis.
7. SAMPLE SURVEY
A sample survey collects data from a representative subset of the population. It saves time and
costs while providing insights that can generalise to the entire population, provided the sampling
method is unbiased and rigorous.
8. SAMPLING
Sampling is the process of selecting a portion of the population for study. It ensures efficiency and
feasibility in data collection. Sampling methods include random, stratified, and cluster sampling,
each suited to different study designs.
9. PARAMETER
A parameter is a measurable characteristic that describes a population, such as the mean, median,
or standard deviation. Unlike a statistic, which pertains to a sample, a parameter is specific to the
entire population.
11. UNIT
A unit is an individual entity in a population or sample being studied. It can represent a person,
object, transaction, or observation. Each unit contributes to the dataset, forming the basis for
analysis.
12. VARIABLE
A variable is a characteristic or property that can change among individuals or items. It can be
quantitative (e.g., age, weight) or qualitative (e.g., color, gender). Variables are the focus of
statistical analysis to study relationships and trends
13. ATTRIBUTE
An attribute is a qualitative feature that describes a characteristic of a unit. Attributes are non-
measurable but observable, such as eye color, marital status, or type of vehicle
16. INDIVIDUAL
An individual is a single member or unit of the population or sample being analyzed. It is the
smallest element for data collection and analysis, such as a person in a demographic study or a
product in a sales dataset.
17. DISCRETE VARIABLE
A discrete variable takes specific, separate values, often integers. It is countable and cannot assume
fractional values, such as the number of employees in a company or defective items in a batch.
18. CONTINUOUS VARIABLE
A continuous variable can take any value within a range and represents measurable quantities.
Examples include temperature, height, and time. Continuous variables are essential for analyzing
trends and relationships in datasets.
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The number of times an individual item is repeated in a series is called its frequency. In case
of grouped data, the number of observations lying in any class is known as the frequency of
that class.
DATA TABLES OR TABULAR PRESENTATION
A table facilitates representation of even large amounts of data in an attractive, easy to read and
organised manner. The data is organised in rows and columns. This is one of the most widely used
forms of presentation of data since data tables are easy to construct and read.
Measures of central tendency
The measures of central tendencies are given by various parameters but the most commonly used
ones are mean, median and mode. These parameters are discussed below.
Mean:
Mean is the most commonly used measure of central tendency. It actually represents
the average of the given collection of data. It is applicable for both continuous and
discrete data.
Ungrounded data.
Median
Generally median represents the mid-value of the given set of data when arranged in
a particular order.
Mode
The most frequent number occurring in the data set is known as
the mode.
Grouped data
