O-Level Chemistry Notes
Particulate Nature of Matter
- Solids: closely packed, vibrate in place, definite shape/volume
- Liquids: close but slide past each other, definite volume, no fixed shape
- Gases: far apart, random movement, no fixed shape/volume
- Changes of state: melting, freezing, boiling, condensation, sublimation
- Kinetic Particle Theory explains changes of state by particle energy changes.
Atomic Structure
- Subatomic particles: Protons (+1, mass=1), Neutrons (0, mass=1), Electrons (-1, negligible mass)
- Atomic number = protons, Mass number = protons + neutrons
- Isotopes: same protons, different neutrons (e.g., C-12, C-14)
- Electronic configuration: 2,8,8... Noble gases = stable.
Bonding
- Ionic: transfer of electrons (metal + non-metal), e.g., NaCl
- Covalent: sharing electrons (non-metals), e.g., H2O
- Metallic: sea of delocalised electrons, good conductors, malleable.
Structure of Substances
- Giant ionic lattices: NaCl
- Simple covalent: CO2, H2O
- Giant covalent: diamond (hard, no conduction), graphite (conducts)
- Metallic structures: Cu, Al.
Mole Concept & Stoichiometry
- Mole = 6.02 x 10^23 particles
- Moles = Mass / Molar Mass
- Moles = Volume / 24 dm³ (at r.t.p)
- Concentration = Moles / Volume
- Limiting reagent concept important.
Acids, Bases & Salts
- Acids: H+ donors (HCl, H2SO4)
- Bases: proton acceptors (metal oxides/hydroxides)
- Alkalis: soluble bases (NaOH, KOH)
- Reactions: Acid+Base→Salt+Water, Acid+Metal→Salt+H2, Acid+Carbonate→Salt+H2O+CO2
- Salt preparation: titration, precipitation, excess base.
Periodicity
- Groups = columns (same outer electrons), Periods = rows (same shells)
- Group I: reactive metals, reactivity increases down
- Group VII: halogens, reactivity decreases down
- Noble gases: unreactive.
Metals
- Properties: conductors, malleable, ductile
- Reactivity series: K, Na, Ca, Mg, Al, Zn, Fe, Pb, H, Cu, Ag, Au
- Extraction: electrolysis (very reactive), carbon reduction (moderate), found native (unreactive).
Electrochemistry
- Electrolysis = breakdown by electricity
- Anode (+), Cathode (-)
- Example: Molten NaCl → Na + Cl2
- Applications: electroplating, extraction, purification.
Air & Atmosphere
- Composition: N2 78%, O2 21%, CO2 0.03%, others
- Pollutants: CO (poisonous), SO2/NOx (acid rain), CO2 (greenhouse)
- Solutions: catalytic converters, renewable energy.
Organic Chemistry
- Homologous series: same functional group, general formula
- Alkanes: CnH2n+2, saturated, unreactive
- Alkenes: CnH2n, unsaturated, addition reactions (bromine test)
- Alcohols: –OH, Carboxylic acids: –COOH
- Polymers: addition (polyethene), condensation (nylon).
Energy Changes
- Exothermic: releases heat (combustion)
- Endothermic: absorbs heat (thermal decomposition)
- Energy profiles: exo = products lower, endo = products higher.
Experimental Chemistry
- Separation: filtration, distillation, chromatography
- Gas tests: H2 (pop), O2 (relights), CO2 (limewater), NH3 (turns litmus blue), Cl2 (bleaches)
- Flame tests: Na (yellow), K (lilac), Ca (orange-red), Cu (blue-green)
- Ion tests: Cu2+ (blue ppt), Fe2+ (green ppt), Fe3+ (brown ppt), Cl- (white ppt with AgNO3), SO4²-
(white ppt with Ba2+), CO3²- (effervescence).
