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GCSE Chemistry
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AQA Topic – Atomic structure and

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the periodic table

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 Overview
Atomic structure and the periodic table
Atoms, elements, compounds and mixtures
• Atoms, elements and compounds
• Word and symbol equations
• Separation techniques

Atomic model
• History of the atomic model
• Size and mass of atoms
• Atomic structure

Periodic table
• History of the periodic table
• Group 0, group 1 and group 7
• Transition metals (chemistry only)
 Atoms, elements, compounds and mixtures - PART 1
All substances are made of atoms that There are about 100 different elements
cannot be chemically broken down. It
is the smallest part of an element.

Elements are made of only one type of

atom. Each element has its own
symbol.
e.g. Na is sodium.
Compounds contain more than one type You need to:
of atom. They are formed from elements • Know the names and symbols for
by chemical reactions, which always the first 20 elements and all of
involve the formation of one or more new group 1, 7 and 0
substance, often involving an energy • Name compounds when given the
change. formulae or symbol equations

The components of a compound cannot magnesium

be separated by physical means. They can MgCl2
chlorine

be separated only by chemical means. Magnesium chloride

 Atoms, elements, compounds and mixtures - PART 1
Compounds contain two or more elements chemically combined in fixed
proportions and can be represented by formulae using the symbols of atoms
from which they formed.
Naming a compound with two elements For example:
(usually a metal and a non metal) apply these Na2S = sodium sulfide
rules: K2O = potassium oxide
• The metal name does not change
• The non-metal's name ends in ide When a compound contains a
transition metal, the names
Naming a compound with a metal become a bit more
that reacts with ions that consist of complicated. To distinguish
two or more non-metal atoms them, Roman numerals
covalently bonded together apply indicate the charge on the
these rules: metal ion
• The metal name does not change e.g. iron(II) chloride.
• The non-metal's name ends For example: Na2CO3 = sodium carbonate
in ate if oxygen is present KNO3 = potassium nitrate
 Atoms, elements, compounds and mixtures - PART 1
Chemical equations: Show the reactants (what we start with) You need to:
and the products (what we end with). • Write word
No atoms are lost or made. The mass of the products equals equations
the mass of the reactants. • Balanced
symbol
Word equation: methane + oxygen 🡪 carbon dioxide + water
equations
Symbol equation: CH4 + 2O2 🡪 CO2 + 2H2O

There are 4 There are 2 molecules of There are 4 hydrogens here.

hydrogens here, oxygen not bonded You multiply the big number
bonded together. together. by the little number.

+ +
Equations MUST balance
• We can ONLY add BIG numbers to the front of a substance
• We can tell elements within a compound by BIG letters
• We can check an equation is balanced by counting the number of each type of
atom on either side
 Atoms, elements, compounds and mixtures - PART 1
We can add state symbols to a symbol Solid = s
equation to show whether the reactants and Liquid = l
products in a chemical reaction are solids, Gas = g
gases, liquids or dissolved in water. Aqueous (dissolved in water) = aq
Word equation: sodium + water 🡪 sodium hydroxide + hydrogen
Symbol equation: 2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
The reaction between copper sulfate and sodium hydroxide is:
copper sulfate + sodium hydroxide → sodium sulfate + copper hydroxide
CuSO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + Cu(OH)2(s)

You can tell that the copper hydroxide forms a solid (the precipitate) because its
state symbol is (s) for solid, rather than (aq) for aqueous (dissolved in water).
HT only – write balanced half equations and ionic equations

The reaction can also be shown by an ionic equation:

Cu2+(aq) + 2OH–(aq) → Cu(OH)2(s)
LearnIT!
KnowIT!
Atoms, elements,
compounds and
mixtures PART 2
• Mixtures
 Atoms, elements, compounds and mixtures - PART 2
A mixture consists of two or more elements or compounds not chemically
combined together. The chemical properties of each substance in the mixture are
unchanged.

Solvent the liquid in which a solute dissolves

the substance that dissolves in a liquid to Mixtures can be separated by
Solute
form a solution physical processes including:
is the mixture formed when a solute has 1. Filtration
Solution
dissolved in a solvent 2. Crystallisation
Soluble describes a substance that will dissolve 3. Simple distillation
4. Fractional distillation
describes a substance that will not
Insoluble
dissolve
5. Chromatography
These physical processes do not
involve chemical reactions and
FILTRATION: This technique separates no new substances are made.
substances that are insoluble in a solvent from
those that are soluble
 Atoms, elements, compounds and mixtures - PART 2
Crystallisation Simple distillation
This technique separates a soluble This technique separates a liquid from
substance from a solvent by a mixture by evaporation follow by
evaporation condensation

Example - crystallisation of Example - obtaining water

sodium chloride from salt solution from sea water
 Atoms, elements, compounds and mixtures - PART 2
Fractional distillation Chromatography
This technique separates a mixture into
a number of different parts, called fractions. This technique separates small
Substances with high boiling points condense at amounts of dissolved substances
the bottom and substances with low boiling by running a solvent along
points condense at the top. absorbent paper
Fractional distillation works because the
different substances in the mixture have
different boiling points.

Example - obtaining Example - separating the

ethanol from a mixture different colours in ink
of ethanol and water
LearnIT!
KnowIT!
Atomic model
PART 1
• Development of the atomic
model
 Atomic model - PART 1
Early 1800s
Before the discovery of electrons, John Dalton’s experiments led to the idea that
atoms were tiny spheres that could not be divided.

End of 1800s
The electron was discovered by JJ Thomson. Scientists believed
that atoms were spheres of positive charge with negative
charges spread throughout - the ‘plum-pudding’ model.

1908-1913
Ernst Rutherford designed an experiment carried out by Geiger and Marsden.
They fired alpha particles at a piece of very thin gold foil (only a few atoms thick)
which scattered, leading to the conclusion that the
mass of an atom was concentrated in a nucleus,
which was charged.
It proposed that electrons orbited
around the nucleus.
 Atomic model - PART 1
1914
Niels Bohr noticed that the light given out when atoms were
heated only had specific amounts of energy and he adapted the
nuclear model by suggesting that electrons orbit the nucleus at
specific distances in certain fixed energy levels (or shells). The
energy must be given out when excited electrons fall from a
high to low energy level.

Later experiments led to the idea that the positive charge of the
nucleus could be subdivided into a whole number of smaller
particles, each particle having the same amount of positive
charge. The name proton was given to these particles.

1932
James Chadwick bombarded beryllium atoms with alpha
particles. An unknown radiation was produced. Chadwick
interpreted this radiation as being composed of particles with a
neutral electrical charge and the approximate mass of a proton.
This particle became known as the neutron.
 Atomic model - PART 1

• John Dalton – tiny spheres that could not be divided.

1800s

• JJ Thomson – electron discovered. Plum pudding model - spheres of

1890s positive charge with negative charges spread evenly though.

• E. Rutherford, Geiger and Marsden - alpha particle scattering

1908 -1913 experiment. Nuclear model - mass of atom concentrated in a charged
nucleus, with orbiting electrons.

• Niels Bohr – electrons orbit nucleus at specific distances in fixed

1914 energy levels (shells). Energy given out when electrons change level.

• Positive charge of nucleus could be subdivided into particles of positive

Later charge – protons.
…
• James Chadwick – provided evidence for the existence of neutrons
1932 within the nucleus.
LearnIT!
KnowIT!
Atomic model
PART 2
• Relative electrical charges of
subatomic particles.
• Size and mass of atoms
• Atomic structure
 Atomic model - PART 2

Subatomic particles
Mass Charge Location
Proton 1 + nucleus
Neutron 1 0 nucleus
Electron Very small - shells

• An atom contains equal numbers of protons and electrons.

• Atoms have no overall electrical charge because the number of
positive protons equals the number of negative electrons.
Number of protons = atomic number.
• All atoms of an element have the same number of protons.
• Atoms of different elements have different numbers of protons.
 Atomic model - PART 2

Atoms are very small, having a radius of about 0.1nm (1 x 10 -10m).

Protons and Neutrons are found in the nucleus. Electrons orbit the nucleus in shells.

Mass number = Number of protons and neutrons 7 Protons = 3

Atomic number = Number of protons 3

Li
Electrons = 3
Neutrons = 4
To calculate the number of neutrons = Mass Number – Atomic Number
 Atomic model - PART 2

Atoms sometimes lose or gain electrons (e.g. when a metal reacts with a none
metal). When they do this they become a charge atom or an ion.

If an atom loses one or more If an atom gains one or more

electrons, it gains a positive charge electrons, it gains a negative
because it has less electrons than charge because it has more
protons. electrons than protons.

e.g. If sodium atom loses one e.g. If an oxygen atom gains two
electron, it forms a Na+ ion. electrons, it forms a O2- ion.
It has 11 protons, 12 neutrons It has 8 protons, 8 neutrons
and 10 electrons. and 10 electrons.
Atoms are tiny - the radius of a typical atom is one tenth of a billionth of a meter.
 Atomic model - PART 2

Atoms of the same element can have different numbers of neutrons – an isotope.

Isotopes of Hydrogen

The relative atomic mass of an element is an average value that takes account of the
abundance of the isotopes of the element. Samples of different isotopes of an
element have different physical properties (e.g. different density), however, they
always have the same chemical properties. It is calculated by working out the
relative abundance of each isotope.

The relative atomic mass is therefore calculated using the equation:

(% of isotope 1 × mass of isotope 1) + (% of isotope 2 × mass of isotope 2) ÷ 100
Chlorine’s relative atomic mass of 35.5 is an average of the masses of the different
isotopes of chlorine.
For example, in any sample of Chlorine 25% will be 37Cl and 75% 35Cl.
(25 x 37) + (75 x 35) ÷ 100 = 35.5
 Atomic model - PART 2

The electrons in an atom occupy the lowest available energy levels (innermost
available shells). The electronic structure of an atom can be represented by
numbers or by a diagram e.g.

Calcium has 2 electrons on its lowest energy level,

8 on the second energy level,

8 on the third energy level

and 2 on the fourth (the highest) energy level.

So the electron configuration for Calcium = 2,8,8,2

LearnIT!
KnowIT!
Periodic table
PART 1
• The periodic table
• Development of the periodic
table
• Metals and non-metals
 Periodic table - PART 1
The elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number.

Elements with similar

properties are in columns,
known as groups.

Elements in the same group

have the same number of
electrons in their outer shell.

It is called a periodic table

The rows in the table are called periods because similar properties
occur at regular intervals

Group = electrons in outer shell Group = 7

Period = number of shells Period = 3
 Periodic table - PART 1
1864
1808
John Newlands published the
John Dalton published a table
law of octaves. However the
of elements that were
table was incomplete and
arranged in order of their
elements were placed in
atomic weights, which had
inappropriate groups
been measured in various
chemical reactions 1869
Dmitri Mendeleev overcame Dalton’s
problem by leaving gaps for the
elements that he thought had not been
discovered and in some places changed
the order based on atomic weight (e.g.
Argon and Potassium). Elements with
properties predicted by Mendeleev were
eventually discovered.
Early20th Century - Scientists began to find out more
about the atom and knowledge of isotopes explained
why the order was not always correct.
 Periodic table - PART 1
The elements can be divided into metals and non-metals.
1 2 H 3 4 5 6 7 0 Elements that do not form
H
B e
N positive ions are non-metals
Li B C N O F
N Me A C e
A
Si P S
a C
K
g S T
V
C M F C N C Z lG G A S Bl Kr Elements that tend to form
R aS c Zi r n
N M T e
R o
R Pi u
A n
C aI eS Ss eT r Xr positive ions are metals
Y I
b r
C B L Hr b
T o Rc u h
O d
P g
A d
H n
T nP Bb e
P A e
R
W Ir
Fs R
a A
a Rf a S B
D e s M
H t u g l b i o t n Non metals – found towards
? ? ?
r a c f b g h s t the right and towards the
top of the periodic table
Metals Non-metals
Most elements are metals –
Shiny Dull
found towards the left and
Mostly solid Low density
towards the bottom of the
Dense and strong Weak
periodic table
Malleable Brittle
Good heat and Poor heat and
electrical conductors electrical conductors
LearnIT!
KnowIT!
Periodic table
PART 2
• Group 0, Group 1
and Group 7
 Periodic table - PART 2

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0
THE NOBLE
H
H
B e
N
GASES
Li B C N O F
N Me A C e
A
Si P S
a g
C S T C M F C N C Z lG G A S Bl Kr
K V
R aS c Zi r n
N M T e
R o
R Pi u
A n
C aI eS Ss eT r Xr
Y I
b
C Br L Hr b
T o Rc u h
O d
P g
A d
H n
T nP Bb e
P A e
R
W Ir
Fs a
R a
A Rf a S B
D e s M
H t u g l b i o t n
? ? ?
r a c f b g h s t

Elements in Group 0 of the periodic table are called the noble gases. They are
unreactive because their atoms have stable arrangements of electrons. The atoms
have eight electrons in their outermost shell, apart from helium, which has just
two, but still has a complete outer shell.
The stable electronic structure explains why they exist as single atoms, they have
no tendency to react to form molecules.
The boiling points of the noble gases get higher going down the group. For
example helium boils at -269 °C and radon boils at -62°C.
 Periodic table - PART 2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0
H
H
B e
N
Li B C N O F
N Me A C e
A
THE ALKALI a g
C S T C M F C N C Z
Si P
Gl G A
S
S Bl Kr
K V
METALS R
b
aS c
Y
Zi r n
N M T Re R
o Pi u
A n
C aI eS Ss eT r
I
Xr
C Br L Hr b
T o Rc O
u h dP g
A d
H n
T nP Bb e
P A e
R
W Ir
Fs a
R a
A Rf a S B
D e Hs M t u g l b i o t n
? ? ?
r a c f b g h s t
The alkali metals are very reactive. They need to be stored under oil to prevent them reacting
with oxygen and water vapour in the air. The alkali metals have low densities. The metals are
very soft and can be cut with a knife. They also have low melting and boiling points.
The properties are due to all the atoms having just one electron in their outermost shell. They
only need to lose one electron to get the stable electronic structure of a noble gas.

The atoms get larger as you go down, so the single electron in the
Li outermost shell (highest energy level) is attracted less strongly to the
Reactivi

Increas

Na
es
ty

K
positive nucleus. The electrostatic attraction with the nucleus gets
Rb weaker because the distance between the outer electron and the
Cs nucleus increases. Also the outer electron experiences a shielding
effect from the inner electrons, reducing the attraction between the
oppositely charged outer electron and the nucleus.
 Periodic table - PART 2
The alkali metals have a silvery, shiny surface when they are first cut. However, this goes dull
very quickly as the metals reacts with the oxygen in the air.
shiny
e.g. sodium + oxygen 🡪 sodium oxide
4Na(s) + O2(g) 🡪 2Na2O(s) metal
oxide

Lithium, sodium and potassium all react vigorously with water. When you add them to water,
the metal floats, moves around and fizzes.

e.g. potassium + water 🡪 potassium hydroxide + hydrogen

2K(s) + 2H2O(l) 🡪 2KOH(aq) + H2(g)

Potassium ignites with a lilac flame

They also react vigorously with non metals, such as group seven. They
form 1+ ions in the reactions to make ionic compounds. These are generally
white and dissolve in water, giving colourless solutions.

e.g. sodium + chlorine 🡪 sodium chloride

2Na(s) + Cl2(g) 🡪 2NaCl(s)
 Periodic table - PART 2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0
H
H
e
THE HALOGENS
B N
Li B C N O F
N Me A C e
A
Si P S When Group 7 elements react,
a g
C S T C M F C N C Z Gl G A S Bl Kr
K V the atoms gain an electron in
R aS c Zi r n
N M T e
R o
R Pi u
A n
C aI eS Ss eT r Xr
b
Y I their outermost shell. Going
C Br L Hr b
T o Rc u h
O d
P g
A d
H n
T nP Bb e
P A e
R
W Ir down the group, the outermost
Fs a
R a
A Rf a S B
D e s M
H t u g l b i o t n
r a c f b g h s t
? ? ? shell’s electrons get further away
from the attractive force of the
The halogens are a group of toxic non-metals that
nucleus, so it is harder to attract
have coloured vapours. They have low melting and
and gain an extra electron. The
boiling points, which increase down the group. They
outer shell will also be shielded
are poor conductors of heat and electricity.
by more inner shells of electrons,
As elements, the halogens exist as molecules made again reducing the electrostatic
up of pairs of atoms. These are called diatomic attraction of the nucleus for an
molecules F2, Cl2, Br2, I2 and At2. The halogens have incoming electron.
seven electrons in their outermost shell and need to
F

Decreas
Reactivi
gain one electron to achieve the stable electronic Cl

es
ty
structure of a noble gas. When they react with non Br
metals, they are joined together by a covalent bond. I
At
 Periodic table - PART 2
The halogens react with hydrogen. The reactions with hydrogen become less
reactive as you go down the group.
e.g. fluorine + hydrogen 🡪 hydrogen fluoride
F2(g) + H2(g) 🡪 2HF(g)

The halogens also react with metals. The halogen atoms gain a single electron to
give them a stable arrangement of electrons. They form ionic compound.
e.g. sodium + chlorine 🡪 sodium chloride
2Na(s) + Cl2(g) 🡪 2NaCl(s)

A more reactive halogen will also displace a less reactive halogen from solutions of
its salts.

e.g. chlorine + potassium bromide 🡪 potassium chloride + bromine

Cl2(g) + 2KBr(aq) 🡪 2KCl(aq) + Br2(aq)

The colour of the solution after mixing depends on the less reactive pair of
halogens.
Cl2(aq) Br2(aq) I2(aq)
LearnIT!
KnowIT!
Periodic table
PART 3
• Transition Metals
(chemistry only)
 Periodic table - PART 3
Chemistry only
THE TRANSITION The transition metals are located
between group 2 and group 3.
METALS
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0
H
H The transition metals have:
B e
N High melting points
Li B C N O F
N Me A C e
A High boiling points
Si P S
a g
C S T C M F C N C Z Gl G A S Bl Kr High densities
K V
R aS c Zi r n
N M T e
R o
R Pi u
A n
C aI eS Ss eT r Xr
Y I
b
C Br L Hr b
T o Rc u h
O d
P g
A d
H n
T nP Bb e
They are:
P A e
R
W Ir
Fs a
R a
A Rf a e
D S B s
H M t u g
l b i o t
n Shiny when polished
? ? ?
r a c f b g h s t Malleable – can be hammered into
a shape
The general trend is the reactivity decreases across the
Strong – don’t break easily when a
period, but there are exceptions, for example Zinc is
force is applied
very reactive.
Sonorous – makes a ringing sound
M when hit
Sc Ti V Cr Fe Co Ni Cu Zn
n Ductile – can be stretched into wires
Conductors of electricity and heat
Reactivity decreases
 Periodic table - PART 3
Chemistry only
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0
H
H
B e
N
Li B C N O F
Transition metals have N Me A C e
A
Si P S
different properties a g
C S T C M F C N C Z Gl G A S Bl Kr
K V
compared to the alkali metals R aS c Zi r n
N M T Re R
o Pi u
A n
C aI eS Ss eT r Xr
Y I
(group 1). b
C Br L Hr b
T o Rc O
u h dP g
A d
H n
T nP Bb e
P A e
R
W Ir
Fs a
R a
A Rf a S B
D e Hs M t u g l b i o t n
? ? ?
r a c f b g h s t

Alkali metals Transition metals

Low High (except mercury, which is liquid at
Melting points
room temperature)
High (react vigorously Low (do not react so vigorously with
Reactivity
with water or oxygen) water or oxygen)
Soft or liquid so cannot Strong and hard
Strength
withstand force
Density Low High
Compounds formed White or colourless Coloured
 Periodic table - PART 3
Chemistry only
The transition metals have many different uses due to their properties. Copper has
properties that make it useful for electrical wiring and plumbing. Not very reactive,
excellent conductor of electricity, easily bent into shape for water pipes in
plumbing.

They can also be useful as catalysts. A catalyst is a substance that speeds up a

chemical reaction without being used up. Catalysts are hugely valuable in industry
where they can save time and energy.

Nickel is the catalyst used in Iron is the catalyst used in the

the hydrogenation of oil to Haber process to produce
produce margarine ammonia