CSMA is a mechanism that senses the state of the shared channel to

prevent or recover data packets from a collision. It is also used to

control the flow of data packets over the network so that the packets
are not get lost, and data integrity is maintained. In CSMA, when
two or more data packets are sent at the same time on a shared
channel, the chances of collision occurred. Due to the collision, the
receiver does not get any information regarding the sender's data
packets. And the lost information needs to be resented so that the
receiver can get it. Therefore we need to sense the channel before
transmitting data packets on a network. It is divided into two
parts, CSMA CA (Collision Avoidance) and CSMA CD (Collision
Detection).

CSMA CD

The Carrier Sense Multiple Access/ Collision Detection protocol is

used to detect a collision in the media access control (MAC) layer.
Once the collision was detected, the CSMA CD immediately stopped
the transmission by sending the signal so that the sender does not
waste all the time to send the data packet. Suppose a collision is
detected from each station while broadcasting the packets. In that
case, the CSMA CD immediately sends a jam signal to stop
transmission and waits for a random time context before
transmitting another data packet. If the channel is found free, it
immediately sends the data and returns it.

Advantage and Disadvantage of CSMA CD

Advantages of CSMA CD:

1. It is used for collision detection on a shared channel within a

very short time.
2. CSMA CD is better than CSMA for collision detection.
3. CSMA CD is used to avoid any form of waste transmission.
 4. When necessary, it is used to use or share the same amount of
bandwidth at each station.
5. It has lower CSMA CD overhead as compared to the CSMA
CA.

Disadvantage of CSMA CD

1. It is not suitable for long-distance networks because as the

distance increases, CSMA CD' efficiency decreases.
2. It can detect collision only up to 2500 meters, and beyond this
range, it cannot detect collisions.
3. When multiple devices are added to a CSMA CD, collision
detection performance is reduced.

CSMA/CA

CSMA stands for Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision

Avoidance. It means that it is a network protocol that uses to avoid a
collision rather than allowing it to occur, and it does not deal with
the recovery of packets after a collision. It is similar to the CSMA
CD protocol that operates in the media access control layer. In
CSMA CA, whenever a station sends a data frame to a channel, it
checks whether it is in use. If the shared channel is busy, the station
waits until the channel enters idle mode. Hence, we can say that it
reduces the chances of collisions and makes better use of the
medium to send data packets more efficiently.

Advantage and Disadvantage of CSMA CA

Advantage of CSMA CA

1. When the size of data packets is large, the chances of collision

in CSMA CA is less.
2. It controls the data packets and sends the data when the
receiver wants to send them.
 3. It is used to prevent collision rather than collision detection on
the shared channel.
4. CSMA CA avoids wasted transmission of data over the
channel.
5. It is best suited for wireless transmission in a network.
6. It avoids unnecessary data traffic on the network with the help
of the RTS/ CTS extension.

The disadvantage of CSMA CA

1. Sometime CSMA/CA takes much waiting time as usual to

transmit the data packet.
2. It consumes more bandwidth by each station.
3. Its efficiency is less than a CSMA CD.

Difference between CSMA CA and CSMA CD

S. No CSMA CD CSMA CA

It is the type of
It is the type of
CSMA to
CSMA to avoid
detect the
1. collision on a
collision on a
shared
shared
channel.
channel.
 It is the It is the
collision collision
2.
detection avoidance
protocol. protocol.

It is used in the
It is used in
802.11
3. 802.3 Ethernet
Ethernet
network cable.
network.

It works in It works in
4. wired wireless
networks. networks.

It is effective It is effective
after collision before collision
5.
detection on a detection on a
network. network.

Whenever a Whereas the

data packet CSMA CA
conflicts in a waits until the
6. shared channel is busy
channel, it and does not
resends the recover after a
data frame. collision.

It minimizes It minimizes
7. the recovery the risk of
time. collision.

8. The efficiency The efficiency

of CSMA CD is of CSMA CA is
high as similar to
 compared to
CSMA.
CSMA.

It is more
It is less
popular than
9. popular than
the CSMA CA
CSMA CD.
protocol.

CSMA/CA
This method was developed to decrease the chances of collisions
when two or more stations start sending their signals over the data
link layer. Carrier Sense multiple access requires that each
station first check the state of the medium before sending.
The persistence methods can be applied to help the station take
action when the channel is busy/idle.
1. Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection
(CSMA/CD):
In this method, a station monitors the medium after it sends a
frame to see if the transmission was successful. If successful, the
transmission is finished, if not, the frame is sent again.
In the diagram, starts sending the first bit of its frame at t1 and
since C sees the channel idle at t2, starts sending its frame at t2. C
detects A’s frame at t3 and aborts transmission. A detects C’s
frame at t4 and aborts its transmission. Transmission time for C’s
frame is, therefore, t3-t2 and for A’s frame is t4-t1
So, the frame transmission time (Tfr) should be at least twice the
maximum propagation time (Tp). This can be deduced when the
two stations involved in a collision are a maximum distance apart.
Process: The entire process of collision detection can be explained
as follows:
 Throughput and Efficiency: The throughput of CSMA/CD is much
greater than pure or slotted ALOHA.
 For the 1-persistent method, throughput is 50% when G=1.
 For the non-persistent method, throughput can go up to 90%.
2. Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance
(CSMA/CA) –
The basic idea behind CSMA/CA is that the station should be able
to receive while transmitting to detect a collision from different
stations. In wired networks, if a collision has occurred then the
energy of the received signal almost doubles, and the station can
sense the possibility of collision. In the case of wireless networks,
most of the energy is used for transmission, and the energy of the
received signal increases by only 5-10% if a collision occurs. It
can’t be used by the station to sense collision. Therefore CSMA/CA
has been specially designed for wireless networks.
These are three types of strategies:
1. InterFrame Space (IFS): When a station finds the channel busy it
senses the channel again, when the station finds a channel to be
idle it waits for a period of time called IFS time. IFS can also be
used to define the priority of a station or a frame. Higher the IFS
lower is the priority.
2. Contention Window: It is the amount of time divided into slots. A
station that is ready to send frames chooses a random number of
slots as wait time.
3. Acknowledgments: The positive acknowledgments and time-out
timer can help guarantee a successful transmission of the frame.
Characteristics of CSMA/CA :
1. Carrier Sense: The device listens to the channel before
transmitting, to ensure that it is not currently in use by another
device.
2. Multiple Access: Multiple devices share the same channel and can
transmit simultaneously.
3. Collision Avoidance: If two or more devices attempt to transmit
at the same time, a collision occurs. CSMA/CA uses random
backoff time intervals to avoid collisions.
4. Acknowledgment (ACK): After successful transmission, the
receiving device sends an ACK to confirm receipt.
5. Fairness: The protocol ensures that all devices have equal access
to the channel and no single device monopolizes it.
6. Binary Exponential Backoff: If a collision occurs, the device waits
for a random period of time before attempting to retransmit. The
backoff time increases exponentially with each retransmission
attempt.
7. Interframe Spacing: The protocol requires a minimum amount of
time between transmissions to allow the channel to be clear and
reduce the likelihood of collisions.
8. RTS/CTS Handshake: In some implementations, a Request-To-
Send (RTS) and Clear-To-Send (CTS) handshake is used to
reserve the channel before transmission. This reduces the chance
of collisions and increases efficiency.
9. Wireless Network Quality: The performance of CSMA/CA is
greatly influenced by the quality of the wireless network, such as
the strength of the signal, interference, and network congestion.
10. Adaptive Behavior: CSMA/CA can dynamically adjust its
behavior in response to changes in network conditions, ensuring
the efficient use of the channel and avoiding congestion.
Overall, CSMA/CA balances the need for efficient use of the shared
channel with the need to avoid collisions, leading to reliable and
fair communication in a wireless network.
Process: The entire process of collision avoidance can be explained
as follows:
 Types of CSMA Access Modes:
There are 4 types of access modes available in CSMA. It is also
referred as 4 different types of CSMA protocols which decide the
time to start sending data across shared media.
1. 1-Persistent: It senses the shared channel first and delivers the
data right away if the channel is idle. If not, it must wait
and continuously track for the channel to become idle and then
broadcast the frame without condition as soon as it does. It is an
aggressive transmission algorithm.
2. Non-Persistent: It first assesses the channel before transmitting
data; if the channel is idle, the node transmits data right away. If
not, the station must wait for an arbitrary amount of time (not
continuously), and when it discovers the channel is empty, it sends
the frames.
3. P-Persistent: It consists of the 1-Persistent and Non-Persistent
modes combined. Each node observes the channel in the
1Persistent mode, and if the channel is idle, it sends a frame with
a P probability. If the data is not transferred, the frame restarts
with the following time slot after waiting for a (q = 1-p
probability) random period.
4. O-Persistent: A supervisory node gives each node a transmission
order. Nodes wait for their time slot according to their allocated
transmission sequence when the transmission medium is idle.
Advantages of CSMA:
1. Increased efficiency: CSMA ensures that only one device
communicates on the network at a time, reducing collisions and
improving network efficiency.
2. Simplicity: CSMA is a simple protocol that is easy to implement
and does not require complex hardware or software.
3. Flexibility: CSMA is a flexible protocol that can be used in a wide
range of network environments, including wired and wireless
networks.
4. Low cost: CSMA does not require expensive hardware or
software, making it a cost-effective solution for network
communication.
Disadvantages of CSMA:
1. Limited scalability: CSMA is not a scalable protocol and can
become inefficient as the number of devices on the network
increases.
2. Delay: In busy networks, the requirement to sense the medium
and wait for an available channel can result in delays and
increased latency.
3. Limited reliability: CSMA can be affected by interference, noise,
and other factors, resulting in unreliable communication.
4. Vulnerability to attacks: CSMA can be vulnerable to certain
types of attacks, such as jamming and denial-of-service attacks,
which can disrupt network communication.
CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/ Collision Detection) is a
media access control method that was widely used in Early
Ethernet technology/LANs when there used to be shared Bus
Topology and each node ( Computers) was connected by Coaxial
Cables. Nowadays Ethernet is Full Duplex and Topology is either
Star (connected via Switch or Router) or point-to-point ( Direct
Connection). Hence CSMA/CD is not used but they are still
supported though.
Consider a scenario where there are ‘n’ stations on a link and all
are waiting to transfer data through that channel. In this case, all
‘n’ stations would want to access the link/channel to transfer their
own data. The problem arises when more than one station
transmits the data at the moment. In this case, there will be
collisions in the data from different stations.
CSMA/CD is one such technique where different stations that
follow this protocol agree on some terms and collision detection
measures for effective transmission. This protocol decides which
 station will transmit when so that data reaches the destination
without corruption.
How Does CSMA/CD Work?
 Step 1: Check if the sender is ready to transmit data packets.
 Step 2: Check if the transmission link is idle.
The sender has to keep on checking if the transmission
link/medium is idle. For this, it continuously senses transmissions
from other nodes. The sender sends dummy data on the link. If it
does not receive any collision signal, this means the link is idle at
the moment. If it senses that the carrier is free and there are no
collisions, it sends the data. Otherwise, it refrains from sending
data.
 Step 3: Transmit the data & check for collisions.
The sender transmits its data on the link. CSMA/CD does not use
an ‘acknowledgment’ system. It checks for successful and
unsuccessful transmissions through collision signals. During
transmission, if a collision signal is received by the node,
transmission is stopped. The station then transmits a jam signal
onto the link and waits for random time intervals before it
resends the frame. After some random time, it again attempts to
transfer the data and repeats the above process.
 Step 4: If no collision was detected in propagation, the sender
completes its frame transmission and resets the counters.
How Does a Station Know if Its Data Collide?
Consider the above situation. Two stations, A & B.
Propagation Time: Tp = 1 hr ( Signal takes 1 hr to go from A to B)
At time t=0, A transmits its data.
t= 30 mins : Collision occurs.
After the collision occurs, a collision signal is generated and sent to
both A & B to inform the stations about the collision. Since the
collision happened midway, the collision signal also takes 30
minutes to reach A & B.
Therefore, t=1 hr: A & B receive collision signals.
This collision signal is received by all the stations on that link.
Then,
How to Ensure that it is our Station’s Data that Collided?
For this, Transmission time (Tt) > Propagation Time (Tp) [Rough
bound]
This is because we want that before we transmit the last bit of our
data from our station, we should at least be sure that some of the
bits have already reached their destination. This ensures that the
link is not busy and collisions will not occur.
But, above is a loose bound. We have not taken the time taken by
the collision signal to travel back to us. For this consider the worst-
case scenario.
Consider the above system again.
At time t=0, A transmits its data.
t= 59:59 mins : Collision occurs
This collision occurs just before the data reaches B. Now the
collision signal takes 59:59 minutes again to reach A. Hence, A
receives the collision information approximately after 2 hours, that
is, after 2 * Tp.
Hence, to ensure tighter bound, to detect the collision completely,
Tt > >= 2 * Tp
This is the maximum collision time that a system can take to detect
if the collision was of its own data.
What should be the Minimum length of the Packet to be
Transmitted?
Transmission Time = Tt = Length of the packet/ Bandwidth of the
link
[Number of bits transmitted by sender per second]
Substituting above, we get,
Length of the packet/ Bandwidth of the link>= 2 * Tp
Length of the packet >= 2 * Tp * Bandwidth of the link
Padding helps in cases where we do not have such long packets. We
can pad extra characters to the end of our data to satisfy the above
condition.
Features of Collision Detection in CSMA/CD
 Carrier Sense: Before transmitting data, a device listens to the
network to check if the transmission medium is free. If the
 medium is busy, the device waits until it becomes free before
transmitting data.
 Multiple Access: In a CSMA/CD network, multiple devices share
the same transmission medium. Each device has equal access to
the medium, and any device can transmit data when the medium
is free.
 Collision Detection: If two or more devices transmit data
simultaneously, a collision occurs. When a device detects a
collision, it immediately stops transmitting and sends a jam signal
to inform all other devices on the network of the collision. The
devices then wait for a random time before attempting to
transmit again, to reduce the chances of another collision.
 Backoff Algorithm: In CSMA/CD, a backoff algorithm is used to
determine when a device can retransmit data after a collision.
The algorithm uses a random delay before a device retransmits
data, to reduce the likelihood of another collision occurring.
 Minimum Frame Size: CSMA/CD requires a minimum frame
size to ensure that all devices have enough time to detect a
collision before the transmission ends. If a frame is too short, a
device may not detect a collision and continue transmitting,
leading to data corruption on the network.
Advantages of CSMA/CD
 Simple and widely used: CSMA/CD is a widely used protocol for
Ethernet networks, and its simplicity makes it easy to implement
and use.
 Fairness: In a CSMA/CD network, all devices have equal access
to the transmission medium, which ensures fairness in data
transmission.
 Efficiency: CSMA/CD allows for efficient use of the transmission
medium by preventing unnecessary collisions and reducing
network congestion.
Disadvantages of CSMA/CD
 Limited Scalability: CSMA/CD has limitations in terms of
scalability, and it may not be suitable for large networks with a
high number of devices.
 Vulnerability to Collisions: While CSMA/CD can detect
collisions, it cannot prevent them from occurring. Collisions can
lead to data corruption, retransmission delays, and reduced
network performance.
 Inefficient Use of Bandwidth: CSMA/CD uses a random backoff
algorithm that can result in inefficient use of
network bandwidth if a device continually experiences collisions.
 Susceptibility to Security Attacks: CSMA/CD does not provide
any security features, and the protocol is vulnerable to security
attacks such as packet sniffing and spoofing.

IEEE 802.3 is a set of standards and protocols that

define Ethernet-based networks. Ethernet technologies are
primarily used in LANs, though they can also be used
in MANs and even WANs. IEEE 802.3 defines the physical
layer and the medium access control (MAC) sub-layer of the data
link layer for wired Ethernet networks.

EEE 802.3 Popular Versions

There are a number of versions of IEEE 802.3 protocol. The most

popular ones are.

 IEEE 802.3: This was the original standard given for 10BASE-
5. It used a thick single coaxial cable into which a connection
can be tapped by drilling into the cable to the core. Here, 10 is
the maximum throughput, i.e. 10 Mbps, BASE denoted use of
baseband transmission, and 5 refers to the maximum segment
length of 500m.
 IEEE 802.3a: This gave the standard for thin coax (10BASE-
2), which is a thinner variety where the segments of coaxial
cables are connected by BNC connectors. The 2 refers to the
maximum segment length of about 200m (185m to be precise).
 IEEE 802.3i: This gave the standard for twisted pair (10BASE-
T) that uses unshielded twisted pair (UTP) copper wires as
 physical layer medium. The further variations were given by
IEEE 802.3u for 100BASE-TX, 100BASE-T4 and 100BASE-
FX.
 IEEE 802.3i: This gave the standard for Ethernet over Fiber
(10BASE-F) that uses fiber optic cables as medium of
transmission.

Frame Format of IEEE 802.3

The main fields of a frame of classic Ethernet are -

 Preamble: It is a 7 bytes starting field that provides alert and

timing pulse for transmission.
 Start of Frame Delimiter: It is a 1 byte field that contains an
alternating pattern of ones and zeros ending with two ones.
 Destination Address: It is a 6 byte field containing physical
address of destination stations.
 Source Address: It is a 6 byte field containing the physical
address of the sending station.
 Length: It a 7 bytes field that stores the number of bytes in the
data field.
 Data: This is a variable sized field carries the data from the
upper layers. The maximum size of data field is 1500 bytes.
 Padding: This is added to the data to bring its length to the
minimum requirement of 46 bytes.
  CRC: CRC stands for cyclic redundancy check. It contains
the error detection information.

In a token ring, a special bit pattern, known as a token, circulates

around the ring when all the stations are idle. Token Ring is formed
by the nodes connected in ring format, as shown in the diagram
below.

The principle used in the token ring network is that a token is

circulating in the ring, and whichever node grabs that token will
have the right to transmit the data.

Whenever a station wants to transmit a frame, it inverts a single bit

of the 3-byte token, which instantaneously changes it into a normal
data packet. As there is only one token, there can be only one
transmission at a time.

Since the token rotates in the ring, it is guaranteed that every node
gets the token within some specified time. So there is an upper
bound on the time of waiting to grab the token so that starvation is
avoided. There is also an upper limit of 250 on the number of nodes
in the network.

The ring network is depicted in the figure given below −

Modes of Operation

There are various modes of operations which are as follows −

 Listen Mode − In the listen mode, the incoming bits are simply
transmitted to the output line with no further action taken.
 Talk or Transmit Node − The ring interface is set to the talk or
transmit node when the station connected to the ring interface
has acquired a token. The direct input to output connection
through the single bit buffer is disconnected.
  By-pass Mode − This mode reaches when the node is down.
Any data is just bypassed. There is no one-bit delay in this
mode.

Handling Breakage

The main problem with a ring network is that the network goes
down when the ring cable breaks down or gets tempered. The
solution to this problem is the use of a wire centre, as shown in the
figure.

This wire center bypasses the terminals that have gone down from
the ring. This is done by connecting the bypass relay for that station.
These relays are generally controlled by the software that operates
automatically in case of station failure. The use of a wire center
improves the reliability and maintainability of the ring network.
Priority and Reservation

In IEEE 802.5, each station has a priority code. As a token circulates

on the ring, any station which wants to transmit the frame may
reserve the token by entering its priority code in the Access Control
(AC) field of the token frame or data frame.

Time Bounding
A station that is in possession of the token only can transmit his
frames. It may transmit one or more data frames but before the
expiry of Token Holding Time (THT). Typically, this time is 10
milliseconds. After the THT, the token frame must be handed over
to some other station.

The Monitor Station

The monitor station sets the timer on when each time the token
passes. If the token does not regenerate in the allotted time, it is
assumed to be lost, and then the monitor station generates a new
token and sends it to the ring. If the monitor fails, a second station is
designated as back-up.

Token Bus (IEEE 802.4) is a standard for implementing token ring

over the virtual ring in LANs. The physical media has a bus or a
tree topology and uses coaxial cables. A virtual ring is created with
the nodes/stations and the token is passed from one node to the next
in a sequence along this virtual ring. Each node knows the address
of its preceding station and its succeeding station. A station can only
transmit data when it has the token. The working principle of the
token bus is similar to Token Ring.

Token Passing Mechanism in Token Bus

A token is a small message that circulates among the stations of a

computer network providing permission to the stations for
transmission. If a station has data to transmit when it receives a
token, it sends the data and then passes the token to the next station;
otherwise, it simply passes the token to the next station. This is
depicted in the following diagram −
Frame Format of Token Bus

The frame format is given by the following diagram −

The fields of a token bus frame are −

 Preamble: 1 byte for synchronization.

  Start Delimiter: 1 byte that marks the beginning of the frame.
 Frame Control: 1 byte that specifies whether this is a data
frame or control frame.
 Destination Address: 2-6 bytes that specifies address of
destination station.
 Source Address: 2-6 bytes that specifies address of source
station.
 Payload: A variable length field that carries the data from the
network layer.
 Checksum: 4 bytes frame check sequence for error detection.
 End Delimiter: 1 byte that marks the end of the frame.
A local Area Network (LAN) is a data communication network
connecting various terminals or computers within a building or
limited geographical area. The connection between the devices
could be wired or wireless. Ethernet, Token rings, and Wireless
LAN using IEEE 802.11 are examples of standard LAN
technologies.
What is Ethernet?
Ethernet is the most widely used LAN technology and is defined
under IEEE standards 802.3. The reason behind its wide usability
is that Ethernet is easy to understand, implement, and maintain,
and allows low-cost network implementation. Also, Ethernet offers
flexibility in terms of the topologies that are allowed. Ethernet
generally uses a bus topology. Ethernet operates in two layers of
the OSI model, the physical layer and the data link layer. For
Ethernet, the protocol data unit is a frame since we mainly deal
with DLLs. In order to handle collisions, the Access control
mechanism used in Ethernet is CSMA/CD.
Although Ethernet has been largely replaced by wireless networks,
wired networking still uses Ethernet more frequently. Wi-
Fi eliminates the need for cables by enabling users to connect their
smartphones or laptops to a network wirelessly. The 802.11ac Wi-
Fi standard offers faster maximum data transfer rates when
compared to Gigabit Ethernet. However, wired connections are
more secure and less susceptible to interference than wireless
networks. This is the main justification for why so many companies
and organizations continue to use Ethernet.
History of Ethernet
Robert Metcalfe’s invention of Ethernet in 1973 completely
changed computer networking. With Ethernet Version 2’s support
for 10 Mbps and an initial data rate of 2.94 Mbps, it first gained
popularity in 1982. Ethernet’s adoption was accelerated by the
IEEE 802.3 standardization in 1983. Local area networks (LANs)
and the internet were able to expand quickly thanks to the rapid
evolution and advancement of Ethernet, which over time reached
speeds of 100 Mbps, 1 Gbps, 10 Gbps, and higher. It evolved into
the standard technology for wired network connections, enabling
dependable and quick data transmission for private residences,
commercial buildings, and data centers all over the world.
There are different types of Ethernet networks that are used to
connect devices and transfer data.
Let’s discuss them in simple terms:
1. Fast Ethernet: This type of Ethernet network uses cables called
twisted pair or CAT5. It can transfer data at a speed of around 100
Mbps (megabits per second). Fast Ethernet uses both fiber optic
and twisted pair cables to enable communication. There are three
categories of Fast Ethernet: 100BASE-TX, 100BASE-FX, and
100BASE-T4.
2. Gigabit Ethernet: This is an upgrade from Fast Ethernet and is
more common nowadays. It can transfer data at a speed of 1000
Mbps or 1 Gbps (gigabit per second). Gigabit Ethernet also uses
fiber optic and twisted pair cables for communication. It often uses
advanced cables like CAT5e, which can transfer data at a speed of
10 Gbps.
3.10-Gigabit Ethernet: This is an advanced and high-speed
network that can transmit data at a speed of 10 gigabits per second.
It uses special cables like CAT6a or CAT7 twisted-pair cables and
fiber optic cables. With the help of fiber optic cables, this network
can cover longer distances, up to around 10,000 meters.
4. Switch Ethernet: This type of network involves using switches or
hubs to improve network performance. Each workstation in this
network has its own dedicated connection, which improves the
speed and efficiency of data transfer. Switch Ethernet supports a
wide range of speeds, from 10 Mbps to 10 Gbps, depending on the
version of Ethernet being used.
In summary, Fast Ethernet is the basic version with a speed of 100
Mbps, Gigabit Ethernet is faster with a speed of 1 Gbps, 10-Gigabit
Ethernet is even faster with a speed of 10 Gbps, and Switch
Ethernet uses switches or hubs to enhance network performance.
The Manchester Encoding Technique is used in Ethernet.
Using Manchester encoding, data can be transmitted over a
physical medium in communication systems. It is a type of line
coding where the signal transitions, as opposed to the absolute
voltage levels, serve as the data representation.
Each bit of information is split into two equal time periods, or
“halves,” in Manchester encoding. If the signal level is higher
during the first half of the bit period than it is during the second,
the result is a logic high (typically 1), or vice versa.
 Since we are talking about IEEE 802.3 standard Ethernet,
therefore, 0 is expressed by a high-to-low transition, a 1 by the low-
to-high transition. In both Manchester Encoding and Differential
Manchester, the Encoding Baud rate is double of bit rate.
Key Features of Ethernet
1. Speed: Ethernet is capable of transmitting data at high speeds,
with current Ethernet standards supporting speeds of up to 100
Gbps.
2. Flexibility: Ethernet is a flexible technology that can be used with
a wide range of devices and operating systems. It can also be
easily scaled to accommodate a growing number of users and
devices.
3. Reliability: Ethernet is a reliable technology that uses error-
correction techniques to ensure that data is transmitted
accurately and efficiently.
4. Cost-effectiveness: Ethernet is a cost-effective technology that is
widely available and easy to implement. It is also relatively low-
maintenance, requiring minimal ongoing support.
5. Interoperability: Ethernet is an interoperable technology that
allows devices from different manufacturers to communicate with
each other seamlessly.
6. Security: Ethernet includes built-in security features, including
encryption and authentication, to protect data from unauthorized
access.
7. Manageability: Ethernet networks are easily managed, with
various tools available to help network administrators monitor
and control network traffic.
8. Compatibility: Ethernet is compatible with a wide range of other
networking technologies, making it easy to integrate with other
systems and devices.
9. Availability: Ethernet is a widely available technology that can be
used in almost any setting, from homes and small offices to large
data centers and enterprise-level networks.
10. Simplicity: Ethernet is a simple technology that is easy to
understand and use. It does not require specialized knowledge or
expertise to set up and configure, making it accessible to a wide
range of users.
11. Standardization: Ethernet is a standardized technology,
which means that all Ethernet devices and systems are designed
to work together seamlessly. This makes it easier for network
administrators to manage and troubleshoot Ethernet networks.
12. Scalability: Ethernet is highly scalable, which means it can
easily accommodate the addition of new devices, users, and
applications without sacrificing performance or reliability.
13. Broad compatibility: Ethernet is compatible with a wide
range of protocols and technologies, including TCP/IP, HTTP,
FTP, and others. This makes it a versatile technology that can be
used in a variety of settings and applications.
14. Ease of integration: Ethernet can be easily integrated with
other networking technologies, such as Wi-Fi and Bluetooth, to
create a seamless and integrated network environment.
15. Ease of troubleshooting: Ethernet networks are easy to
troubleshoot and diagnose, thanks to a range of built-in
 diagnostic and monitoring tools. This makes it easier for network
administrators to identify and resolve issues quickly and
efficiently.
16. Support for multimedia: Ethernet supports multimedia
applications, such as video and audio streaming, making it ideal
for use in settings where multimedia content is a key part of the
user [Link] is a reliable, cost-effective, and widely
used LAN technology that offers high-speed connectivity and easy
manageability for local networks.
Advantages of Ethernet
Speed: When compared to a wireless connection, Ethernet provides
significantly more speed. Because Ethernet is a one-to-one
connection, this is the case. As a result, speeds of up to 10 Gigabits
per second (Gbps) or even 100 Gigabits per second (Gbps) are
possible.
Efficiency: An Ethernet cable, such as Cat6, consumes less
electricity, even less than a wifi connection. As a result, these
ethernet cables are thought to be the most energy-efficient.
Good data transfer quality: Because it is resistant to noise, the
information transferred is of high quality.
Baud rate = 2* Bit rate
Ethernet LANs consist of network nodes and interconnecting
media, or links.
The network nodes can be of two types:
Data Terminal Equipment (DTE): Media, Generally, DTEs are the
end devices that convert the user information into signals or
reconvert the received signals. DTE devices are: personal
computers, workstations, file servers or print servers also referred
to as end stations. These devices are either the source or the
destination of data frames. The data terminal equipment may be a
single piece of equipment or multiple pieces of equipment that are
interconnected and perform all the required functions to allow the
user to communicate. A user can interact with DTE or DTE may be
a user.
Data Communication Equipment (DCE):- DCEs are the
intermediate network devices that receive and forward frames
across the network. They may be either standalone devices such as
repeaters, network switches, or routers, or maybe communications
interface units such as interface cards and modems. The DCE
performs functions such as signal conversion, coding, and maybe a
part of the DTE or intermediate equipment.
Disadvantages of Ethernet
Distance limitations: Ethernet has distance limitations, with the
maximum cable length for a standard Ethernet network being 100
meters. This means that it may not be suitable for larger networks
that require longer distances.
Bandwidth sharing: Ethernet networks share bandwidth among all
connected devices, which can result in reduced network speeds as
the number of devices increases.
Security vulnerabilities: Although Ethernet includes built-in
security features, it is still vulnerable to security breaches,
including unauthorized access and data interception.
Complexity: Ethernet networks can be complex to set up and
maintain, requiring specialized knowledge and expertise.
Compatibility issues: While Ethernet is generally interoperable
with other networking technologies, compatibility issues can arise
when integrating with older or legacy systems.
Cable installation: Ethernet networks require the installation of
physical cables, which can be time-consuming and expensive to
install.
Physical limitations: Ethernet networks require physical
connections between devices, which can limit mobility and
flexibility in network design.