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Abstract Entities 1st Edition Sam Cowling Digital Instant
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Author(s): Sam Cowling
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 ABSTRACT ENTITIES

Think of a number, any number, or properties like fragility and humanity. These and
other abstract entities are radically different from concrete entities like electrons
and elbows. While concrete entities are located in space and time, have causes and
effects, and are known through empirical means, abstract entities like meanings
and possibilities are remarkably different. They seem to be immutable and imper-
ceptible and to exist “outside” of space and time.
This book provides a comprehensive critical assessment of the problems raised
by abstract entities and the debates about existence, truth, and knowledge that sur-
round them. It sets out the key issues that inform the metaphysical disagreement
between platonists who accept abstract entities and nominalists who deny abstract
entities exist. Beginning with the essentials of the platonist–nominalist debate, it
explores the key arguments and issues informing the contemporary debate over
abstract reality:

•• arguments for platonism and their connections to semantics, science, and meta-
physical explanation
•• the abstract–concrete distinction and views about the nature of abstract reality
•• epistemological puzzles surrounding our knowledge of mathematical entities and
other abstract entities
•• arguments for nominalism premised upon concerns about paradox, parsimony,
infinite regresses, underdetermination, and causal isolation
•• nominalist options that seek to dispense with abstract entities.

Including chapter summaries, annotated further reading, and a glossary, Abstract

Entities is essential reading for anyone seeking a clear and authoritative introduction
to the problems raised by abstract entities.

Sam Cowling is Assistant Professor, Denison University, USA.

NEW PROBLEMS OF PHILOSOPHY
Series Editor: José Luis Bermúdez

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ABSTRACT ENTITIES

Sam Cowling
First published 2017
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2017 Sam Cowling
The right of Sam Cowling to be identified as the author of this work has been
asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs
and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or
utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now
known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any
information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the
publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered
trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent
to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Names: Cowling, Sam, author.
Title: Abstract entities / by Sam Cowling.
Description: 1 [edition]. | New York : Routledge, 2017. | Series: New problems
of philosophy | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016038051| ISBN 9781138827585 (hardback : alk. paper) |
ISBN 9781138827592 (pbk. : alk. paper) | ISBN 9781315266619 (e-book)
Subjects: LCSH: Entity (Philosophy) | Abstraction.
Classification: LCC BD336 .C69 2017 | DDC 111—dc23
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ISBN: 978-1-138-82758-5 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-138-82759-2 (pbk)
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by Swales & Willis Ltd, Exeter, Devon, UK
For My Folks
 CONTENTS

Acknowledgements ix

Introduction 1
1 The case for platonism 23
1.1 Platonism 23
1.2 Semantic arguments 26
1.3 Alethic arguments 38
1.4 Indispensability arguments 47
1.5 Metaphysical explanation 57
2 The abstract–concrete distinction 69
2.1 The standard view 70
2.2 Analyzing abstractness 74
2.3 Primitivism 92
2.4 Eliminativism 97
3 Paradox, parsimony, and infinite regresses 106
3.1 Paradox 107
3.2 Parsimony 114
3.3 Infinite regresses 120
4 Causal concerns 130
4.1 Epistemic access 130
4.2 Ensuring epistemic access 138
4.3 Semantic access 147
4.4 Cognitive access 150
4.5 Eleaticism 155
viii Contents

5 Non-uniqueness 162
5.1 The non-uniqueness problem 162
5.2 Living with non-uniqueness 169
5.3 Metaphysical underdetermination 177
5.4 Overcoming underdetermination 179
6 Modal objections 189
6.1 Necessary existents 190
6.2 Necessary connections 196
6.3 Contingent platonism 201
6.4 Abstracta and actuality 206
7 Nominalist options 214
7.1 Nominalisms 214
7.2 Meaning 216
7.3 Truth 220
7.4 Commitment 228
7.5 Harvard nominalism revisited 234
Conclusion 247

Glossary 252
References 256
Index 273
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thanks to the many folks who provided helpful comments on various

parts of this book. Among others, my thanks to Marc Alspector-Kelly,
Chloe Armstrong, Wesley Cray, Gus Evans, Arthur Falk, Ed Ferrier, Barak
Krakauer, Anthony Kulic, Kelly McCormick, Michaela McSweeney, Kevin
Morris, Joshua Spencer, Chris Tillman, Jenn Wang, and audiences at the
University of Massachusetts-Amherst, the 2015 Central division of the
American Philosophical Association, the 2015 Canadian Philosophical
Association, and the 2016 Junior Metaphysics Workshop. I am espe-
cially grateful to James Davies, Cameron Gibbs, Dan Giberman, Bradley
Rettler, and Kelly Trogdon for providing extensive comments on the
manuscript. Additional thanks are owed to my excellent colleagues at
Denison University for their kind support. Thanks also to my editors at
Routledge, Tony Bruce and Adam Johnson, and to four anonymous referees
for their helpful comments.
This book project began during a seminar on abstract entities at
Western Michigan University in 2013 and was helped along by a class
on the same topic at Denison in 2015. My thanks to all the students
involved in those courses. My good fortune in teaching those classes (or
anywhere at all, for that matter) owes to the many professors who have
taught me over the years. I am especially grateful to Phil Bricker and Ben
Caplan in this regard. Given their remarkable philosophical acumen, the
x Acknowledgements

stark difference in their views is evidence enough that there are no easy
answers when it comes to abstract entities.
Finally, thanks to my friends and family, and especially my parents, Janet
and Doug, and dear wife, Stephanie, for their patience and encouragement.
Columbus, Ohio
August 2016
 INTRODUCTION

This book is about abstract entities. Like most entities subject to serious
philosophical scrutiny, it is controversial whether there are any such things.
It is also controversial which things would be properly counted as abstract
if they were to exist. Worse still, there is widespread controversy about
what exactly it means for an entity to be abstract rather than concrete.
You might take this abundance of controversy to be philosophically
ominous, suggesting that debates about abstract entities are spurious or
defective. That would be a mistake. Debates regarding abstract entities are
among the most important in metaphysics. Since paradigmatic abstract
entities like the real numbers and the Pythagorean theorem figure in our
best scientific theories, they force us to clarify how our scientific commit-
ments ought to inform our metaphysical theories. And, given that abstract
entities are usually taken to be imperceptible entities existing outside of
spacetime, they serve as a proving ground for the application of episte-
mological theories. Since abstract entities like meanings and theories seem
both oddly familiar yet ontologically peculiar, investigating them also
demands that we carefully examine our ordinary worldview and its proper
place within philosophical methodology.
This book aims to provide an opinionated introduction to the metaphysics
of abstract entities. It will focus on the main arguments that structure the
contemporary debate over their nature and existence. But, before heaping
2 Introduction

complications upon qualifications upon distinctions, we can begin with

the basics. Following a somewhat contentious convention, we will take
platonism as the thesis that abstract entities exist and, for the moment, follow
orthodoxy in taking entities like numbers, properties, and propositions as
paradigm examples of abstracta.1 In opposition to platonism stands the thesis
of nominalism, which holds that there are no abstract entities.2 According
to nominalism, the world is wholly concrete. It contains only concrete
entities like canoes, caribou, and cosmic rays. Since platonism affirms the
existence of both abstract and concrete entities, the point of disagreement
between platonists and nominalists boils down to a single question: are
there abstract entities?
Tackling this question requires that we first get a grip on the notion of
an abstract entity. And, while pointing to examples provides one way to
introduce the notion of an abstract entity, it will be useful to mark some
features commonly albeit controversially held to distinguish the abstract
from the concrete: (i) Causation. Abstract entities are usually claimed to lack
any causal role in the world; they cannot be created, altered, or destroyed.
In contrast, concrete entities are creatable, mutable, and destructible; they
can come into and go out of existence and change over time. (ii) Location.
Abstract entities are typically claimed to lack spatiotemporal location and so
are timeless, shapeless, and without any position in space. In contrast, con-
crete entities occupy particular locations in space or time. (iii) Accessibility.
Abstract entities are also commonly held to be cognitively or epistemi-
cally accessible in a way that concrete entities are not. This is because our
ordinary epistemic access to concrete entities like canoes and caribou is
perceptual and therefore involves causal relations, like seeing or touching,
between entities located within spacetime. But, as just noted, abstract
entities seem to lack causal roles and spatiotemporal locations. So, if math-
ematical entities like integers, properties like goodness, and propositions like
the Golden Rule are not in spacetime and are beyond our causal access,
our ability to think about and acquire knowledge of them seems to require
some sort of special cognitive or epistemic access.
Although many platonists claim we have special cognitive access to
abstract entities, this does not mean that abstract entities are mental entities
like ideas or psychological representations. Instead, as Gottlob Frege (1918)
memorably puts it, abstract entities occupy a “Third Realm,” distinct from
both physical entities and from mental entities like hallucinations or feelings.
Physical and mental entities are therefore concrete, while abstract entities are
neither mental nor physical entities.3 And, unlike ideas and other mental
 Introduction 3

entities, abstract entities are typically held to be mind-independent: their existence

and nature is ontologically independent from the attitudes and mental states
of individuals. Accordingly, abstract entities are not products of our cogni-
tive activities. They would exist and have their essential features even if
there were no one around to think, know, or speak about them.
The mind-independence of abstract entities is nicely illustrated by Frege’s
example of the Pythagorean theorem. Although you believe the Pythagorean
theorem by virtue of having certain mental states, the Pythagorean theorem
is not identical to your mental states or to the mental states of anyone
else. According to most platonists, the Pythagorean theorem is true, was so
before you existed, and would be so even if you (or anyone else) had never
existed. This is because the Pythagorean theorem is an abstract entity—
specifically, a proposition—that is the content of your mental state.4 You and
other thinkers can bear various propositional attitudes like belief and doubt to
the Pythagorean theorem and other propositions (e.g., that dogs bark or
that it’s raining in Vancouver). And, in virtue of bearing these attitudes,
your mental states have their respective contents and can be evaluated for
their truth or falsity. Moreover, the truth or falsity of your beliefs depends
upon the truth of the propositions you believe. So, for example, your belief
in the Pythagorean theorem is true in virtue of the Pythagorean theorem
being true. And, if you were to believe that pigs fly, your belief would be
false in virtue of the proposition that pigs fly being false. For platonists who
posit propositions, the truth or falsity of our beliefs is tidily explained by
appeal to the truth or falsity of the propositions they have as contents.
The mind-independence of propositions like the Pythagorean theorem
plays a key role in platonist explanations of how the mental states of dif-
ferent individuals can share a common content. For, while our respective
mental states are distinct—yours are in your head, mine are in mine—the
platonist holds that our capacity to believe or doubt the very same things
owes to our ability to bear attitudes towards the very same propositions.
And, as we’ll see, this is just one of several ways in which platonists invoke
abstract entities—in this case, propositions—to provide philosophical
explanations.
The features just noted—causal inactivity, lack of spatiotemporal loca-
tion, special cognitive accessibility, and mind-independence—are rough
guides in our efforts to single out abstract entities, but it is controversial
where to draw the line between the abstract and the concrete realms. Some
platonists posit abstract entities that lack one or more of these features.
Others claim that some special feature—perhaps causal inactivity or lack
4 Introduction

of location—adequately distinguishes abstract entities from concrete ones.

So, while platonists are united by a shared commitment to abstract enti-
ties, few platonists agree about what makes entities abstract rather than
concrete. Similar disagreement arises over which kinds of abstract entities
there are. Some platonists admit properties, but balk at propositions. Other
platonists posit propositions, but reject mathematical entities. The lengthy
list of candidate abstract entities will receive closer attention in Chapter 2,
but, throughout this book, our focus will be on three main kinds of abstract
entities: (i) mathematical entities like numbers, sets, and functions; (ii) properties,
which are sometimes called “universals” or “attributes,” like being human,
redness, and mass; and (iii) propositions like the Pythagorean theorem and the
proposition that pigs fly.5
In narrowing our focus, we will mostly set aside other kinds of abstract
entities such as types, possibilities, and fictional characters which are some-
times posited by platonists. Doing so is useful, in part, because the status
of these other kinds is controversial and because such kinds are often thought to
reduce to properties, propositions, or mathematical entities. For example,
types such as the letter type “z” or the common housefly seem to be related to
their instances or tokens in a manner much like the relationship between
properties and their bearers. This has prompted some platonists to identify
types with properties of a certain sort. In a similar vein, possibilities like the
possibility that the North Koreans land on Mars or that triangles have
three sides are often identified with propositions that have modal properties
like being possibly true. In addition, Ahab, Aquaman, and other fictional characters
are, on certain platonist views, rightly identified with complex construc-
tions of properties and propositions.
By focusing our attention on mathematical entities, properties, and prop-
ositions, we can avoid recurring qualifications and complications while
also leaving open which kinds of abstract entities might reduce to which
other kinds. In addition, the three kinds of abstract entities we will focus
on have a strong claim to being both the most commonly posited abstract
entities and the most theoretically fruitful. For this reason, they serve as the
best test cases in our survey of the arguments for and against platonism.
That said, we will also consider the fate of other kinds of abstract entities at
certain points in what follows.
An additional category of alleged abstract entities requires special com-
ment at this point. Many platonists hold the domain of abstract entities to
be far broader than just suggested. Alongside numbers, properties, and
propositions, expansive platonists posit conventional or created abstract entities
 Introduction 5

such as musical works, trade deficits, secret handshakes, and soup recipes.
According to expansive platonism, these entities and others like them share
sufficiently many marks of abstractness to be properly counted as abstract.
For example, some appear to lack locations in space even while they seem
to be created or located in time (or vice versa). And, although some might
seem to stand in certain kinds of causal relations, their causal status seems
markedly different from the one ascribed to concrete entities.6 As a con-
sequence, expansive platonists extend the domain of abstract entities far
beyond the realm of paradigmatic abstracta like numbers, properties, and
propositions.
For expansive platonists, soup recipes, musical works, and a motley
assortment of other entities are properly counted as abstract, despite their
apparent dependence upon human activities and their apparent location in
space or time. Against this expansive view, austere platonists deny that conven-
tional or created entities are a part of abstract reality. According to austere
platonism, such entities are not properly classified as abstract or simply do
not exist. Austere platonists will therefore hold that entities like musical works
and recipes are reducible to certain concrete entities—e.g., the mereological
sum of various musical performances or inscriptions—or claim, instead,
that such entities are somehow identical with paradigmatic abstracta like
properties, propositions, or mathematical entities.
The divide between expansive and austere forms of platonism is argu-
ably the most significant division among competing versions of platonism.
It is frustrating, then, that one sometimes finds arguments about abstract
musical works or fictional characters that boldly assert all abstract entities
lack spatiotemporal locations or are causally inert. For austere platonists, this
is plausible enough, but, for expansive platonists, there is simply no good
reason to assume such a generalization. Arguments that hinge upon such
generalizations are therefore worthless unless paired with an explicit com-
mitment to austere platonism or to a well-worked out version of expansive
platonism that would support such claims. For this reason, a not insignifi-
cant amount of work on abstract entities is hindered by a failure to explicitly
address this divide between expansive and austere versions of platonism and
their conflicting views about the abstract realm.
In Chapter 2, in-house disagreements among platonists will be surveyed
in some detail. For reasons noted there, the primary concern of this book
is with the fate of austere versions of platonism, which uphold substantive
generalizations about abstract entities—e.g., that they are causally inactive or
without spatiotemporal location—and eschew the abstract entities posited
6 Introduction

by expansive platonists. Obviously, this is controversial, but the good news

is that many of the issues addressed in this book can be broached in a way
that is more or less orthogonal to the expansive/austere divide. Where this
divide does matter, I have tried to note as much. For example, in Chapter 6,
I will suggest that the case against expansive platonism is somewhat stronger
than the case against austere platonism.
Having marked the disagreements between austere and expansive plato-
nism, it should be clear that the very notion of an abstract entity resists any
simple definition. In this respect, the category of abstract entities is little
different from the rest of nature. Nevertheless, those disposed to anxiety
in the face of any metaphysical ambiguity will find this murkiness trouble-
some. There is, however, no good reason for panic. As we’ll see, there is a
range of ways we can make the abstract–concrete distinction precise. And,
while the adequacy of these accounts is controversial, there is still good
reason for austere platonists to believe that the category of abstract entity is
importantly unified. This is due, not only to the clustering of the distinctive
features noted above, but also to the commonalities between the theoretical
roles usually assigned to abstract entities. We will map out these roles in
later chapters, but, for now, we can proceed with this preliminary char-
acterization in hand and briefly explore the significance and history of the
debate over abstract entities.

§Significance and history

The intuitive appeal of platonism can be captured rather easily: our thought
and talk seems steeped in abstract entities, so, in denying such entities
exist, nominalism threatens to undermine a vast wealth of commonly and
closely held truths. For example, we know that three is a prime number.
We also know that the Pythagorean theorem is true and that patience is a
virtue. In each of these cases, our knowledge seems to have a subject matter
and that subject matter seems to be independent from concrete reality. This
seems easy enough to account for if we accept platonism, since the relevant
subject matters would all be found within the abstract realm. So, when we
correctly believe that the Pythagorean theorem is true or errantly believe
that four is a prime number, we get things right or wrong to the extent
our beliefs accurately represent a mind-independent abstract realm that is
no less real or objective than the concrete realm of pancakes and potholes.
Contrary to the ambitions of nominalism, platonists claim that any effort
to reinterpret our familiar thought and talk about abstract entities solely in
 Introduction 7

terms of concrete entities is doomed. Although we can count and reason

mathematically about concrete entities, we cannot plausibly identify math-
ematical entities like the integers with collections of concrete entities like
tadpoles or totem poles. For, even if we had sufficiently many tadpoles and
totem poles, such entities, unlike the natural numbers, eventually perish
or topple over. Similarly, it seems that the Pythagorean theorem would be
true even if there were no tadpoles, totem poles, or perhaps no concrete
entities whatsoever. In the eyes of the platonist, the nominalist’s ambition
of doing away with abstract entities like numbers, properties, and proposi-
tions is a mistaken one. Any nominalist proposal for recasting our thought
and talk will inevitably distort or undermine the content and objectivity of
our discourse about mathematics, meaning, and other subject matters tied
to the abstract realm.
So far, so good. But why think the resolution of the debate between nomi-
nalists and platonists matters terribly much? Perhaps the debate over abstract
entities is much like ontological debates concerning holes or shadows: inter-
esting enough, but of limited or mostly illustrative significance. With this
worry in mind, it will be useful here to outline the considerable and often
underestimated stakes of the nominalist–platonist debate before examining
it in detail.
Even in its modest implementations, platonism is a striking thesis about
the explanatory structure of our best theories. If true, our philosophical and
scientific explanatory projects will involve, in part or at bottom, entities
found “outside” the physical world. This is because metaphysical explana-
tions offered by platonists, when followed to their end, invariably trace
through a realm of entities like properties or propositions that are rarely
viewed as explicit objects of scientific inquiry. Moreover, most platonists
hold that concrete entities stand in special relations to abstract entities that
explain, at least in part, the behaviour and nature of concrete reality. For
instance, the behaviour of an electron bustling through a cloud chamber
depends, says the platonist, upon the relationship between that electron
and an abstract entity, electronhood. In a similar vein, platonist explanations of
the meaning of our thought and talk appeal to propositions. So, for platon-
ists, if thought, meaning, and communication are to be explained, it will
be in virtue of facts, not just about brains, sound waves, and inscriptions,
but about a realm of acausal, atemporal, abstract propositions as well.
Platonists take our explanatory projects to point well beyond the physical
world. In contrast, nominalists believe our best philosophical and scientific
explanations to be circumscribed by concrete reality. Properly viewed, then,
8 Introduction

platonism and nominalism are competing views about what our ultimate
explanations of the world ought to look like. Platonists hold that such explana-
tions point beyond the concrete to some other portion of reality; nominalists
deny exactly this.
Given the generality of platonist explanations, most versions of platonism
hold reality to be positively teeming with abstract entities like numbers,
properties, and propositions. This is because, implicitly or explicitly, abstract
entities figure into the explanation of almost any fact. Suppose, for example,
that an individual, Edie, is mistaken about the square root of nine. A typical
platonist explanation of this fact would hold that Edie bears the belief relation
to a false proposition and that she instantiates a host of properties like being
capable of thought and being a human. Moreover, Edie’s mistake owes to the fact that
she has misrepresented an objective mathematical realm by believing of, say,
the number five that it bears the property being the square root of nine.7 In offering
explanations of the above sort, demands of consistency and uniformity force
platonists to admit a truly staggering number of abstract entities. Platonism
therefore envisions a world that will seem radically overpopulated when
compared to that of the nominalist.
A world in which abstract entities are pervasive, explanatorily indispensable,
and the proper targets of inquiry will strike many platonists as a philosopher’s
paradise. Among other things, it offers philosophy a surprising pride of place,
situating metaphysicians and mathematicians as leading authorities on the
abstract realm. But, for many nominalists, this seemingly good news is a sign
that something has gone badly wrong. According to the nominalist, reality is
not teeming with abstract entities. Worse still, the explanations proffered by
platonists are defective. They invoke cooked-up creatures of darkness or
“explain” phenomena only through philosophical sleight of hand. If philo-
sophical and scientific explanations are to be found, nominalists contend
that they must be found in the concrete world of which we are a frustrat-
ingly small part.
Unfortunately for nominalists, metaphysics without abstract entities can
be a gruelling and laborious affair. Not only do nominalists owe some
account of why the arguments for platonism fail, they also owe some
explanation of why discourse that seems to require abstract entities—most
notably, mathematics—is useful despite being badly mistaken about what
reality is like. The list of additional burdens bearing down on the nominalist
is dauntingly long. She must explain the resemblance of individuals with-
out appeal to universals, the apparent objectivity of mathematics without
numbers, and the meaningfulness of thought and talk without propositions.
 Introduction 9

These theoretical burdens pile up quickly. Meanwhile, platonists are quick

to help themselves to what the nominalist views as ill-gotten ontological
gains. All too often, frustration sets in and fair-weather nominalists eventu-
ally dismiss nominalism as a bull-headed pursuit of ontological economy
or an untutored hostility to the subtleties of metaphysics.
The above considerations speak to the significance of the nominalist–
platonist debate for metaphysics and show why no account of the struc-
ture of reality can simply ignore the status of numbers, meanings, and
properties. The significance of abstract entities is also fairly clear when
we look past metaphysics to disciplines like mathematics and logic, and
their intersections with philosophy. In these disciplines, abstract entities
such as models, integers, sets, and functions are explicit targets of inquiry.
And, while the working mathematician can get by without worrying about
whether numbers exist or what they’re like, mathematical research pro-
grammes like intuitionism, constructivism, and formalism are crucially
tied to the nature of the abstract realm. Similar remarks extend to the phi-
losophy of language and linguistics, where abstracta like sets, functions,
and propositions figure into leading semantic theories and views about
the nature of communication. The consequences of the nominalist–pla-
tonist debate for other areas like epistemology and ethics are perhaps less
obvious, but, again, no less serious. A quick glance at contemporary work
on these topics shows the apparatus of propositions and properties to be
almost universally assumed in most investigations of justification, knowl-
edge, value, rationality, and other issues.
Even within increasingly specialized domains, the role of abstract entities
remains substantial. In the philosophy of art, the question of whether fic-
tional characters and musical works are abstract or concrete has implications
for views about the bearers of aesthetic value and for the status of artistic
creation. In the philosophy of science, the challenge of discerning genuine
physical reality from the artifice of representation requires careful attention
to where we ought to drawn the line between the abstract and the concrete.
Yet more narrowly, in the philosophy of biology, debates over the nature
of biological species turn, in part, on whether our metaphysical resources
are limited to concrete individuals or include abstract properties, kinds, or
sets of individuals.8
In these and many other domains, abstract entities play a crucial role
in the development and formulation of theories, since philosophers fre-
quently help themselves to the framework of properties and propositions
in advancing and defending their preferred views. The final verdict in the
10 Introduction

nominalist–platonist debate is therefore guaranteed to have significant and

wide-ranging consequences for those who help themselves to abstract entities
like numbers, properties, and propositions even if only as conveniences or
tentative working assumptions.
In addition to the regular use of abstract entities one finds across philo-
sophical disciplines, the nature of philosophy itself is sometimes tethered
to the status of platonism. According to certain versions of methodological
platonism, philosophy consists, at bottom, in a priori reflection aimed at dis-
covering the nature of abstract entities such as numbers and universals
like beauty or goodness. For platonists of this rather extreme sort, there is a
non-spatial province of reality that is properly investigated through a priori
methods and to which we have special cognitive access. So, for those sym-
pathetic to methodological platonism, the fate of philosophy itself hinges
upon the existence of this abstract realm and the dismissal of nominalism.
(On views of this sort, see Bealer (1987).)
Despite the stark divide between nominalism and platonism, some
have attempted to downplay the stakes of this debate. Memorably, Hilary
Putnam (1995: 44)—himself an important contributor to the debate—
remarks that “grown men and women arguing about whether the number
three ‘really exists’ is a ludicrous spectacle.” Historically, however, this dim
view of the nominalist–platonist debate is an outlier. The nature and exist-
ence of universals is at the core of philosophy in Antiquity and the Middle
Ages, where a profound disagreement separates Platonist views, on which
universals are outside of space and time, Aristotelian views, which locate
universals within the broadly physical realm, and nominalist views that
reject universals altogether. More recently, the debate between platonists
and nominalists has been placed at the very heart of systematic philosoph-
ical inquiry. Cautioning against the perils of nominalism, the doyen of
pragmatism, C.S. Peirce (1976: 295) calls nominalism “a protest against
the only kind of thinking that has ever advanced human culture.” Yet more
strikingly, F.E. Abbott (1885: 9) pitches the history of medieval and mod-
ern philosophy as an on-going battle between nominalism, which he takes
to be in cahoots with idealism, and platonism (here, “Scholastic Realism”):

The great Roscellino-Kantian “revolution” by which Nominalism was

made to supplant Scholastic Realism, and philosophy to transfer its fun-
damental standpoint from the world of things to the world of thought,
was a revolution which logically contracts “human knowledge” to the petty
dimensions of individual self-consciousness, renders it valueless as to
 Introduction 11

things themselves, and valuable only as to the a priori constitution of the

individual’s own mind and, in effect, reduces it to a grand hallucination.
Like the French Revolution, the Nominalistic revolution can live only by
the guillotine, and decapitates every perception which pretends to bring
to the miserable solipsist, shut up in the prison of his own consciousness,
the slightest information as to the great outside world. Defining knowl-
edge as the mere contents of consciousness, it relegates to non-entity, as
pseudo-knowledge, whatever claims to be more than that. Under its sway,
philosophy is blind to the race, and beholds the individual alone.

This is strong stuff. And, while Abbott overstates the significance of the
nominalist–platonist debate, there is still good reason to set it alongside other
perennial metaphysical debates. Notice, however, that by doing so we
assume, along with Abbott, that there is a central, more or less unified, and
historically lengthy debate over abstract entities rather than a series of loosely
connected debates with merely overlapping terminology. This assumption is
a substantive historical thesis. Understandably, those who uphold the cen-
trality of the nominalist–platonist debate typically emphasize its historical
continuity while still granting that its focus might shift over time from, say,
a preoccupation with cognition and concepts to a preoccupation with truth
and predication. In contrast, others have denied that there is any robust,
unifying philosophical thread running through these successive historical
periods and therefore downplay the continuity that surface terminology
suggests. By emphasizing the discontinuities, they take issue with the notion
of a lengthy and unified history of the nominalist–platonist debate. As a
result, they are more likely to call its present significance into question.
For those impressed by the historical continuities of the debate, its con-
temporary significance should be manifest: it concerns competing views of
reality that have sweeping implications for thought, language, truth, and
many other subjects. For those who deny there is a unified historical thread,
contemporary disagreements over abstract entities might seem to be of a
different sort than those historically at issue. In fact, some who reject the
continuity of the debate, might see its present incarnation as a watered-
down remnant of past philosophical glory. This dim assessment, hinted at in
Putnam’s remark above, is sometimes tempting, but mistaken nonetheless.
Philosophy’s increasing specialization and careful apportioning of intel-
lectual labour make it reasonable enough to bracket the nominalist–platonist
debate and to simply assume a platonist or nominalist metaphysics when
focusing one’s philosophical attention elsewhere. Perhaps understandably,
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 Dentistry - Solution Manual
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Prepared by: Dr. Brown

Date: August 12, 2025

References 1: Study tips and learning strategies

Learning Objective 1: Best practices and recommendations
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 1: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Learning Objective 2: Literature review and discussion
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Learning Objective 3: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 4: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Learning Objective 5: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 5: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 7: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Study tips and learning strategies
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Study tips and learning strategies
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Chapter 2: Best practices and recommendations
Key Concept: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Experimental procedures and results
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Practical applications and examples
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Key terms and definitions
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 16: Best practices and recommendations
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 17: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Literature review and discussion
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Case studies and real-world applications
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 19: Practical applications and examples
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Methodology 3: Current trends and future directions
Note: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 21: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 22: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 22: Case studies and real-world applications
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 23: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Practical applications and examples
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 24: Key terms and definitions
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 25: Study tips and learning strategies
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 26: Literature review and discussion
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 27: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 28: Key terms and definitions
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 29: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Results 4: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
Practice Problem 30: Experimental procedures and results
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 34: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Historical development and evolution
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 35: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 36: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Study tips and learning strategies
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Current trends and future directions
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Literature review and discussion
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 39: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Review 5: Case studies and real-world applications
Definition: Historical development and evolution
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 41: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 42: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Case studies and real-world applications
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 44: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 45: Historical development and evolution
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Current trends and future directions
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Experimental procedures and results
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 49: Experimental procedures and results
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 50: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Review 6: Research findings and conclusions
Key Concept: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Ethical considerations and implications
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Ethical considerations and implications
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Practical applications and examples
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 55: Practical applications and examples
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 59: Best practices and recommendations
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
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Topic 7: Experimental procedures and results
Note: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 62: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Research findings and conclusions
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Ethical considerations and implications
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Best practices and recommendations
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
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Example 66: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 69: Key terms and definitions
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
References 8: Ethical considerations and implications
Note: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Practical applications and examples
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 73: Experimental procedures and results
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 74: Research findings and conclusions
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 75: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Historical development and evolution
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 78: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Experimental procedures and results
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 80: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Part 9: Current trends and future directions
Key Concept: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Ethical considerations and implications
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Experimental procedures and results
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Literature review and discussion
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Practical applications and examples
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Practical applications and examples
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 88: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 88: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 89: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Section 10: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
Practice Problem 90: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 91: Experimental procedures and results
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
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