Microprocessor (MP) Concept and Stages of Development

The rapid development of microprocessors (MPs) and microprocessor systems (MPS) has led
to the creation and intellectualization of flexible, reliable, universal, and high-performance
control systems (CS) in various sectors of the national economy. The application of
microprocessors has improved the flexibility, productivity, durability, accuracy, and other
performance indicators of several control systems.

One of the primary conditions for the emergence of MP systems was their construction based
on the operating principles of digital computing devices and semiconductor components. At
each stage, their overall size was reduced, capabilities were increased, and software was
expanded. Microprocessors have undergone several stages of development. The first MPs
(computing machines) appeared in the 1950s. Initially, computing devices were built on
vacuum tubes, later on semiconductors. In the 1970s, computing machines were built on
integrated circuits (ICs), followed by large-scale integrated circuits (LSIs).

In the first stage, the discovered MP was 4-bit, and executing a single instruction required
10–60 microseconds.

In the second stage, thanks to fundamental achievements in microelectronics and IC

fabrication technology, MPs became 8-bit, and instruction execution time was reduced to 2–8
microseconds. While ordinary digital ICs contained dozens of electronic elements (such as
diodes and transistors), LSIs allowed for the improvement of semiconductor devices. LSI
technology enabled the formation of computing device blocks or entire systems on a single
technological basis.

The third stage of MPs appeared in the mid-1970s. These processors had variable word
lengths greater than 8 bits and much higher computing speeds, with an instruction execution
time of about 0.2 microseconds.

Microprocessors of the fourth stage were placed on a single chip and consisted of a central
processor, random-access memory (RAM), read-only memory (ROM), and a timer.

Today, 32-bit and 64-bit MPs with an arbitrary number of pins are produced. Modern MPs
can perform millions of operations per second, while their physical dimensions and power
consumption have been drastically reduced.
A microprocessor (MP) is a program-controlled device—an integrated circuit with a high
level of electronic component integration—that processes and manages digital information.

Due to advances in microelectronics technology and architecture, the efficiency of

microprocessors is increasing daily. The processor of a computer has a complex logical
structure consisting of many closely connected electronic elements. The increase in processor
efficiency is directly related to hardware development. The invention of single-chip
microprocessors became one of the new technologies in microelectronics. To further improve
processor performance, multi-chip and sectional multi-chip processors are used. Dividing
processors into separate functional units based on logical circuits results in sets of integrated
circuits that form multi-chip microprocessors.

To perform complex functions, a control device consisting of one or several chips—known as

a microcontroller—was developed. Microcontrollers perform logical analysis and control
functions.

With the development of microelectronics, analog MPs were created to directly process
analog and digital signals. Their structure includes analog-to-digital converters, digital-to-
analog converters, and a digital processor. Analog MPs perform the functions of analog
circuits.

Based on microelectronics technology, various microprocessors and microcontrollers began

to be produced as single-chip processors.

Microprocessor architecture refers to the input of data, execution of machine operations,

programming of algorithms, processing of computations using the functional capabilities of
the microprocessor’s electronic devices, and presentation of results. The combination of
hardware and software systems and their distribution by function defines the architecture of a
microprocessor.

To write software for an MP, the programmer must know its architecture and technical
characteristics. These parameters are used when programming in assembly language or other
high-level algorithmic languages. The programmer does not need to know the precise
schematic operation of the electronic components but must know the function of each
element. For example: the number of registers, word length, instruction set, memory size and
addressing, processor frequency, interrupt handling scheme, memory addressing methods,
and external devices. These parameters provide an understanding of the MP model.

All operations in an MP are executed with the help of the instruction system, which forms the
basis of its software. Therefore, when developing programs for any operation or computation,
it is necessary to determine which operating system it runs on and know the minimum
instruction set.

Programmers with such knowledge will be able to determine the application areas of MPs
more effectively and further increase their efficiency.

The first practical LSIs were custom-designed for specific logical circuits. Since these
circuits could not be modified during operation and were difficult to design for each
application, there was a demand for universal LSIs or MPs. Unlike the initial ICs, modern
MPs can not only perform certain arithmetic and logical operations but also process digital
information according to a program.

The most significant advantage of MPs is their applicability in virtually all fields. The
purpose and functions of systems built on MPs are defined by the programs stored in their
memory devices. Thus, without changing the practical circuit of the MP, the system can be
improved simply by modifying the program. For this reason, MPs are widely used in
automating equipment and technological processes that require frequent changes and
corrections (for example, in industrial robots and flexible manufacturing systems).

One of the main advantages of MPs in automatic control systems is their economic
efficiency. The cost of microprocessor LSIs depends on their manufacturing technology, yet
they are cheaper than even 1% of the price of large computers. Similarly, microprocessor-
based equipment is often much cheaper than complex “hard logic” systems.

The high degree of integration of MP components results in high reliability of systems built
on them. Compared to ordinary control devices, the reliability of these systems is
significantly higher, mainly due to the elimination of several blocks, the reduction of wiring
and assembly connections, and consequently, the reduction of weak points in the design.
Since MPs represent a qualitatively new, flexible, and universal element base, they are used
in control systems for technological processes, data collection, processing and transmission
systems, control computers, and automation complexes.

Microprocessors are small in size, highly reliable, and energy-efficient. Therefore, they are
successfully applied in all sectors of the national economy where the widespread use of large,
powerful computing technology is not technically or economically feasible.

Figure 1.1. Microprocessor technology and its application.

A microprocessor (MP) is a functionally complete computing device implemented in one or

several ICs, controlled by a program. An MP by itself cannot be used independently. To solve
the given tasks, additional devices such as memory units, input and output devices, etc. must
be connected to the MP. Under such a configuration, microprocessor systems are created,
among which Microcomputers (Micro-EHMs) and microcontrollers should be particularly
noted.

A Microcomputer (Micro-EHM) is a computing system designed on the basis of an MP,

equipped with external memory units, input/output devices for data exchange, and operator
communication devices, thus forming a structurally complete computing system.

A Microcontroller is understood as a computing device based on an MP, equipped with an

interface device for communication with the control object, and intended only for performing
control functions.

The given classification is somewhat conditional. MP systems are used to solve many
complex problems and are equipped with hardware depending on the specific application
purpose.

At present, hundreds of types of MPs are used for various application purposes. Figure 1.2
shows the main classification criteria of microprocessor tools.

The Concept of the Microprocessor (MP) and Stages of Development

The rapid development of microprocessors (MPs) and microprocessor systems (MPS) has led
to the creation and advancement of flexible, reliable, universal, and highly functional control
systems (CS) in various sectors of the national economy. The use of microprocessors has
improved the flexibility, performance, durability, accuracy, and other indicators of several
control systems.

One of the initial conditions for the emergence of MP systems was their construction based
on the operating principles of digital computing devices and semiconductor components. At
each stage, their dimensions were reduced, their capabilities were expanded, and their
software was enhanced. Microprocessors have gone through a series of development stages.
The first MPs (computing machines) appeared in the 1950s. Initially, computing devices were
built on vacuum tubes and later on semiconductors. In the 1970s, computing machines were
built on integrated circuits (ICs), followed by large-scale integrated circuits (LSIs).

In the first stage, the discovered MP was 4-bit, and executing a single instruction required
10–60 microseconds.

In the second stage, due to fundamental achievements in microelectronics and the fabrication
technology of integrated microcircuits, MPs were developed with 8-bit word length, while the
execution time of instructions was reduced to 2–8 microseconds. Whereas conventional
digital ICs contained dozens of electronic components (such as diodes and transistors), LSIs
allowed for the enhancement of semiconductor devices. The technology of producing LSIs
made it possible to form computing device blocks or even entire devices on a single
technological basis.

The third stage of MPs covers the mid-1970s. In this generation, the word length of MPs
exceeded eight bits and became variable. They possessed high computational speed, with
instruction execution time reduced to about 0.2 microseconds.

In the fourth stage, MPs were placed on a single chip and consisted of a central processor,
random-access memory (RAM), read-only memory (ROM), and a timer.

Currently, MPs with 32-bit and 64-bit word lengths and with virtually unlimited numbers of
pins are being manufactured. Modern MPs can perform millions of operations per second,
while their size and power consumption have been significantly reduced.

A microprocessor (MP) is a program-controlled device—an integrated circuit with a high

level of electronic component integration—that processes and manages digital information.
Thanks to advances in microelectronics technology and architecture, the efficiency of
microprocessors is increasing day by day. The processor of a computer has a complex logical
structure consisting of many closely connected electronic components. The increase in the
efficiency of microprocessors is directly linked to the development of their hardware. The
invention of single-chip microprocessors became one of the breakthroughs in
microelectronics technology. Therefore, to enhance processor performance, multi-chip and
sectional multi-chip processors are used. Dividing processors into separate functional units
according to logical schemes results in sets of integrated circuits that form multi-chip
microprocessors.

To perform complex functions, a control device consisting of one or several chips—called a

microcontroller—was invented. Microcontrollers perform logical analysis and control
functions.

As microelectronics technology developed, analog microprocessors were created to directly

process analog and digital signals. Their structure includes analog-to-digital converters,
digital-to-analog converters, and a digital processor. Analog MPs perform the functions of
analog circuits.

Based on microelectronics technology, different microprocessors and microcontrollers began

to be produced as single-chip microprocessors.

The architecture of a microprocessor refers to the input of data, execution of machine

operations, writing of algorithms, and performance of computational processes through the
functional capabilities of the electronic devices of the microprocessor, as well as the
presentation of results. The combination of hardware and software systems and their
distribution according to specific functions define the architecture of the microprocessor.

To write software for an MP, a programmer must know its architecture and technical
specifications. These indicators are used when programming in assembly language or other
high-level algorithmic languages. A programmer does not need to know the exact schematic
principles of electronic components, but only the functions performed by each element. For
example: the number of registers, word length, instruction set, memory size and addressing,
processor frequency, interrupt handling schemes, memory addressing methods, and external
devices. These parameters form the programmer’s understanding of the MP model.
All operations in an MP are executed with the help of the instruction system, which forms the
basis of its software. Therefore, when developing a program for any operation or
computation, it is necessary to specify which operating system it runs on and to know its
minimum instruction set.

Programmers who possess this knowledge will be able to more effectively determine the
areas of application of MPs and further improve their efficiency.

The first practical LSIs were special-purpose logical circuits designed for individual
applications. However, since it was impossible to modify these circuits during operation and
each type was difficult to design, the demand arose for the creation of universal LSIs or
microprocessors. Unlike the initial ICs, modern MPs not only perform certain arithmetic and
logical operations but also process digital information according to a program.

The most important advantage of MPs is that they can be applied in virtually all fields. The
purpose and functions of systems built on MPs are determined by the programs stored in their
memory units. Thus, without changing the physical circuit of the MP, the system can be
improved simply by modifying the program. For this reason, MPs are widely used in
automating equipment and technological processes that require frequent modifications and
corrections (for example, in industrial robots and flexible manufacturing systems).

One of the main advantages of MPs in automatic control systems is their cost-effectiveness.
The price of microprocessor LSIs depends on their manufacturing technology, yet it is often
less than one percent of the cost of large computers. Similarly, microprocessor-based
equipment is, in most cases, many times cheaper than complex systems built on “hard logic.”

The high degree of integration of MP components provides very high reliability for systems
based on them. Compared to conventional control devices, these systems have much greater
reliability, which is directly related to the elimination of several blocks, the significant
reduction of wiring and assembly connections, and consequently the reduction of weak points
in the design.

Since MPs represent a qualitatively new, flexible, and universal element base, they are widely
used in the control of technological processes, in systems for data collection, processing, and
transmission, in control computers, and in automation complexes.
Microprocessors are small in size, highly reliable, and energy-efficient. Therefore, they are
successfully applied in all sectors of the national economy, particularly where the widespread
use of large, powerful computing technology is not technically or economically feasible.