EFFECT OF PROPULSION

SYSTEM ON VEHICLE
PERFORMANMCE
◼ The vehicle’s flight performance is directly
influenced by selecting the propulsion system.
◼ Lets see what are the parameters involved in
that:
◼ The effective exhaust velocity “c” or the specific
impulse “Is” usually affects the vehicle’s flight
performance.
◼ For example, the final velocity increment “Δu”
can be increased by a higher specific impulse Is.
◼ This can be done by using:
i. More energetic propellant
ii. Higher combustion chamber pressure
iii. Larger nozzle area ratio

◼ Mass is another important factor affecting the

performance of a rocket.
◼ The mass of a rocket can make the difference
between a successful & a failed flight.
Combustion Chamber Pressure

◼ The combustion chamber

is the place where
propellant is inducted
and burning process
takes place under very
high pressure.
◼ This is a very dangerous
process, with
temperatures and gas can
speed far above
industrial standard.
So the failure rate is high!
 Nozzle Area Ratio

◼ The propellant is
pumped into a
combustion chamber at
some rate (mdot)
where the fuel and
oxidizer are mixed and
burned.
◼ The exhaust gases from
this process are pushed
into the throat region of
the nozzle.
◼ Since the throat is of
less cross-sectional area
than the rest of the
engine, the gases are
compressed to a high
pressure.
◼ The nozzle itself
gradually increases in
cross-sectional area
allowing the gases to
expand.
◼ As the gases do so, they
push against the walls
of the nozzle creating
thrust.
◼ Mathematically, the ultimate purpose of the
nozzle is to expand the gases as efficiently as
possible so as to maximize the exit velocity (v
exit).
◼ This process will maximize the thrust (F)
produced by the system.
◼ As a basic principle of rocket flight, it can be
said that for a rocket to leave the ground,
the engine must produce a thrust that is
________ than the total mass of the vehicle.

◼ It is obvious that a rocket with a lot of

unnecessary mass will not be as efficient as
one that is trimmed to just the bare essentials.
◼ For an ideal rocket, the total mass of the
vehicle should be distributed following this
general formula:
◼ Of the total mass:

▪ 91 % should be propellants
▪ 3% should be tanks, engines, fins, etc.
▪ 6% can be the payload.
◼ The mass ratio mi/mf
(initial rocket mass to final mass) can be
increased in different ways.
i. By reducing the final mass. Final mass
means inert hardware & non-usable
residual propellant mass.
◼ Inert hardware = rocket structure, payload
mass, guidance control system)
◼ Reducing inert hardware = light rocket
structure, small pay loads, lighter guidance
control devices).
◼ Nonusable residual propellant = propellant
that has not been ignited.
◼ During the design phase of the rocket it is
always recommended to reduce all the
hardware masses and nonusable residual
propellant as far as possible.
ii. Mass ratio can be increased by increasing
the initial mass.

It is done by the thrust and adding more

propellant but with minimum increase in
the structure or propulsion system masses.
iii By reducing the burning time (i.e by
increasing the thrust level) will reduce the
gravitational effect.

But to get more acceleration the structural

and propulsion mass should also be more
which affects the mass ratio.
◼ The mass fraction of the ideal rocket given
above is 0.91.
◼ From the mass fraction formula one might
think that an MF of 1.0 is perfect, but then the
entire rocket would be nothing more than a
lump of propellants that would simply ignite
into a fireball.
◼ The Space Shuttle has an MF of
approximately 0.82.
◼ The drag (opposing force/negative thrust) can
be reduced in different ways:

a. By selecting suitable aerodynamic shape

of rocket fins (should have a pointed
nose and thin edges of fins) rather than a
stubby (thick) and blunt (not sharp or
pointed) shape.
Rocket aerodynamic fins
b. A vehicle with small area of cross section
will have less drag.

◼ So it means that propellant packed in a

thin long casing shape is preferred.
c. Drag depends on frontal area of the vehicle.
Higher the density of propellants, lower the
propellant volume and so area of cross
section should be a smaller one.

d. The external surface of vehicle should be

polished one as skin drag is caused by the
friction of air flowing over the entire
vehicle’s outer surface. A smooth and a
polished surface is preferred.
e. Another factor is the base drag. It is a
function of local surrounding air pressure
acting over the surface of vehicle’s base.

It is affected by the nozzle exit design (exit

pressure) and the geometry of vehicle base
design.
◼ The length of propulsion nozzle is also an
important factor of overall vehicle length.
◼ A shorter nozzle length is usually on a
shorter vehicle length.
◼ The final vehicle velocity (at propulsion end)
can be increased by increasing the initial
velocity uo.
◼ By launching a satellite in an eastward
direction the rotational speed of the earth is
added to the final satellite velocity.
❑ This is about 464 miles/sec at equator &
❑ About 408 miles/sec at Kennedy space

centre (28.5 N)

❑ A westerly satellite has a negative initial

velocity and the launch requires a high
velocity increment.
❑ The propulsive efficiency is maximum
when flight velocity u is near to the rocket’s
exhaust velocity c and that’s why more of
the rocket’s exhaust gas energy is
converted into vehicle’s flight energy.

❑ In such cases less propellant is used.

FLIGHT MANEUVERS
 Definition

◼ All the corrections that are applied to the

space vehicle before and during the flight
and also the in orbit corrections that are
made is called maneuvering.
 Categories of Maneuvers

◼ The three categories of maneuvers are :

i. Translation Maneuvers
ii. Truly Rotational Maneuvers
iii. Third Maneuver
 Translation Maneuvers

◼ In this maneuver type the rocket propulsion

thrust vector goes through the centre of the
gravity of the vehicle.

◼ The vehicle momentum is changed in the

direction of the flight velocity.
 Truly Rotational Maneuvers

◼ It needs 4 thrusters to rotate the vehicle in

either direction about any one axis by firing 2
thrusters simultaneously but in opposite
directions.

◼ These types of maneuvers are provided by

Reaction Control Systems (RCS)
 Third Maneuver

◼ The third maneuver is the combination of 1 & 2.

◼ A large misaligned thrust vector is produced that

does not go exactly pass through the centre of the
gravity of the vehicle.

◼ The misaligned thrust can be corrected by changing

the vector direction of the main propulsion system
(thrust vector control) or by applying torque
from a separate reaction control system.
 Types of space flight Maneuvers

i. First stage and its upper stage propulsion

systems add momentum during launch and
ascent.
They require rocket propulsion of high and
medium thrusts and limited durations
(0.7 to 8 mins).
At present most rockets use chemical
propulsion systems.
ii. Orbit injection or transferring from one orbit to
another orbit also require predetermined
accurately controllable thrusts.
It can be obtained by the main propulsion
system of the top stage of the launch vehicle.
Also it can be obtained by a separate propulsion
system at lower thrusts levels.
◼ Orbit transfer can be a single thrust operation
after injection from launching site.

◼ If the orbit is more elliptical then it requires

multiple thrusts operations i.e one at the start
of the transfer orbit and the other at the end
of the transfer path.
iii. Velocity vector adjustments and minor in flight
correction maneuvers are usually done with low
thrust of short duration using reaction control
system using liquid propellant thrusters.

This reaction control system in a space launch

vehicle will allow accurately orbit injection and
adjustment after it is placed into its orbit by
another propulsion system.

Propulsion systems for orbit maintenance

maneuvers are also called station keeping
maneuvers.
iv. Re-entry and landing maneuvers also have
different forms.

If the landing is on the planet that has a certain

atmosphere then the drag of that planet will slow
down the vehicle.

In an elliptical orbit the perigee altitude and

perigee velocity will be reduced.
◼ Spacecraft re-entry into earth’s atmosphere is
called re-entry.
◼ As a space craft enters earth’s atmosphere, it
experiences a few forces: gravity and drag.
◼ The forces will pull an object back to earth and
cause the object to fall dangerously fast.
◼ Fortunately, the Earth's atmosphere contains
particles of air.
◼ As the object falls, it hits and rubs against these
particles, creating friction.

◼ This friction causes the object to experience drag,

or air resistance, which slows the object down to
a safer entry speed.
▪ If the landing is on the planet that has a
certain atmosphere then the drag of that
planet will slow down the vehicle.

▪ In an elliptical orbit the perigee altitude

and perigee velocity will be reduced.
Launching into a specific location requires
particular velocity vector at a predetermined
altitude and distance from the launching site.

The vehicle should be rotated into the right

position and orientation……..
….in that way it can use its heat shield
correctly and effectively.
v. Rendezvous and docking

◼ A space rendezvous is an orbital

maneuver during which two spacecraft, one of
which is often a space station, arrive at the
same orbit and approach to a very close
distance.
◼ Rendezvous requires a precise match of
the orbital velocities and position vectors of the
two spacecraft, allowing them to remain at a
constant distance through orbital station-
keeping .
◼ Docking of spacecraft is the joining of
two space vehicles.

◼ This connection can be temporary, or semi-

permanent such as for space station modules.
vi. Another maneuver is the change of plane
of flight trajectory that is corrected by the
application of thrust force in a direction
normal to the original plane of the flight
path.
This maneuver is done to change the
plane of the satellite orbit or while going
to a planet such as mars.
vii. Simple rotational maneuvers rotate the
vehicle on command into a specific angular
position so as to point a telescope, solar
panel or antenna for the purpose of
observation, navigation, communication or
solar power reception.
Such a maneuver is also used to keep the
orientation of the satellite in a specific
direction.
e.g if we want the continuous coverage
from the antenna at the centre of the earth
then the satellite needs to be rotated around
its own axis once every satellite revolution.
vii. De-orbiting and disposal of used or sent space
vehicle is required to remove space debris.
The sent space craft should not become a hazard
to other space crafts.
By applying a small thrust so as to move the
satellite in a low elliptical orbit so that by
atmospheric drag its is attracted towards earth by
the decay of its orbit and soon it enters the earth’s
dense atmosphere it will breakup or burn up.
viii. In case of malfunction the mission is aborted e.g
immediate quick return to earth without the
completion of the original mission then some of
the rocket engines can be used for an alternate
mission.
e.g main rocket engine in Apollo lunar mission is
normally used to take enter into the lunar orbit
and then back from lunar orbit to earth but it can
also be used for emergency separation of payload
from the launch vehicle.
 NOZZLES
OF
SOLID PROPELLANT ROCKETS
What is a Nozzle?
◼ Rocket, like the
balloon, has an
opening called a
nozzle from which
the exhaust gases
exit.
◼ A rocket nozzle is a
cup-shaped device
inside the end of the
rocket.
◼ Nozzles range in size
from 0.05 inches throat
diameter to about 54
inches.
Nozzle

◼ Nozzle is narrow at the

end of a tube or pipe,
used to direct or
control the flow of the
liquid or gas
◼ Chemical reactions produce hot, high-
pressure gas.
◼ Gas speeds up in nozzle.
◼ Gas reaches sonic speed
in throat of the nozzle
◼ Beyond throat, supersonic
gas expands to speed up further.
 Nozzle Material

◼ The general construction of a solid rocket nozzle

features steel or aluminum shells, Ablative
plastics, Carbon, Kevlar or Silica ,Fiber
Refractory metal (Tantalum), Molybdenum,
Copper.

◼ Initially nozzles were made out of a single piece

of molded poly crystalline graphite and some
were supported by metal housing structures.
◼ They eroded easily but were low in cost.

◼ We still use them today for short duration,

low chamber pressure , low altitude, low
altitude flight application of low thrust ,such
as used in tactical missiles.
Design of the Nozzle

◼ In convergent nozzle
flow only converges
before the exit

◼ In convergent-divergent
(CD) the flow first
converges down to the
minimum area or throat,
then is expanded
through the divergent
section to the exit.
 CLASSIFICATION

◼ There are five categories of solid propellant

nozzles:

i. Fixed Nozzles
ii. Moveable Nozzles
iii. Submerged Nozzles
iv. Extendible Nozzles
v. Blast Tube Mounted Nozzles
 Fixed Nozzle

◼ Simple in design.
◼ Used mostly in tactical weapon propulsion
systems (short range air, ground, sea launched
missiles)
◼ Strap on boosters for space launch vehicles
(Atlas, Delta)
◼ Rocket motors for orbit transfer (ABM)
Fixed Nozzles
 Throat diameter
0.25 inches- 5 inches for weapons.
Throat diameter
10 inches for strap on booster motors

◼ Do not provide thrust vector control.

 Movable /Gimballed Nozzles

◼ Provide thrust vector control for flight

vehicle.
◼ One movable nozzle provide pitch & yaw
control and two are needed for roll control.

◼ Used in long range strategic propulsion

ground and sea launched systems.
 Throat diameter
7-15 inches (stage first)
Throat diameter
4-5 inches (stage 2 & 3)
Used in space shuttle reusable solid motor,
Titan & Ariane V solid rocket booster with
throat diameters (30-50 inches)
Gimbaled Nozzle
Working of The Gimbaled Nozzle
 Submerged Nozzles

◼ A major portion of the nozzle structure is

sub-merged with combustion chamber.

◼ It reduces the overall motor length and

vehicle length and its inert mass.
 Extendible Nozzles

◼ It is commonly known as Extendible Exit

Cone (EEC).

◼ Used in strategic missile propulsion upper

stage systems and also used in the upper
stages of the launch vehicles so as to get
maximum value of specific impulse
◼ It has a fixed low area ratio nozzle which is
enlarged into a larger nozzle area ratio by
mechanically adding an extended nozzle
cone extension portion.

◼ This extended portion piece increase the

specific impulse by doubling or tripling the
initial expansion ratio and hence the thrust.
 Blast Tube Mounted Nozzle:

◼ Used with tactical air-and ground launched

missiles.

◼ Allows rocket motor’s centre of gravity

(CG) to be close or ahead of the vehicle CG.
◼ It makes the flight stabilization very easy.

◼ Each motor has single nozzle but some

larger motors have four moveable nozzles
used for thrust vector control.
 IGNITION PROCESS
IN
SOLID PROPELLANTS
 Solid propellant ignition consists of a series
of stages:
◼ Receipt of signal (usually electric)
◼ Heat generation
◼ Transfer of heat from igniter to motor grain
surface.
◼ Spreading flame over entire burning surface
area.
◼ Filling the chamber with gas.
◼ Increasing the pressure (avoiding over-
pressure)
◼ Hang fires (delayed ignition)
◼ Combustion oscillations
◼ Motor ignition must usually be completed in
a fraction of second for all motors except very
large motors.

◼ The figure shows that motor chamber

pressure rises to an equilibrium state in a
very short time.
◼ The igniter in a solid rocket motor
generates the heat and gas required for
motor ignition.
◼ Ignition process is divided into three
phases:
i. Phase-I (Ignition Time Lag)
ii. Phase-II (Flame Spreading Interval)
iii. Phase-III (Chamber Filling Interval)
 Phase-I (Ignition Time Lag)
◼ Period from the moment the ignition receives
a signal until the first bit of grain surface
burns.
Phase-II (Flame Spreading Interval)
◼ Time from first ignition of the grain surface
until the complete grain burning area has
been ignited.
 Phase-III (Chamber Filling Interval)

◼ The time for completing the chamber filling

process and reaching equilibrium chamber
pressure and flow.
◼ Ignition is successful if enough grain is
ignited for burning.
◼ If the ignition is not powerful , some grain
surfaces may burn for a short time but the
flame will be extinguished.
◼ The suitable equilibrium chamber pressure
with full gas flow depends upon:
◼ Characteristic of igniter i.e how effectively
ignitor reacts with the propellant.
◼ Heat transfer characteristic between igniter &
grain surface.
◼ Spread rate of grain flame.
◼ Motor propellant composition & grain
surface ignitability.
 Ignitability of a propellant depends upon:

1. Propellant formulation
2. Initial temp. of the propellant grain surface.
3. Surrounding pressure
4. Mode of heat transfer
5. Grain surface roughness
6. Age of propellant
7. Velocity of the hot ignition gases relative to grain
surface.
◼ The graph shows that the ignition time
becomes shorter as heat flux and chamber
pressure increases.
◼ Deflagration means to burn rapidly and with
great intensity.
◼ “Care must be exercised when this substance
is to be deflagrated"
◼ The transfer of heat from molecule to
molecule within a substance is called
conduction.
◼ The transfer of heat by the mass movement
of a fluid is called convection. This type of
heat transfer takes place in liquids and gases
as they can move freely.
◼ Radiation is energy such as heat, light,
sound, microwaves, radio waves, X-rays and
radar. Radiation is everywhere.

◼ It travels through space in the form of

particles or waves.
PROPELLANT COMPOSITION
OF SOLID PROPELLANTS
◼ Composition should be selected to produce
highest combustion chamber temperature
with lowest molecular weight in the exhaust.

◼ Problem with solid propellants is that they

are mostly inorganic, contain metal atoms
that lead to high molecular weights.
◼ The charge or solid mass of the propellant
is called “grain”.
◼ Basic components of grain are:
i. Fuel
ii. Oxidizer
iii. Binder
iv. additive used to produce burning stability and
storage
◼ In the past two different solid propellants were
used.
i. Mixture of inorganic material oxidants with
fuels and are used commonly today.

ii. Nitrated organic substances such as

nitroglycerine, nitrocellulose.
◼ To produce high thrust it needs high
combustion temperature and low molecular
weight.
◼ A complex organic molecule that breaks and
produces heat and gaseous oxides of N2, C &
H produce low molecular weights and high
exhaust velocity and is called “homogeneous
propellants”..
◼ But they are not used at present for boosters and
orbital change as more advanced mixture
propellants have arrived.
◼ In modern propellants metallic powders are
added to increase energy release and
combustion temperature.
◼ Al is used usually and here the exhaust contains
Aluminium oxide that has a high molecular
weight.
◼ Due to high molecular weight the exhaust
velocity will be lower and this is balanced by
high combustion temperature that increases
the mass flow and hence the thrust.

◼ High thrust is needed for first stage booster.

◼ Most commonly used solid propellant is a
synthetic rubber binder with ammonium
perchlorate (oxidizer) and approx. (12-16)%
Al. powder.
◼ The combustion temperature without
Aluminum powder = 3000K
◼ The combustion temperature with (16-18)%
Aluminum powder = 3600K
 Chemical composition of the exhaust is:
i. 32% Aluminum oxide
ii. 20% CO
iii. 16% H2O
iv. 12% HCl
v. 10% N2
vi. 7% CO2
vii. 3% Cl & H2
◼ In a heterogeneous propellant oxidizer is the
main part as far the mass is concerned and
HC is the fuel.
◼ Al is also present (16-18) % to improve the
performance.
◼ Carbon is added to shield the propellant
from IR radiations so that the propellant may
not ignited internally by its heat.
◼ Plasticizers are added to improve the
moulding effect of the material.

◼ Inorganic salts are added to control the

burning.

◼ Additives are added to the propellant to

produce stability and storage qualities.
◼ The whole mass of the propellant has to be
accelerated by thrust and propellant has to
transfer the combustion pressure to the
casing.
 TOXIC EXHAUST

◼ Launch vehicle boosters are fired close to the

ground and most of the exhaust is dispersed
over a large area of the launching site.
◼ Products of liquid engines are almost harmless.
◼ Chlorine is the oxidant of the solid boosters
producing HCl that is very dangerous and
thrown out.
◼ During lift off the booster exhaust is diluted
safely by water cooled open ducts.
 THRUST STABILITY

◼ In liquid fueled engines the mass flow rate is

determined by the rate at which propellant is
driven by the injectors.
◼ Thrust can be controlled by the shape of the
charge.
◼ In solid motors the mass flow rate is determined
by the rate @ which the surface of burning
charge is consumed and it depends upon the
pressure in the combustion chamber.
◼ The rate of the burning of the propellant
expressed as linear burning rate of the
burning surface depends on the rate of heat
supply to the surface from the hot gas.

◼ The burning conditions at the upper & lower

positions of the charge are different.
◼ At the top hot gas does not moves fast while
at the bottom it is moving fast and constantly
supplying energy to the burning surface.

◼ This imbalance may lead casing failure

further leading to destruction of the casing or
decrease in the thrust.
 THRUST PROFILE & GRAIN SHAPE

◼ Pressure in the combustion chamber depends

upon the rate at which grain is consumed.
◼ The simple thrust comes from the linear
burning of cylindrical grain (e.g cigarette).

◼ If there is a constant burning area then

constant thrust is produced.
◼ The most common shape of the grain is in the
form of hollow cylinder that burns on its inner
surface.
◼ It has two main advantages:
i. Area of the burning surface can be much larger
producing high thrust.

ii. Unburnt grain remains away from hot gases.

◼ In the hollow cylinder the area of the burning
surface increases with time, pressure and thrust
also increases.
 Shape-1

◼ Fig (1) is called the

progressive and its the
simplest shape.
◼ The circumference of the
circular cross section
increases linearly with
time.
◼ It increases the area of the
burning surface.
◼ It increases the mass flow
rate and hence the thrust.
 Shape-2

◼ It is most commonly
used shape & gives
constant mass flow
rate
◼ The initial burning
area is quite large
due to cog shape
teeth design
 Shape-3

◼ Gives a perfect flat

thrust as burning takes
place both on the outer
and inner shape of the
rod.
◼ Any decrease in the
burning area of the
outer surface of the rod
is balanced by
increasing the burning
area on the inner
surface of the cylinder.
◼ This grain type is
difficult to
manufacture and
sustain.

◼ It is not used in space

vehicles.
 Shape-4

◼ It is used to produce
thrust for a specific
purpose
◼ The grain shape
produces initially a
high burning surface
area and hence a
high initial thrust.
◼ Once they are burnt ◼ Once they are burnt
then a low and slowly then a low and slowly
increasing thrust is increasing thrust is
produced by the produced by the
cylindrical section. cylindrical section.
◼ This type of grain ◼ This type of grain
shape is used for shape is used for
strong acceleration strong acceleration
with sustained flights. with sustained flights.
VALVES & PIPES
 Function

◼ Valves control the flows of liquids and

gases and pipes take these fluids to
desired components.
◼ There are no rocket engines without them.
◼ There are different types of valves and all
of these should be:
i. Reliable
ii. Light weight
iii. Leak proof
iv. Have the resistivity to hold the vibrations &
loud noises.
◼ Any leakage or valve failure can cause the
rocket failure itself.
◼ All the valves are tested for two qualities
before installation:

❑ For leakage
❑ Functional soundness/performance
◼ In case of high thrust the propellant valves
handle high mass flow rate at high pressures.
◼ In this case large force is needed to move the
valves.
◼ Hydraulic or pneumatic pressure is
controlled by pilot valves and these control
the larger valves by a mechanical linkage
process, it gives a power boost.
◼ In pressurized feed system there are two
kinds of valves:

i. Isolation valves
ii. Latch valves
◼ Isolation valves which shut off a portion of
the propulsion system when they shut down.

◼ Latch valves need power for brief periods

during their movements (open/shut) but
need no power when they are latched (fixed).
◼ A very light and simple valve is called burst
diaphragm.

◼ It is like a circular disk that blocks the pipe

line.

◼ It prevents the leakage and can be used just

for once.
◼ Pressure regulators are special valves which
are used to regulate gas pressures.
◼ Different fluids in a rocket engine are taken
through valves and pipes usually made of
metal and joined together by welds.
◼ Their design should provide thermal
expansion and support to minimize vibration
effects.
 Gimballed Thrust Chambers

◼ They provide flexibility in piping…WHY??

◼ To allow the thrust axis to be rotated through
a small angle (+/- to 10°)
◼ This flexibility is provided by flexible pipe
joints.
◼ Sudden closing of valves can cause water
hammer (water acts like a hammer) in the
pipe lines and it leads to sudden rise in the
pressure of the propellant that can be very
destructive.
◼ This increase in pressure can be reduced by
branch pipe lines.
◼ Water hammer can also occur by entering the
initial flow of high pressure propellant into
the empty pipes.
◼ Many liquid rocket engines have filters in
their pipe lines.
◼ These filters prevent dirt or debris to enter
the pipes and valves.
VALVES & PIPES
 Function

◼ Valves control the flows of liquids and

gases and pipes take these fluids to
desired components.
◼ There are no rocket engines without them.
◼ There are different types of valves and all
of these should be:
i. Reliable
ii. Light weight
iii. Leak proof
iv. Have the resistivity to hold the vibrations &
loud noises.
◼ Any leakage or valve failure can cause the
rocket failure itself.
◼ All the valves are tested for two qualities
before installation:

❑ For leakage
❑ Functional soundness/performance
◼ In case of high thrust the propellant valves
handle high mass flow rate at high pressures.
◼ In this case large force is needed to move the
valves.
◼ Hydraulic or pneumatic pressure is
controlled by pilot valves and these control
the larger valves by a mechanical linkage
process, it gives a power boost.
◼ In pressurized feed system there are two
kinds of valves:

i. Isolation valves
ii. Latch valves
◼ Isolation valves which shut off a portion of
the propulsion system when they shut down.

◼ Latch valves need power for brief periods

during their movements (open/shut) but
need no power when they are latched (fixed).
◼ A very light and simple valve is called burst
diaphragm.

◼ It is like a circular disk that blocks the pipe

line.

◼ It prevents the leakage and can be used just

for once.
◼ Pressure regulators are special valves which
are used to regulate gas pressures.
◼ Different fluids in a rocket engine are taken
through valves and pipes usually made of
metal and joined together by welds.
◼ Their design should provide thermal
expansion and support to minimize vibration
effects.
 Gimballed Thrust Chambers

◼ They provide flexibility in piping…WHY??

◼ To allow the thrust axis to be rotated through
a small angle (+/- to 10°)
◼ This flexibility is provided by flexible pipe
joints.
◼ Sudden closing of valves can cause water
hammer (water acts like a hammer) in the
pipe lines and it leads to sudden rise in the
pressure of the propellant that can be very
destructive.
◼ This increase in pressure can be reduced by
branch pipe lines.
◼ Water hammer can also occur by entering the
initial flow of high pressure propellant into
the empty pipes.
◼ Many liquid rocket engines have filters in
their pipe lines.
◼ These filters prevent dirt or debris to enter
the pipes and valves.
LIQUID FUELS
◼ Many chemicals have been used and tested
but only a few have been used in the
production of rocket engines which are:
i. Hydrocarbon fuels
[Link] Hydrogen (H2)
iii.
Hydrazine (N2H4)
[Link] Dimethylhydrazine
(CH3)2NHH2
v. Monomethylhydrazine
(CH3NHNH2)
 Hydrocarbon Fuels

◼ Petroleum contains a large variety of different HC

chemicals and most of them can be used as a rocket
fuel.
◼ Most common types are those that are used with
other applications and engines such as gasoline,
kerosene, diesel oil and turbojet fuel.
◼ Their physical and chemical properties have a wide
difference in the crude oil from where they were
refined with the chemical process used in their
production.
◼ Generally petroleum fuels form yellow white
flames and give good performance.
◼ They are easy to handle and low cost supply.
◼ A particular refined petroleum product is
called RP-I which is a mixture of saturated
and unsaturated HC and is used with liquid
oxygen in ATLAS, DELTA, TITAN-I &
Saturn rockets.
◼ Saturated hydrocarbons alkanes are the simplest
of the hydrocarbon species and are composed
entirely of single bonds and are saturated with
hydrogen.
◼ Unsaturated hydrocarbons have one or more
double or triple bonds between carbon atoms.
Those with double bond are called alkenes.
Those with one double bond have the formula
CnH2n (assuming non-cyclic structures).Those
containing triple bonds are called alkynes
◼ CH4 (Methane) is a cryogenic HC fuel.

◼ It is denser than liquid H2 and low cost.

◼ It is used in the booster engines of launch

vehicles with liquid oxygen.
 Liquid Hydrogen (H2)

◼ Liquid H2 gives high performance when

burnt with liquid fluorine and liquid oxygen
and is a great coolant.
◼ Liquid H2 is the lightest and the coldest with
a specific gravity of 0.07 and a B.P= 20 K.
◼ Due to very low temperature there is a
problem of selecting suitable tank and piping
materials as many metals become brittle at
low temperatures.
◼ Due to its very low temp. liquid H2 tanks and
lines should be well insulated to minimize
the evaporation of hydrogen or the
condensation of moisture or air outside.
◼ All common liquids and gases solidify in
liquid H2 and these solid particles blocks
the pipes and valves.
◼ So care should be taken before inducting
the propellant.
◼ Mixture of liquid H2 and solid O2 can be
explosive.
◼ Liquid H2 has two types:
i. Ortho-hydrogen
ii. Para-hydrogen

◼ Liquid H2 is used with liquid O2 in the

main engine of the space shuttle.
◼ Liquid H2 gives non toxic exhaust gas with
oxygen.
◼ It is used successfully to launch space
vehicles due to its high specific impulse and
just increasing the specific impulse a little the
payload capability also increases.
 Hydrazine (N2H4)

◼ It is used both as a bi-propellant and a mono

propellant fuel.
◼ It has its related organic compounds (MMH)
& (UDMH) which have same physical and
chemical properties.
◼ Hydrazine is a toxic and colorless gas & has a
high freezing point (274.3 K)
◼ It has a short ignition delay and gives instant
ignition with nitric acid and nitrogen
tetraoxide.
 Unsymmetrical Dimethylhydrazine
(CH3)2NHH2
◼ It forms a more stable liquid at high temps.

◼ It has a low freezing point (215.9 K) & high

B.P( 336.5 K)

◼ When it is burned with an oxidizer it gives

slightly lower values of specific impulse than
pure hydrazine.
◼ UDMH is usually mixed with (30-50) %
hydrazine.
◼ It is used in the Titan missile, launch vehicle,
lunar landing and take off engines.
◼ UDMH is used in Russian and Chinese
rocket engines.
 Monomethylhydrazine
(CH3NHNH2)
◼ It is extensively been used in space craft
engines as a fuel specially in small attitude
control engines with N2O4 as an oxidizer.
◼ It is a better shock resistant, better heat
transfer, better liquid temp. range than pure
hydrazine.
◼ Like hydrazine its vapors can be ignited
easily in air. Materials that are compatible
with hydrazine are also compatible with
MMH.
◼ Specific impulse with storable oxidizers
usually is 1 or 2 % lower with MMH than
with hydrazine.
◼ Both UDMH & MMH are soluble in many
HC but hydrazine is not.
◼ All hydrazines are toxic materials but MMH
is the most toxic when inhaled and UDMH is
least toxic.
◼ MMH decomposes at 491 K.
LIQUID OXIDIZERS
◼ There are different types of liquid oxidizers.
◼ For high specific impulse:
◼ boron-oxygen-flourine compounds
◼ oxygen-flourine compounds
◼ nitrogen-flourine compounds
are used.
◼ Liquid oxidizers that are used in
experimental rockets are:
i. liquid oxygen and liquid fluorine
ii. Oxygen di-flouride (OF2)
iii. Chlorine triflouride (ClF3)
iv. Chlorine pentaflouride (ClF5)
◼ All these are very toxic and corrosive
 Liquid Oxygen
(LOX)
◼ It is used with alcohols, jet fuels (kerosene),
gasoline and hydrogen.

◼ It does not burn instantly with organic

materials at surrounding temperature and
combustion occurs when a specific mixture
of oxygen and organic matter is suddenly
pressurized.
◼ Liquid oxygen accelerates the combustion of
other materials.
◼ It is a non toxic and non corrosive liquid and
will not deteriorate clean container walls.

◼ Cryogenic propellant cause severe burns to

human skin when exposed to it for long.
◼ As liquid oxygen evaporates quickly so it
cannot be stored for longer period of time.

◼ Liquid oxygen is produced in different ways

e.g by boiling liquid nitrogen out of liquid
air.
◼ To save evaporation loss insulate all lines,
valves, pipes and tanks that contain liquid
oxygen.

◼ Liquid oxygen storage system should be

well insulated against absorbing heat from
surroundings.
 Hydrogen Per Oxide
(H2O2)
◼ It is been used in high concentration (70-99%)
and the remainder is mostly water.
◼ In the combustion chamber the propellant
decomposes in the presence of a catalyst as:

1
H 2O2 → H 2O + O2 + heat
2
◼ Catalyst could be liquid permanganates,
solid magnesium dioxide, platinum, iron
oxide.
◼ H2O2 is hypergolic with hydrazine and burns
well with kerosene.

◼ Specific impulse of 90% H2O2 is 147 sec when

used as a mono propellant.
◼ Contaminated H2O2 must be disposed before it
reaches a damage point of 448K where explosion
occurs.
◼ It cause severe burns when it becomes in contact
human skin, may ignited cause fire when comes
in contact with woods, oils and many other
organic materials.
◼ It has not been used for long time due to its long
term storage problem.
◼ Now there has been some improvement in this
dense oxidizer and produces a non toxic
exhaust.
 Nitric Acid
(HNO3)
◼ Between 1940-1965 many types of HNO3
mixtures were used as oxidizers.
◼ The most common type is red fuming HNO3
(RFNA)
◼ It consists of concentrated HNO3 with 5-20%
of dissolved nitrogen dioxide.
◼ The evaporating red-brown fumes are quite
annoying & poisnous
◼ Concentrated HNO3 is also called white
fuming HNO3 (WFNA).
◼ RFNA as compared to WFNA is more stable
in storage and less corrosive to many tank
materials.
◼ HNO3 is highly corrosive and only some
kinds of HNO3 are satisfactory to be stored
(stainless steel, gold).
◼ If a small amount of flourine ion is added to
HNO3 it will make a fluoride layer on wall
and reduces the corrosion greatly.

◼ In case of spilling, HNO3 should be diluted

with water or chemically deactivated
(carbonates, alkali metals, hydroxides are the
common neutralizing agents)
◼ HNO3 has been used with gasoline,
hydrazine and alcohols.

◼ Specific gravity of HNO3 varies from 1.5 -1.6

depending upon the % of HNO3, water and
impurities.
 Nitrogen Tetra Oxide
(N2O4)
◼ They have high density and are yellow
brown liquid.
◼ They have the specific gravity of 1.44.

◼ Most commonly used oxidizer in USA for

storage but its liquid temperature is narrow
and can be easily frozen or vaporized.
◼ When it is pure it’s very little corrosive.
◼ It absorbs moisture from air and can be
stored for longer periods of time in sealed
containers.
◼ It is hypergolic with many fuels and give
instant ignition with many materials (paper,
leather, wood)
◼ Reddish brown fumes are very toxic.
◼ Mixtures of NO and N2O4 gives the mixed
oxides of nitrogen (MON)
◼ Storable propellant oxidizers used in Titan
missile with a mixture of hydrazine and
unsymmetrical dimethyl hydrazine.
◼ It is used with mono methyl hydrazine fuel
in space shuttle RCS and in propulsion
system of many space crafts.
◼ Care is needed to avoid freezing of the
propellant
PROPELLANT TANK
◼ In liquid bi-propellant rocket engine system
propellants are stored in one or more
oxidizer tanks and one or more fuel tanks.
◼ In monopropellant rocket engines there is
one set of propellant tank.
◼ There is also high pressure gas tanks and the
gas is used to pressurize the propellant tanks.
◼ There are different
types of tanks designs
as shown in figure.
 Common tank materials are:
◼ Aluminum
◼ Stainless steel
◼ Titanium
◼ Alloy steel
◼ Fibre plastics with thin inner layer of metal to
prevent leakage through pores of fibre walls.

◼ Extra volume of gas above the propellant in sealed

tanks is called ullage.
 Concept of Ullage

◼ Ullage refers to the unfilled space in a

container of liquid.
◼ In liquid rockets ullage is the space within a
fuel tank above the liquid propellant.
◼ Liquid, cryogenic rockets keep their
propellant in tanks.
◼ These tanks are never completely filled in
order to allow for the expansion of the cold
liquid propellant.
◼ The ullage volume is 3-10% of tank volume.

◼ The ullage volume changes when propellant

is loaded into the tank and also the pressure
of the ullage.
◼ Expulsion efficiency of a tank is the amount
of propellant expelled divided by the total
amount of propellant initially present.
Typical values are (97-99.7)%.

◼ Remaining 2.3% is the non-usuable residual

propellant.
◼ While designing the rocket an effort is made
to minimize the residual propellant….

Why ???????
◼ As this is not used for combustion.
◼ Most suitable shape of propellant tank is
spherical as it has least weight.

◼ Small spherical tanks are more efficient than

large spherical tanks.
◼ Cryogenic propellants are very cool and cool
the tank wall temperature much below air
temperature which causes condensation of
moisture outside tanks and formation of ice
before launch.
◼ The ice increases vehicle mass and as pieces
of ice are broken away during flight, these
pieces can damage vehicle.
◼ For example the ice from shuttle cryogenic
tank can hit the orbiter vehicle.
◼ For a long storage period, cryogenic tanks are
thermally insulated to prevent moisture to be
condensed inside the insulation layer.
◼ These frozen particles will prevent valves
from being fully closed.
◼ Tanks, valves, pipes should be cooled down
before they can contain cryogenic liquid.
◼ This is done by letting the initial cryogenic
propellant absorb the heat from hardware.
◼ This initial propellant is vaporized and
vented through vent valves.
◼ If the tank or any piping having low
temperature cryogenic liquid is sealed for
more time then:
i. The heat from surrounding hardware will
result in evaporation.
ii. It will raise the pressure until it exceeds the
limit of container causing a major leakage
or explosion.
 Types of tanks in liquid propellant
systems
i. For pressurized feed system the propellant
tanks operate @ average pressure between
200-1800 lb f/inch2.
◼ These tanks have thick walls and are
heavy.
ii. For high pressure gas (used to expel
propellants) tanks operate @ 1000-10,000 lb
f/ inch2.
◼ Usually they are spherical.
iii. For turbo pump feed system it is necessary
to pressurize the propellant tanks slightly
@ 10-50 lb f/inch2 .

◼ These low pressures allow thin tank walls

and have low tank weights.
◼ Liquid propellant tanks can get difficult to
empty under different conditions (zero g).
◼ Special tank types are needed to operate
under these conditions.
◼ The flight oscillations cause a special effect in
the liquid propellant called sloshing just like
the water in the glass is allowed to jiggled.
 Effects of Sloshing

Sloshing causes two effects:

❑ Shift in the vehicle’s centre of gravity.

❑ Make flight control difficult.

◼ The process by which
the gases can enter
the tank outlet pipe is
called vortexing.
◼ Its effect is similar to Coriolis force in bath
tubs being emptied and its effect further
increases if the vehicle spins or rotates in
flight.
◼ Vortexing can greatly increase the residual
propellant and hence …….
causing reduction in vehicle performance.
◼ Some basic types of positive expulsion
devices have been used successfully in
propellant tanks of pressurized feed systems.
◼ These devices mechanically separate the
pressurizing gas from liquid propellant in the
propellant tank.
 Causes of Separation:

i. Prevent pressurizing gas to dissolve in the

propellant as if it gets dissolve …..
it will make the pressurization
inefficient.
ii. Prevent a chemical reaction between hot
gas and propellant and reduces the heat
transfer to the liquid.
iii. Remove toxic propellant without spilling
any toxic liquid propellant.
 Piston Expulsion Device

◼ A piston expulsion device makes the centre

of gravity (CG) to be controlled and its exact
location to be known accurately.

◼ This is important in rockets with high side

accelerations (antiaircraft missiles, space
defense missiles).
A piston control device

◼ Here the thrust vector

gas passes through to
CG.

◼ With CG not known

some turning effects
will be imposed on
the vehicle.
 Surface Tension Device

◼ Surface tension devices are used to supply

liquid propellants to tank outlet pipe.

◼ These devices are made up of stainless

steel wire.
◼ The invention relates to a surface tension
storage tank comprising a liquid outlet
from where ………….
the liquid can be expelled under the action
of a pressurant gas.
 LIQUID
MONOPROPELLANTS
◼ A liquid monopropellant is a type of rocket
propellant that consists of a single liquid fuel
that decomposes (usually with the help of a
catalyst) to produce thrust.
◼ Unlike bipropellants, which involve separate
fuel and oxidizer components, a
monopropellant uses only one substance that
contains both the fuel and oxidizer to initiate
the reaction.
◼ Monopropellant used in propellant feed
system enhances the system’s efficiency for
certain applications.

◼ Let us try to understand it by few examples:

◼ Hydrazine as a monopropellant is used as
small attitude and trajectory central
corrections for satellites & spacecrafts.

◼ Ethylene oxide OR nitro-methane were used

for experimental purposes but are not used
today.
What are experimental rockets

◼ Experimental rockets are rockets designed

primarily for research and development
purposes.
◼ They are not used for operational use in regular
missions.
◼ These rockets are used to test new technologies,
gather scientific data, and explore innovative
concepts in rocket engineering and space
exploration using controlled environments .
◼ Concentrated hydrogen peroxide was used
for monopropellant gas generations is USA,
Russia & Germany in engines before 1955.
◼ Ignition of a monopropellant can be
produced by:
a. Electricity
b. Flame heat
c. Catalyst
◼ A rocket can be ignited using a catalyst in
certain types of propulsion systems, primarily
in liquid propellant rockets or hybrid rockets.
◼ The role of the catalyst in these systems is
to facilitate the chemical reaction that
generates the necessary heat and pressure
to propel the rocket.
◼ A monopropellant must be chemically and
thermally stable to ensure good liquid
storage properties.

◼ Liquid monopropellants should be easily

decomposed to give good combustion
properties.
◼ Tendency of a material to resist change or
decomposition due to internal reaction, or
due to the action of air, heat, light, pressure,
etc is called chemical stability.

◼ Tendency of a material to resist change

caused solely(only) by heat is called thermal
stability.
 Hydrazine (N2H4)

◼ Excellent fuel and monopropellant when

decomposed by a suitable solid or liquid
catalyst.
◼ As a monopropellant used in gas generators
or in space craft attitude control engines.
◼ It can be stored for long ( as long as 15 years)
◼ Hydrazine is decomposed in two steps:
i. Hydrazine (N2H4) decomposes into gaseous
ammonia and nitrogen (N2)
(this reaction is exothermic and releases
heat)
ii. Ammonia further decomposes into
nitrogen and hydrogen gas
(this reaction is endothermic and heat is
absorbed)
◼ Hydrazine is manufactured in many grades
of quite purity.
◼ Monopropellant hydrazine has grades:
i. less than 1% H2O
ii. less than 0.5% aniline(is an organic compound
with the formula C6H5NH2. Consisting of a phenyl
group attached to an amino group)
iii. traces of ammonia, carbondioxide,
chlorides & UDMH/MMH)
◼ The highly purified grade of hydrazine has:

i. Less water
ii. Less than 0.005 % aniline.
iii. Less than 0.003 % carbon materials.

◼ They do not contaminate the catalyst.

 Hydroxyl Ammonium Nitrate
(NH2OH+NO3)
◼ This monopropellant is rich in oxygen but also
contains hydrogen & nitrogen (HAN).
◼ It is opaque hygroscopic solid when it is pure.
◼ It is colorless & odorless liquid in aqueous
solution.
◼ Specific gravity of solid HAN= 1.84
◼ The specific gravity of a material is defined as the
ratio of its density to the density of some standard
material, such as water at a specified temperature.
◼ Both solid & liquid HAN burn smoothly and
can be decomposed with any catalyst.

◼ Their boiling point = (110-145°C) & freezing

point (-15 to - 44°C) .

◼ It varies with the water content.

◼ HAN is more viscous as percentage of water
is reduced.
◼ Liquid HAN is more corrosive, toxic and
dense than hydrazine monopropellant.
◼ Specific impulse of monopropellants = (206-
265) secs. depending upon water content and
mixing of aqueous HAN with any organic
fuel liquids.
BASIC CONFIGURATION
OF
THERMAL ROCKET
◼ The thermal rocket is a heat engine.

◼ It converts the heat (generated by the

burning of the propellant) in the
combustion chamber into kinetic energy of
exhaust gas that accelerates the rocket.
◼ Fig(a) shows a liquid
fueled rocket engine
consisting of
combustion chamber
into which fuel and
oxidizer are pumped
and an expansion
nozzle that converts
high pressure hot gas
into high exhaust
velocity.
◼ Fig (b) shows a solid
fueled engine.
◼ It also works in the
same way as liquid
engine except that the
propellant is in solid
form and contained
within the combustion
chamber.
◼ Nozzle operations are same in both the cases.
◼ The combustion that takes place in the
combustion chamber can be of any chemical
reaction that produces heat.
❑ Example:
◼ By simple mixing of fuel (HC/pure hydrogen)
by liquid oxygen.
◼ By exothermic chemical reactions e.g fuming
HNO3 and hydrazine.
◼ Solid propellant may contain an oxidizer e.g
potassium perchlorate bounded with finely
divided Al and Carbon particles.
◼ Gunpowder is another solid propellant and
was used in the first Chinese rockets.
◼ Mixture of Al powder and Sulphur is
another example with no oxidizer and the
exothermic reaction produces Aluminum
Sulphide.
◼ Main requirements for all propellant
combinations is to maximize the energy
release per kg.
◼ Like in other rockets the lower is the mass of
any rocket to release energy the higher will
be the velocity of the vehicle.
 Development of Thrust & Effect Of
The Atmosphere
◼ In the combustion chamber the hot gas containing
the energy (temperature & pressure) of gas released
in the chemical reaction has to be converted into
velocity.
◼ It occurs as the gas expands and cools while it
passes through the nozzle.
◼ The velocity rises very rapidly exceeding the speed
of sound and it crosses the throat part of the nozzle.
◼ Then it continues to accelerate until it leaves the
nozzle.
◼ So the thrust is mostly developed by the
nozzle itself and then transferred to the
vehicle through its mounting structure.

◼ It means that the accelerating force on the

rocket is linked to the structure holding the
rocket engine and also to the base of the
rocket itself.
◼ The development of thrust and the effect of
the atmosphere can be found by derivation
of thrust equation which relates the thrust
of the rocket to:
i. actual exhaust velocity
ii. pressure in the combustion chamber
iii. atmospheric pressure
◼ The thrust equation is based on Newton’s
third law which says that processes in the
rocket engine result in two motions:

◼ The forward motion of the rocket

◼ Backward motion of the exhaust stream
◼ These two factors are dependent upon two
factors:

❑ Reaction of the internal surfaces of the

rocket engine that accelerates the gas.
❑ The pressure force of the gas on those

internal surfaces that accelerates the

rocket.
◼ Figure shows the action of the gas pressure
on the combustion chamber and the exhaust
nozzle which is the force that accelerates the
rocket.
◼ It also shows the reaction of the walls of the
combustion chamber and exhaust nozzle
acting on the gas contained by them and it is
the force that accelerates the exhaust gas.
◼ The exhaust velocity depends on the
pressure of the exit which is related to the
length of the nozzle.
◼ The pressure drops along the nozzle and if
the nozzle is lengthy the exit pressure
decreases.
◼ For maximum exhaust velocity and thrust
the design of the exhaust nozzle should be
optimized so that:
Exit pressure (Pe) = ambient pressure (Pa)
◼ If the nozzle is longer then the extra area will
either add to the thrust or to the retarding
force (atmospheric pressure) and it depends
on whether the internal pressure is greater
than the atmospheric pressure.

◼ So adding to the nozzle length will increase

the thrust if exit pressure (Pe) is either
greater or equal to the atmospheric pressure
(Pa)
◼ Launches mostly take place at or near the sea
level where there is high atmospheric
pressure.

◼ The rocket rapidly goes upward and the

atmospheric pressure decreases.
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL
PROCESSES
◼ The combustion properties of various
polymeric binders in composite propellants
vary depending upon:

❑ Binder type
❑ Heating rate
❑ Combustion chamber pressure
◼ Polymeric binders are materials, typically in
the form of polymers, used to hold or bind
other substances together.
◼ These binders are used in industries such as
coatings, paints, construction, and
pharmaceuticals.
◼ Primary function of polymeric binders is to
create a material that can hold particles
together, improving the material’s
performance.
◼ Polymers are compound of one or more large
molecules formed from repeated units of
smaller molecules.

◼ Polymers usually have high melting and

boiling points.
◼ Examples: PVC (poly vinyl chloride),
polystyrene, cellulose
◼ Composite propellants are a type of solid
propellant used in rocket and missile systems,
consisting of a mixture of fuel and oxidizer
that is bound together by a polymeric binder.
◼ They are called "composite" because they
combine different components, such as
energetic fuels, oxidizers and binder to
achieve the desired performance in terms of
thrust, efficiency, and stability.
◼ Addition of powdered aluminum (2-40
micron meter) in solid propellants gives
more specific impulse and combustion
stability.
◼ The burning of aluminum particles show that
there are a quite large no. of particles during
the combustion process and their combustion
behavior depends upon:
i. Particle size
ii. Shape
iii. Surface oxides
iv. Binder
v. Combustion wave environment
 Particle size
◼ When particles of fuel (e.g., solid propellant)
are smaller, the overall surface area increases.
◼ This leads to a higher rate of reaction
because there is more exposed surface for the
oxidizer.
Shape
◼ The shape of aluminum particles affects
several aspects of the combustion process…..
….. e.g. burning rate, energy release, and
overall efficiency of the rocket engine.

Surface oxides
Oxide layers on rocket engine components can
influence heat transfer.
Some oxides help in insulating the engine
components and preventing excessive heat
buildup.
◼ On the other hand, excessive buildup of
oxides can reduce the effectiveness of heat
dissipation, which might lead to overheating
and failure of materials.
◼ Binder
◼ The binder helps to give the propellant its
shape and structure, allowing for consistent
combustion.
◼ Binder holds the fuel and oxidizer together,
controlling the burn rate, and contributing to
the overall energy release.
◼ They ensure that the propellant burns in a
stable and efficient manner, influencing the
thrust, specific impulse, and overall
performance of the rocket.
◼ For double based
propellants, the
combustion flame
structure appears to
be homogeneous
and one
dimensional in the
direction of burning.
◼ There is a brilliant radiating bright flame
zone where most of the chemical reaction
occurs [1].
◼ The combustion that occurs inside the dark
zone [2] (region between the bright flame and
burning surface) does not emit strong
radiations in the visible spectrum but emit in
the infrared region.
◼ The thickness of the dark zone decreases
with increasing chamber pressure and high
heat transfer to the burning surface that
causes the burning rate to increase.
◼ The overall length of the visible flame
becomes shorter as the chamber pressure
increases and the heat releases per unit
volume near the surface also increases.
◼ In the bright, thin fizz zone or
combustion zone that lies directly over
the burning surface of the DB
propellant, some burning & heat release
occurs.
◼ Beneath the combustion zone is a zone of
liquid bubbling propellant which is
supposed to be very thin and called “ foam”
OR “ degradation zone” [4].
◼ Here the temp. is high enough for the
propellant to vaporize and decompose into
smaller molecules e.g NO2, NO.
◼ Underneath is the pre- heated solid
propellant zone [5].
Another Flame
Guess the Difference ???????
 Difference

◼ The luminous flame seems to be attached

to the burning surface.
◼ No dark zone.
◼ Propellant material and burning surface
are not homogeneous.
◼ Flame structure is unsteady (flicker)
 ROCKET

PROPELLANTS
Subtitle
◼ Unlikely the jet engines the
rockets cannot draw oxygen into
their engines from the surrounding
air and they must carry oxygen
with them into space where there
is no air.
SPECIFIC IMPULSE

◼ Specific Impulse is basically the

efficiency of the rocket propellant
and is measured in seconds. It
indicates how many pounds (kg) of
thrust is obtained by consuming 1 kg
(1 pound) of propellant in one
second.
 The specific impulse of a rocket
propellant is a rough measure of
how fast the propellant is ejected out
from the back of the rocket. A rocket
with higher specific impulse does not
need as much fuel as a rocket with
low specific impulse.

Higher the specific impulse, higher will be

the push to move rocket forward
FUEL MEASURING

 Fuel measuring i.e the amount of

fuel that goes into space is important
to get the required amount of thrust
that a rocket should have.
 As each drop of fuel and oxidizer
that goes into space adds up to the
mass and weight of the spacecraft,
so the scientists will carry the exact
amount of fuel and nothing extra.
• Scientists also know about the chemical
reactions that will result when the fuel
and the oxidizer combines and so they
know what would be the proportion of
the two.

• In order to get the right proportions they

use the molecular formula of rocket
fuels to calculate the no. of moles
needed and once they know it they can
calculate the right amount of fuels.
Some Basics

 Rocket Motion is
very much like the
motion of a air filled
balloon which is set
free.
ROCKET Principle

◼ Rockets generate large

amounts of high-
pressure combustion
gas in their engines, and
this gas is ejected
rearwards at high speed
providing the force that
drives the rocket
forward.
◼ To burn fuel in space
where no air exists, an
oxidizer is necessary.
ROCKET THRUST
◼ Thrust indicates how much
cargo a rocket can lift .
◼ A rocket flies faster than a rifle
bullet
◼ A rocket must travel at a speed
of 7.9 km per second to put a
satellite into orbit.
◼ To leave the earth's gravity for a
trip to the moon or a planet
requires a speed of 11.2 km per
second.
◼ The relationship between the
speed of ejected combustion
gas and what is called "mass
ratio" is a vital factor in
achieving such high speeds.
SOLID PROPELLANTS

◼ Solid fueled rockets started with

fireworks but then with time possess
more advanced fuels, designs and
functions. Solid fueled rockets are
used in space shuttle dual booster
engines and the Delta series booster
engines.
◼ The basic idea of solid fueled rockets
is to create something that burns very
quickly bit does not explode.
FUNCTION

◼ Solid fueled rockets are the

simplest rockets. They have two
main parts.

i. The body or the Casing where

propellant is stored
ii. Combustion Chamber having the
nozzle
◼ The gun powder has the composition
as:
75% nitrate 15% carbon 10% sulphur
◼ The casing is made up of steel
containing fuel and the oxidizer which
burns at a rapid rate expelling hot gases
from the nozzle to produce thrust.
◼ The casing that contains the propellant
opens to a combustion chamber at one
end.
• Most rocket casings are cylindrical but some are
spherical as well.

• The solid mass of the propellant is called

“charge or grain”.

• The propellant grain is an important factor in

determining a rocket’s performance and the
variables that are important to judge the rocket’s
performance are surface area and specific
impulse.
◼ By changing the
shape and size of
the perforation we
can control the rate
and duration of
burning and thus
control the thrust .
◼ To increase the thrust a hole is
made when the propellant is cast.
It is called as perforation.
◼ More the thrust required, larger
will be the perforation but the fuel
will burn for a smaller time.
◼ Lesser the thrust required, smaller will be the
perforation but the fuel will burn for a very
long time.
◼ The burning period and the thrust depends
upon the type of perforation in the fuel.
SURFACE AREA

• Surface area is the amount of

propellant that is exposed to the
combustion chamber for burning and
is directly related to thrust.

• An increase in surface area will

increase thrust but will reduce burn-
time since the propellant is being
consumed at an accelerated rate.
SPECIFIC IMPULSE

◼ The gauge for rating the efficiency of

rocket propellants is called specific
impulse and it is measured in seconds.

◼ Specific impulse indicates how many

pounds (or kg) of thrust are produced
by consuming one pound (or 1 kg) of
propellant in one second.
• If a propellant with high specific impulse is
used as the fuel for a rocket whose grain
design has a high surface area ratio, high
amounts of thrust will be produced.

• If the engine grain casing cannot bear the

extreme pressure and temperature it will just
explode. So a great care should be taken
while making the grain ratio of both the
variables i.e specific impulse and surface
area.
Double Based Propellants

◼ Initial solid fueled rockets include gun

powder and mixtures containing
nitroglycerine and nitrocellulose which
were also called double based
propellants

◼ Double based propellants are the

combination of two propellants.
Synthetic Rubber & Additives

◼ These oxidizers are often mixed, in

making composite propellants, with
synthetic rubbers such as
polystyrenes & polysulfides.
◼ Additives are also added to
composite propellants.
◼ Additives have binders that hold the fuel
together and increases its specific
impulse.
◼ More is the specific impulse the faster
the rocket burns and more is the thrust
that pushes it upward and so a great
care is needed in solid fueled rockets
as once the propellant is ignited it cant
be stopped (very difficult to stop)
Boosters & Sustainers

◼ Booster rockets (huge rockets) need a

large amount of thrust in a short time
and they use chemicals to increase the
burning rate.
◼ Also there are other rockets that need to
produce less thrust over a longer period
of time and they use chemicals to
decrease the burning rate. Such longer
burning rockets are called “sustainers”
FAMILIES

◼ There are two families of solid fueled

propellants.

◼ Homogeneous propellants
◼ Composite propellants
Homogeneous Propellants

◼ Simple based or double based (uses a

single or double propellant).

◼ Simple homogeneous propellants consist

of a single compound (nitrocellulose)
and double based propellant consist of
two compounds (nitrocellulose and
nitroglycerine with a plasticizer added
to it).
◼ Specific impulse is not greater
than 210 seconds in normal
conditions.

◼ They are mainly used in tactical

weapons.
Composite Propellants

◼ Modern composite propellants are

heterogeneous mixtures.
◼ The oxidizer normally uses is called
ammonium perchlorate and the fuel
used is aluminium.
◼ Additional compounds e.g catalyst is
added to increase the burning rate.
IGNITIORS

i. The ignition of solid propellants use

different types of ignitors:
ii. Initially fire arrows were used as ignitors
but they were not considered to be safe
as they exploded.
iii. Now the safe method used is the
electric current which heats up a
specific wire inside the rocket. It results
in increasing the temperature of the
propellant inside the combustion
chamber.
iv. Some ignitors use a chemical that ignites
itself first and then ignites the propellant.
v. For large rockets the ignitors are the
rocket engines themselves. The engines
inside the rocket blasts a stream of
flames and hot gases rush down from
the top of the rockets igniting the entire
surface of propellants within a fraction of
second.
ADVANTAGES

i. Simple in design.
ii. Require little pre-flight checkup.
iii. Use that propellant that do not
leak/spill.
iv. Indefinite storage (5-30) years and
used at high level in the military.
v. Instant ignition without fuelling
operations.
DISADVANTAGES
i. Exhaust gases are usually toxic.
ii. Once ignited cannot be shut
down easily so they are designed
for a specific mission.
iii. Re-start requires a separate
ignition system.
iv. Once ignited cannot change their
thrust.
v. Manufacturing of solid propelled
rockets may get expensive due to
separate ignition system(id re-start
needed)
vi. Cracks may develop in the solid
propellant that increases the exposed
surface area and the propellant burns
faster than the planned rate.
In case of too many cracks pressure
inside the combustion chamber rises
and the rocket may explode.
LIQUID PROPELLANTS

◼ The first liquid fuel rocket was produced

by Robert Goddard in 1926 (How Rocket
Engines Work). In a liquid propellant
rocket the fuel and the oxidizer are stored
in separate tanks i.e one for the fuel and
the other for the oxidizer.

◼ The liquid propellants carry their own fuel

and the oxidizer in liquid form. The fuel
and the oxidizer are taken to the
combustion chamber through pipes,
valves and turbo pumps where they are
combined and burned to produce thrust.
◼ Liquid fueled rockets provide greater specific
impulses than solid fueled rockets.
◼ Engineers can control combustion in liquid
fueled rockets by changing the rate at which
the pumps move the liquid propellant to the
combustion chamber vai valves.
◼ Combustion can be stopped and re-started
by stopping the fuel pumps completely. This
stopping and re-starting combustion is very
useful in space missions as in space the
course correction (trajectory) may needs to
be changed that require short bursts from the
rocket.
◼ Liquid fueled rockets are more complex
to handle than solid fueled rockets as in
liquid propellants the fuel and the
oxidizer are stored in different tanks.
◼ Simplest liquid fueled rockets use
nitrogen gas (high pressurized and non-
reactive gas) which forces the propellant
into the combustion chamber.
Robert Goddard
◼ Liquid fueled rockets use different types of
fuels and oxidizers like:
i. Fuels (alcohols, kerosene)
ii. Oxidizer (liquid oxygen)

A good liquid fueled rocket is the one that

ejects high speed gases at a brisk rate
which gives high combustion temperature.
FAMILIES

◼ Liquid propellants are classified into

three families:

i. Petroleum
ii. Crogenics
iii. Hypergolics
PETROLEUM

i. They are the fuels refined from

crude oil and are the mixtures of
hydro carbons.
ii. Petroleum fuel used as rocket fuel is
kerosene.
iii. Used in combustion with liquid
oxygen (oxidizer).
CRYOGENICS

i. Crogenic is a greek word which means

cold.
ii. Use liquid hydrogen as fuel and liquid
oxygen as oxidizer.
iii. Liquid H2 remains liquid at -253 C and
liquid O2 remains liquid at -183C.
iv. Liquid H2 and liquid O2 are used as
propellants in main engines of the space
shuttle.
v. Liquid H2 and liquid O2 also power the
upper stages of Saturn V and Saturn 1B
rockets and also the second stage of Atlas
launch vehicle .
vi. Due to these low temperatures of liquid
crogenic propellants cannot be stored for
longer periods of time and due to this
reason they are less desirable to be used
in military rockets which might require
the rocket to be ready at launch for
months.
HYPERGOLICS

i. They are the fuels and the oxidizers which

came to in contact with each other and ignite
at once without any ignition source.
ii. They have the easy start and re-start
capability.
iii. Remain liquid at ordinary temperature and
so no storage problem.
 Typical Oxidizers= Nitrogen Tetra Oxide
(N2O4) or Nitric acid (HNO3)
 .
ADVANTAGES

i. Higher specific impulse

ii. Can be stopped and re-started
iii. Accurately controllable thrust
iv. Can be stored for longer periods
v. Can be reused after service and
checking
DIS-ADVANTAGES

i. Complex in design
ii. Crogenic propellants cannot be stored
for longer periods of time
iii. Propellant spills could be toxic and
dangerous
iv. Combustion instability is difficult to
control
v. Non-hypergolic fuels need an ignition
system
TYPES

◼ There are two types of liquid propelled

systems:

i. Gas Pressure Feed System.

ii. Turbo Pump Feed System.
Gas Pressure Feed System

◼ In this type of propellant a high

pressure gas under a pressure
regulator displaces the propellant in the
combustion chamber.

◼ It is used to produce low thrust and

short duration.
 High Pressure Gas Supply tank

Pressure Regulator

Fuel Tank
Oxidizer Tank

Propellent Value Propellent Value

Rocket Thrust Chamber

Schematic Diagram of Gas-Pressure Feed System

Turbo Pump Feed System

◼ In this type the propellant is pressurized by

pumps driven by gas turbine and finally
displaced into the combustion chamber.

◼ Combination of pumps and turbine is

called turbo pump.
Oxidizer Tank Fuel Tank

Oxidizer Pump

Fuel Pump Hot Gas Turbine

Shaft

Thrust Chamber

Schematic Diagram of Turbo- Pump Feed System

STARTING & IGNITION
OF
THRUST CHAMBER
◼ The heart of all rocket engines where the
propellant is injected, mixed and burned to
form hot reaction gas products which
ultimately are ejected at a very high
velocity.
◼ A thrust chamber has three major parts:
i. An injector
ii. Combustion chamber
iii. Nozzle
◼ All the three components are resistive
enough to bear the extreme heat of
combustion.
◼ In its simplest form, the thrust chamber
accepts propellant from the injector, burns it
in the combustion chamber, accelerates the
gaseous combustion products, and ejects
them from the chamber to provide thrust.
◼ Starting of the thrust chamber should be
controlled to have:

i. A timely and an even ignition of the

propellant.
ii. Flow and thrust are build smoothly &
quickly.
❑ The initial flow of the propellant is
always less than the full flow to prevent
an excessive accumulation of the un-
ignited propellant in the chamber.

❑ The starting ignition velocity is also low.

❑ The time delay for starting a thrust chamber
ideally consist of following time periods:
i. Time required to open the propellant valves
fully (.002 to more than 1.00 sec) depending
upon the valve type, upstream pressure and
its size.
ii. Time needed to fill the liquid passage
volume between valve and injector face
(injector holes, piping etc).
iii. Time for breaking liquid into small
droplets and mixing these droplets.

iv. Time needed for these droplets to

vaporize and ignite (.02 to .05) secs.
v. Once ignition is achieved in the chamber,
time is required to spread the flame or to
heat the entire propellant in the chamber
and raise the ignition temperature.
vi. Time required to raise the chamber to reach
a point where combustion is at its full
pressure.
❑ To start the thrust chamber fuel and
oxidizer reaches the chamber with a gap of
short time as it gives more reliable ignition.

❑ Also, because it is practically impossible to

synchronize exactly the fuel and the
oxidizer feed systems so that the propellant
reach the chamber simultaneously at all
injection holes.
◼ The propellant valves are designed for the
controlled buildup of the flow and mixture
ratio.
◼ This flow control is essential to manage the
engine's thrust, efficiency, and overall
performance.
◼ The opening and closing of the valves are
controlled by the engine's guidance and control
system, that depends upon various factors such
as thrust demands, pressure, and temperature
within the engine.
◼ Normally the valves are opened partially
to avoid the gathering of dangerous un-
burnt propellant mixture in the chamber.
◼ These propellant valves are opened fully
once combustion is established and full
flow reaches the thrust chamber.
◼ The initial reduced flow burning period is
called the preliminary stage.
 Partially Opening the Valves:
◼ When the rocket engine starts up, the propellant
valves are initially opened only partially, not fully.
◼ This is done to control the flow of propellant into
the combustion chamber in a gradual manner.
◼ A slow, controlled flow prevents too much fuel
or oxidizer from entering the combustion
chamber at once.
◼ Avoiding Dangerous Un-Burnt Mixture:
◼ If too much propellant were to enter the
combustion chamber too quickly, it could
collect without being burned.
◼ This unburnt propellant could lead to several
dangerous situations:
◼ It might cause inefficient combustion, leading
to reduced engine performance or even engine
failure.
◼ There could be excessive fuel in the chamber,
which might cause pressure buildups,
potentially damaging the engine.
◼ In some cases, the unburnt mixture might
ignite uncontrollably if the conditions change
suddenly, leading to explosive behavior or
unstable combustion (like combustion
oscillations).
 Full Valve Opening:
◼ After the engine has successfully ignited and
combustion is established (i.e., the fuel and
oxidizer are burning efficiently), the valves
can then be fully opened.
◼ This allows maximum propellant flow into the
combustion chamber.
 Stable Combustion:
i. Once combustion is stable, now there is no
risk of having too much unburnt fuel or
oxidizer in the chamber.
ii. At this point, the system has enough
control over the combustion process, and
the engine can handle the full flow of
propellant.
iii. Opening the valves fully ensures that the
engine can produce its maximum thrust by
providing the necessary amount of
propellant to the combustion chamber.
• There are five different types of propellant
ignition systems used:
i. Spark plug ignition
ii. Ignition by electrically heated wires
iii. Pyrotechnic ignition
iv. Pre-combustion chamber ignition
v. Auxiliary fluid ignition
 Spark plug ignition
A spark plug is a device that generates a high-
voltage electrical spark.
It consists of a central electrode in a surrounding
shell.
When electrical current is passed through the
spark plug, it creates a spark that ignites the
propellant.
This spark is designed to ignite the propellants in
a controlled and efficient manner.
 Ignition by electrically heated wires
◼ When electrical current is passed through the
wire, its resistance causes it to heat up.
◼ This process is similar to how an electric heater
works or how the filament in a light bulb gets hot
when current flows through it.
◼ The wire heats up to very high temperatures,
often reaching several thousand degrees
Celsius, depending on the current applied.
◼ The high temperature of the heated wire is
sufficient to ignite the fuel-oxidizer mixture in the
combustion chamber, causing the propellants to
combust and start the engine.
◼ It has proved to be less reliable than spark ignition
for liquid propellants.
 Pyrotechnic ignition
◼ Pyrotechnic igniters typically consist of
chemical compounds that, when triggered
(usually by an electric signal or mechanical
action), undergo a rapid exothermic reaction,
releasing a significant amount of heat.
◼ It uses a solid propellant grain with few secs.
burning duration.
◼ This solid propellant charge is electrically
ignited and burns with a hot flame in the
combustion chamber.
◼ In Pre-combustion chamber ignition there is
a small chamber built next to the main
combustion chamber and connected through
an orifice (mouth of a cavity)
◼ A small amount of fuel and oxidizer is
injected into the pre-combustion chamber
and ignited.
◼ This burning mixture enters the main
combustion chamber and ignites the
larger main propellant flow.
◼ Auxiliary fluid ignition is a method where
some liquid or gas in addition to the regular
fuel and oxidizer is injected into the
combustion chamber for a short time.

◼This fluid is hypergolic which means…

……..it gives instantaneous combustion either
with fuel or oxidizer.
 TANK
PRESSURIZATION
◼ A pressurized storage tank includes a chamber
in the base.
◼ There is a check valve that connects the
chamber to the tank .
◼ This check valve allows the pressurized gas to
flow from the chamber into the tank in one
direction only.
◼ This pressurized gas ejects from the discharged
cartridge.
◼ A safety blowout plug prevents over-
pressurization and appropriate gauges are
provided to measure the internal tank
pressure and the outlet line pressure.
◼ Tank pressurization is needed for both kinds
of feed systems i.e
1- Pressure feed system
Tank pressurization value is 200-1800 psi
pounds per square inch
2- Turbo Pump feed system
Tank pressurization value is 10-50 psig
pounds per square inch gauge
◼ Psig (pound force per square inch gauge) is a
unit of pressure relative to the surrounding
atmosphere.
◼ Psia (pound force per square inch absolute)
measures pressure relative to vaccum e.g space.
◼ Psi (pound force per square inch) amount of
pressure exerted on an object with a surface area
of one square when a force of one pound is
applied.
◼ Most common used gases are He and N2.
◼ The pressurizing gas should not condense or
be soluble in the liquid propellant….WHY??
◼ as it will greatly increase the mass of the
propellant.
◼ If Nitrogen pressurizing gas dissolves in
nitrogen tetra oxide or in liquid oxygen, it
will reduce the concentration of the oxidizer.
◼ If we compare the pressurization of liquid
oxygen and water by nitrogen gas, in general
2.5 times as much nitrogen mass is needed
for pressurizing liquid oxygen than to
displace an equal amount of water at same
pressure.
◼ Interestingly oxygen and nitrogen tetra oxide
are usually pressurized by Helium….WHY..
◼ ..as He dissolves only slightly.
◼ Pressurizing gas should not react chemically
with the liquid propellant, and it should be
dry as moisture can react with propellants or
dilute them (decreasing the intensity).
◼ The pressurizing gas above the cryogenic
liquid is usually warmer than the liquid.
◼ The heat transfer to the liquid cools the gas
and increases the density.
◼ If there is a lot of sloshing and splashing in
the tank during flight, gas temperature can
drop quickly resulting in irregularities in the
tank pressure.
◼ Chemical pressurization injects a small
amount of fuel or any other instantly
ignitable chemical into the oxidizer tank and
it creates a pressurizing gas by combustion
into the propellant tank.
◼ But this type of pressurization is very small
and do not give effect tank pressurization.

◼ Due to this there will be irregular

combustion resulting in sloshing of the
propellant in the tank that causes sudden
cooling of the pressurizing gas and so the
tank pressure changes.
 Estimating The Mass Of The Pressurizing
Gas

◼ The main function of the pressurizing gas is

to expel the propellants from their tanks.
◼ In some propulsion system installations, a
small amount of pressurized gas performs
some other functions such as operation of
valves and control.
◼ The first part of the gas leaving the high
pressure gas storage tank is at surrounding
temperature.
◼ If this initial high pressurized gas expands
rapidly then the gas remaining in the tank
would go under isentropic expansion (gas
temp. decreases).
◼ The last part of the gas leaving the tank is
very colder than the surrounding
temperature and absorbs heat from tank
walls and pipes.
Let initial condition in the gas tank
=subscript 0

Let instantaneous condition in the gas tank

=subscript g

Let instantaneous condition in the propellant tank

=subscript p
◼ The gas energy before and after propellant
expulsion is given as:
◼ mg cvTg + m p cvTp + PpV p = m0 cvT0
 mg cvTg + m p cvTp + PpV p 
m0 =  
 c T
v 0 
◼ where mo is the initial storage gas mass
◼ Work done by the gas in displacing the propellants
= PpVp