The specification requires you be able to do the following:

Explain sociological causes of crime

Explain how crime and deviance are socially constructed
Compare and contrast the Feminist, Functionalist, Interactionist and
Marxist views on the social construction of crime and deviance
Describe Merton and Becker’s studies

The specification names the following key terms, so it is highly likely that they will be used in a
question. Make sure you can define all of them, give an example and additional information:

Anomie – A state of chaos or normlessness in society

Crime – An act which breaks the law
Criminal subculture –Cohen uses this term to describe a group whose norms and values include crime
Delinquency – A minor criminal offence, usually by a young person e.g vandalism
Deviance – An act which breaks the norms or values of society e.g swearing
Deviant career – When an individual accepts a deviant identity and belongs to a criminal subculture
Labelling – A term Becker uses to explain how a person or their actions can be identified as deviant
Master status – The main way that an individual is viewed e.g as a criminal
Self-fulfilling prophecy – When an individual lives up to the label they have been given
Social construct – Created by society
Social stigma – A characteristic which is seen as negative e.g being a criminal
Socially defined behaviour – When members in society decide what actions are acceptable
dependent on the person, the situation and the cultural context e.g Homosexuality has been defined
as acceptable in the UK, but not in Uganda.
Subculture – A group of people with different norms and values to the rest of society
Unwritten rules – The agreement that certain actions are against the norms and values of our society,
but there is no specific law or rule against them e.g swearing

If you find it difficult to think of additional

information, then use one of the other key
words in the list that is the most related. For
example, labelling can lead to a master status
or unwritten rules define actions as deviant.
The main Interactionist you need to know is Howard Becker. He argues that no act is intrinsically
“deviant” (not viewed as deviant by everyone in every context). They are interested in the social
process that leads to behaviour being defined as deviant. They believe deviance is not actually the
behaviour itself, but in the interaction between the person who commits an act and those who
respond to it. Therefore, they believe that there is no such thing as a deviant act, it only becomes
“deviant” if someone defines it in this way. Becker uses the example of nudity to explain his view. He
notes how a wife would not view it as deviant if her husband got into bed naked with her. However,
if her husband got naked on public transport, it would be labelled deviant. This shows that even
though the acts are the same, the audience can decide whether they are committing a deviant act or
not. They usually base their interpretation of the act based on the “unwritten rules” of society.
Becker argues that those in power have the ability to label someone as deviant. For example, if a
group of working class youths were screaming and jumping around in the street, the police could
define this as delinquent behaviour and approach the group. However, if middle-aged, middle class
people were behaving in the same way, the police may interpret the situation as them celebrating
some good news and ignore it. This shows that it is the police’s response to the behaviour that
makes the working class youths “deviant”, not their actual behaviour.
This idea can also be applied to crime. Those in power have the ability to define what is against the
law and what is accepted in society. For example, the British Government decriminalised (defined it
as no longer criminal by law) homosexuality in 1967. However, same-sex acts are still considered
criminal in Uganda. This illustrates how the same act would be legal in the UK, but labelled a crime in
Uganda or in the UK prior to 1967. This shows how crime is “socially defined behaviour”.

Interactionists look at how the interaction between members of society results in someone being
defined as criminal by people in power and then ultimately viewing themselves in this way. This is
the process that Howard Becker outlined:
1. Someone is labelled deviant by someone in power
Whether the ‘label’ of deviancy is applied depends on who commits the act, when and where it is
committed, who observes the act, and the negotiations that take place between the various actors
involved in the interaction. If, for example, the actions of young people are defined as delinquent
and they are convicted for breaking the law, those young people have been labelled. The agents of
social control, for example the police and the courts, have the power to make the label stick
2. This changes how other people see them and it becomes their master status
This means that their deviance over-rides every other aspect of their identity and it becomes the
main way that other people in society view them
3. This leads to a self-fulfilling prophecy
This means the individual that was labelled deviant actually becomes more deviant because they live
up to their label because of the way that other people act towards them now they have a
stigmatised master status
4. The person has a deviant career
This means that they begin to identify themselves as deviant and actively pursue this further
5. The person then joins a criminal subculture
They move into a group of like-minded people, who share their norms and values which accept
criminal behaviour. They can learn from more experienced criminals
 Sociologist: Howard Becker
Theory: Interactionism
Methodology: Theoretical ideas
Key Findings:
Acts are only deviant or criminal when
someone defines them in this way.
Criminal behaviour is a result of the
interactions between individuals.
Deviance is created by individuals, not society.

Marxism is a structural theory, so they believe that it is the structures in society that cause crime,
rather than characteristics of the individuals. This means that they disagree with Interactionists.

Marxists believe that capitalism causes crime because it reinforces three values:
1. Materialism
People value material possessions and this causes people who are materially deprived to commit
crime in order to access them. In a capitalist society, the proletariat will always be poor due to the
low pay they receive from the bourgeoisie, therefore the only way they can gain the material
possessions that they desire is through theft.
2. Consumerism
The bourgeoise gain profit when people buy the products that are made in their factories. As a
result, the ruling class use advertising to promote their products to make consumers want to buy
them. However, sometimes members of the proletariat steal these products because they cannot
afford to purchase them.
3. Competition
Capitalism encourages people to be in competition with each other because they are fighting for pay
rises, promotions and rewards in the workplace. This competitive nature translates to their life
outside of work, causing them to experience jealousy of others. Those who cannot compete and feel
relatively deprived compared to others will steal products to keep up.

Feminism is a structural theory, so they believe that it is the structures in society that cause crime,
rather than characteristics of the individuals. This means they agree with Marxists, but Feminists
believe the structure in society that constructs crime is patriarchy, whereas Marxists believe it is
capitalism. Both Marxists and Feminists disagree with Interactionists.
Women have limited opportunities to commit crime because they are restricted in the workplace, in
public and at home. In addition, women are discouraged from showing traits such as selfishness,
competitiveness or manipulation and are expected to show empathy, self-control and obedience, so
they are less likely to become criminal.

In an essay about Feminist views, you

can also use Heidensohn’s and
Carlen’s studies and feminist ideas
about the Chivalry thesis/double
deviance that are later in this section.
 Functionalism is a structural theory, so like Marxists and Feminists, they believe that it is the
structures in society that cause crime, rather than characteristics of the individuals. However,
Functionalists believe that it is the “culturally defined goals” and lack of opportunities in society that
cause crime, instead of capitalism or patriarchy. They also disagree with interactionists because
Functionalists believe that the structures in society cause crime, rather than individuals defining it.

Sociologist: Robert Merton

Theory: Functionalism
Methodology: Used official stats to identify crime was
more common amongst lower social class groups
Key Findings: It is the shared value consensus about
success and the unequal opportunities that people
have to access them that cause crime. His theory is
often referred to as “strain theory” because people
are “strained” into anomie in order to achieve these
goals.

Merton believes that every society has “culturally defined goals”. These are the aspirations
that people are socialised into by their society, resulting in a value consensus about what
individuals want to achieve. For example, in America there is the shared goal of the
“American Dream” which includes having money and prestigious material possessions.

He argues that there are “legitimate means” (acceptable ways) of achieving these goals,
such as through hard work and talent. However, some people lack these legitimate means
because they are lower down in the social structure. Merton argued that these people
experienced “strain” because they did not have an acceptable route to success.

In American society, greater importance was attached to success, than to the ways in which
that success was achieved. This resulted in a situation of anomie, where ‘anything goes’ in
pursuit of wealth and material success.

Merton explained that people experiencing strain would pursue “illegitimate means” to
achieve the culturally defined goals. e.g theft

Merton believes there are 5 responses to the goals to success. These are:
Conformity – When an individual accepts the goals of success and the legitimate means
Innovation - When an individual accepts the goals of success, but uses illegitimate means
Ritualism – An individual abandons the goals because they do not believe they will be
successful, but accept the legitimate means because they feel they should follow the rules
Retreatism – Individuals abandon the goals and the means to achieve them
Rebellion – Individuals reject both the goals and means and replace them with new ones

He can only explain crime which is committed by working class criminals for a financial reward. He
fails to explain middle class crime or criminal behaviour which is not for financial gain e.g vandalism.
He assumes, without evidence, that there is “value consensus” to achieve the American Dream.
His view is deterministic - it does not explain why only some working class people resort to crime
There is a clear debate between the Structural theories (Marxism, Feminism and Functionalism) and
Action theories (Interactionism) about whether it is the structure of society or the individual actions
which cause criminal or deviant behaviour.

A possible essay question could be:

Discuss how far sociologists would agree crime is caused by the structures in society (12 marks)
Your for arguments would be:
1. Marxism – Capitalism creates values which cause people to commit crime
2. Feminism – Patriarchy limits women’s opportunities to commit crime
3. Functionalism – Merton - The value consensus of society and unequal opportunities cause anomie
Your for arguments would be:
1. Interactionism – Becker – An action is only criminal when it is defined that way, therefore it is the
individuals, not the structures that cause crime.
2. Interactionism – Becker – Criminality is a result of a process where individuals are labelled and
experience a self-fulfilling prophecy before taking on a deviant career. Therefore it is the individuals,
not the structures that cause crime.

Explain formal and informal methods of social control

Compare and contrast Interactionist, Functionalist, Marxist and Feminist views on social control
Explain Heidensohn’s control theory

The specification names the following key terms, so it is highly likely that they will be used in a
question. Make sure you can define all of them, give an example and additional information:

Agent of social control – An institution which encourages conformity to norms, values and law
Conformity – When people follow the rules
Formal social control – An institution which is concerned with ensuring people follow the law e.g
Police and can use formal punishments e.g Prison
Informal social control - An institution which is concerned with ensuring people follow the
norms and values of society e.g Education and uses informal sanctions e.g Detentions
Sanctions – A reward or punishment to reinforce good behaviour e.g The family may give
children pocket money for completing chores and ground them for being disrespectful
Social convention – Shared ideas about what behaviours are accepted in society
Social order – Stability in society because everyone is following the norms and values
 Surveillance – Watching people to so they don’t commit crime e.g surveillance camera
Unwritten rules – The ideas we share about what behaviours are deviant
Value consensus – An agreement about what is important

Interactionists are interested in the power-relationships in society which result in behaviour being
defined as deviant or criminal. They believe that the agencies of formal social control, such as the
police, are working on behalf of the people in power. This means that they define the behaviour of
the less powerful. Groups in society who have less power e.g youths, ethnic minorities and the
working class experience greater surveillance and control from these agencies of social control. For
example, Black people are 8 times more likely to be stopped and searched because members of the
police believe they are more likely to be criminal because of the idea of the typical criminal they
have constucted and label people with. Therefore, Interactionists believe that social control is a
process where those in power observe the behaviour of less powerful people and define it as
deviant due to the stereotypes they hold of these groups.

Feminists believe that male-dominated patriarchal societies control women more effectively than
men, making it difficult for women to break the law.

Sociologist: Frances Heidensohn

Theory: Feminism
Methodology: Theoretical ideas
Key Findings: Women experience greater
levels of social control than men due to the
patriarchal nature of our society. Therefore,
women commit less crime than men.

Heidensohn argues that women are controlled in three main areas of a patriarchal society:

Home: Women are expected to spend the majority of their time on housework and childcare.
Women who challenge these assumptions risk male violence as an assertion of patriarchal
authority. Men as the main or sole breadwinner also have financial power over their wives.
Daughters are more closely controlled than sons, they have more limits on when they may leave
the home and they are expected to contribute more time to domestic tasks.
Public: Women are controlled by the threat of male sexual violence and by the idea that
inappropriate behaviour may bring loss of reputation and shame upon their families.
Women who enter the public sphere ([Link]) are subject to ridicule and told to
return to “where they belong” (the home).
Work: Women are controlled by male-dominated hierarchies because they have
lower positions at work than their male bosses. They are subject to intimidation
by various forms of sexual harassment.
 Heidensohn has been criticised for making generalisations that do not apply to all women and
for not supporting her claims with research-based evidence.

Functionalists believe that social order is maintained because there is a value consensus amongst
most members, which means that they conform to the shared norms and values of society. They
believe that individuals are socialised into the shared ideas about what behaviours are accepable
and unacceptable and then they avoid deviant or criminal acts because they believe they are morally
wrong and do not want to upset the social order or sense of community in their society.
Functionalists believe that the agencies of social control treat everyone in society equally. They also
believe that there are two positive functions of punishing people through formal social control:
Reinforcing social solidarity – People in society come together during times of crisis or
greviance. For example, members of society unite to stand against terrorism and ensure these
groups are punished for their actions.
Degredation ceremonies – Public punishments remind other members of society what the
boundaries are, so they do not commit crimes. For example, newspaper headlines shaming
people who have been caught commiting benefit fraud remind other people not to do this.

Marxists believe that the agencies of social control are there to serve the needs of the
bourgeoisie and benefit capitalism. Marxists refer to the institutions in society as part of the
“ideological state apparatus”. This means the different agencies work together to spread the
norms and values which benefit those in power.
These are some examples of how agencies of social control benefit the bourgeoisie:
Family – Children are socialised into accepting the authority of their parents in the family,
which prepares them to be obedient workers
Education – Students are sanctioned for being disrespectful to their teachers, so they learn
that they will be punished if they do not accept the orders from their bossess
Religion – Religious teachings such as “thou shall not steal” reinforce the law. This specfic
commandment reminds the working class not to steal products, ensuring the bourgeosise do
not lose profit
Law – Laws are created by the bourgeoise, for their own benefit. For example, even though
there appear to be laws in place to ensure very high earners pay tax on their financial bonus,
there are several ways that the members of the elite can avoid this. For example, companies
are just increasing the salary of bankers, rather than giving them a large bonus or they pay
their bonus into an account in another country to avoid the tax. This has been highlighted by
equality campaigners, but the government has only 300 members of staff looking into the
issue, despite an estimated loss of £70 billion to the tax fund. However, benefit cheats have
cost the government £1.2 billion (much lower in comparison) but they have 3,300 people
working to catch these criminals. This shows how the law is selectively reinforced.
Criminal Justice System – The police and courts work in order to favour the elite in society.
Working class criminals are treated more harshly than middle class criminals because
 professionals are seen as more valuable to society. In addition, white collar crime (middle
class, computer/financial crime) is not viewed as seriously because it is usually victimless.
Therefore, agencies of social control treat the working class unfairly.

Explain factors affecting criminal and deviant behaviour, including class, age, gender and ethnicity
Compare and contrast Interactionist, Marxist, Feminist and Functionalist views on factors affecting criminal
and deviant behaviour
Describe Cohen’s and Carlen’s studies

Canalization – Gender socialisation through toys

Institutional racism – When the practices of an organisation (e.g police) discriminate against
a specific ethnic group
Racism/Racial discrimination – Treating someone differently due to their race
Rural – Areas in the countryside – Urban - Areas in the city
Status frustration – A term Cohen uses to explain the feeling that young, working class boys
often experience because they are dissatisfied with their low position in society
Stereotype – A shared set of ideas about a social group

The peak age of criminal offending is 17 years old

Inadequate socialisation – Sociologists such as Functionalists and the New Right would argue
that criminal or deviant behaviour is a result of poor socialisation. They believe that lone-parents
are inadequate at socialising their children, resulting in high rates of juvenile delinquency. As
lone-parent families are increasing, so are the number of youths committing crime and deviance.
Lack of responsibilities – Young people are more likely to commit crime because they have less
responsibilities than adults. They have more free time to offend because they do not have jobs
or a family to care for. In addition, they do not have to consider the consequences as much as
adults do because they do not have a job to get fired from etc.
Peer pressure – Young people are very likely to value the opinion of their peers. Often youths
that are part of sub-cultures will commit criminal or deviant acts to gain status amongst peers.

Interactionism – Becker – Young people have less power in society and therefore their actions
are more likely to be defined as deviant. Once they are labelled as deviant by the police, this can
become their master status. They may then experience a self-fulfilling prophecy and establish a
deviant career when they join a criminal subculture and learn from older, experienced criminals.

Functionalism - Cohen argues that young, working class males experience “status frustration”
because they know they are disadvantaged and feel they cannot meet the expectations of
middle class teachers or achieve the shared goals of society. As a result, they form “delinquent
sub-cultures”. These are groups which allow the boys to gain status in alternative ways e.g
vandalism, so they can avoid feeling like failures in a society where they cannot succeed in
legitimately accessing culturally defined goals.

Sociologist: Albert Cohen

Theory: Functionalism
Methodology: Theoretical ideas
Key Findings: Cohen decided to develop Merton’s strain
theory to explain sub-cultural crime that did not have
financial gain. He found that young, working class boys
formed delinquent subcultures to cope with their status
 Cohen has been criticised for assuming that those in delinquent subcultures share the
culturally defined goals of the rest of society. Critics suggest that they may actually just be
acting in a deviant way out of resentment against those whose values they do not share e.g
teachers and successful middle-class students
Sociologists have also stated that Cohen’s argument in deterministic because it fails to
acknowledge the diversity in the experiences of working class boys and cannot explain why
some do not turn to delinquent subcultures.

96% of prisoners are male

Interactionism – Becker -Men are more likely to experience labelling because men fit the typical
stereotype of a criminal. The people in power have defined the profile of criminals as a black,
working class, young male. This means that the agencies of social control are more likely to label the
behaviour of this group as deviant, leading to a self-fulfilling prophecy and deviant career.
Functionalism – Cohen – Boys are more likely to form delinquent subcultures because they are more
likely to experience status frustration in their youth. This is because boys underachieve in education
and they are less likely to meet the expectations of their teachers, so seek status in other ways.
Crisis in Masculinity – Men are experiencing high levels of insecurity because women are gaining
power in society and gaining financial independence. This causes men to feel like they have lost their
role as the breadwinner of the family, so the turn to crime to exert their masculinity.
Gender socialisation – Parents teach boys and girls different norms and values for their gender. Girls
are less likely to commit crime as they are socialised into a “bedroom culture”, where they are
encouraged to complete homework in their bedroom. In contrast, boys are allowed to play with toy
guns and action man, so they are taught through canalization to be violent, aggressive and criminal.

You can also link in Heidensohn’s

control theory to support a point
about gender socialisation.

Liberation thesis – This is the idea that now women are increasingly entering the workplace, they
are gaining more opportunities to commit crime.
Ladette culture -The norms and values which control women’s behaviour have changed and it is now
more acceptable for females to binge-drink and get into fights, increasing crime amongst girls.
Feminism – Carlen’s Class and gender deal– Working-class women have been controlled through
the promise of rewards. They make a class deal which means that by working hard they will gain
financial rewards. They make a gender deal for the emotional and material rewards offered by male
breadwinners in return for their love and domestic labour. However, when women do not receive
the rewards of the class or gender deal (e.g unemployment or divorce) they will turn to crime.

Sociologist: Pat Carlen

Theory: Feminism
Methodology: Unstructured interviews with 39 working
class women aged between 15 and 46 in prison.
Key Findings: Working class women are controlled by
the promise that they will receive awards from the class
and gender deal women will make a rational choice to
turn to crime when they do not benefit from the deals
 She used a small sample, so it is not representative of all working class women

She only interviewed women who had gone to prison for their crimes, so it would not
include people who had committed petty crimes

47% of prisoners have no qualifications

Functionalism –Merton’s strain theory - Working class people are more likely to commit
crime because they have less opportunities to legitimately access the culturally defined goals
in society. Therefore, they are likely to respond with innovation, retreatism or rebellion.
Functionalism - Cohen’s subcultural theory – Young working class boys experience status
frustration because they know they are disadvantaged in society. In order to gain status,
they form delinquent subcultures with criminal/deviant norms and values.

Feminism – Carlen – Working class women who do not benefit from the “class deal” commit
crime because they make a rational choice to risk conviction because they believe they have
nothing to lose as their current situation is so bad.

Interactionism – Becker - Working class people are more likely to be labelled as deviant due
to their lack of power, leading to a self-fulfilling prophecy and deviant career.

Marxism/Left-Realism – Relative Deprivation – The working class are more likely to commit
crime because they are deprived in relation to others. The poor see the possessions that
others have and desire to have them, so they resort to criminal activity to gain the goods.
Marxist - Capitalist values - Materialism, consumerism and competition cause the poor to
commit crime because they cannot keep up with the expectations in a capitalist society.

New Right/Right Realism – Cultural deprivation – The working class and the underclass
commit crime due to their different values to the rest of society. This is often due to lone-
parents poorly socialising children. Rather than working hard towards long-term goals, they
value immediate gratification, so they commit crime in order to gain their instant rewards.

Marginalisation – People who are experiencing high levels of poverty or unemployment due
to the unequal structure of our society often commit crime out of frustration and rebellion
towards the government. A good example would be the London Riots.

Locality – People from lower social class backgrounds are more likely to live in urban areas,
where crime rates are much higher. Therefore, the working class are more likely to be
offenders and victims. Crime is more common in urban areas than rural areas because; there
are more opportunities (more things to steal), higher chance of being anonymous (it is busy
and no-one will recognise you), there are higher levels of relative deprivation (cities often
 have very rich people living close to very poor people, but rural areas are generally all
middle class) and there are less community ties (so people don’t feel guilty robbing someone
or causing disruption in the local area).

Statistically black people are more likely to go to prison than a top university
Interactionism – Becker – Ethnic minorities are more likely to experience labelling as they fit the
typical stereotype of a criminal. The people in power have defined the profile of criminals as a
black, working class, young male. Officers within the police force reinforce this stereotype to
each other in their “canteen culture” where they make racist jokes. This impacts their
interpretation of the behaviour of ethnic minorities when they are policing the streets as they
are 8 times more likely to stop and search black people. This shows how the agencies of social
control label this group as deviant, leading to a self-fulfilling prophecy and deviant career.
Functionalism – Merton – Ethnic minorities are more likely to commit crime because they are
more likely to be lower in the social stratification system due to the institutional racism of
employers. Therefore they have less opportunities to legitimately access the culturally defined
goals in society. Therefore, they are likely to respond with innovation, retreatism or rebellion.
Functionalism – Cohen – Ethnic minorities are more likely to form delinquent subcultures
because they are more likely to experience status frustration in their youth. The ethnocentric
nature of the education system means that ethnic minorities feel they are less likely to meet the
expectations of their predominantly white teachers, so seek status in other ways
Marxism/Left Realism – Relative deprivation – Ethnic minorities are more likely to commit
crime because they are often deprived in relation to others. The poor see the possessions that
others have and desire to have them, so they resort to criminal activity to gain the goods.
New Right/Right Realism – Cultural deprivation – Lone parent families have been criticised for
being unable to socialise their children into the correct norms and values of society. 55% of black
families are lone parent, meaning their children are more likely to be culturally deprived. This
causes ethnic minorities to value immediate gratification, commit crime to gain instant rewards.
Marginalisation and Institutional racism – People who are experiencing poverty or
unemployment due to the unequal structure of society often commit crime out of frustration
towards the government. Black people in particular feel that their voices are not represented in
parliament and they are protesting against the institutionally racist nature of British society.

Identify and describe the main ways of measuring crime

Compare and contrast Marxist, Functionalist and Feminist perspectives on data on crime
Describe current patterns and trends in crime figures
Explain the dark figure of crime

Blue collar crime – Crimes with a victim e.g theft, usually committed by working class people
Crime rate - The ratio of crimes in an area per 1000 people in the population per year
Chivalry thesis – When women are treated more leniently by the criminal justice system
Dark figure of crime – Crime which does not appear in data because it has not been recorded,
reported or detected. The BCS estimates that only 31% of crimes are reported and recorded
Official crime stats – Secondary, quantitative data from the government based on police figures
Recorded crime – Crime which has been reported to the police and they have documented
 Reported crime – Crime which the police have been made aware of
Self-report study – A questionnaire completed to reveal which crimes people have committed
Victim survey – An interview where individuals reveal which crimes they have been victims of
White collar crime – Middle class crimes committed on computers e.g fraud

Secondary, quantitative data released by the government, based on police figures of recorded crime

Representative – It covers the whole population

Reliable – Official stats are released every year, so they can be compared to identify patterns
and trends
Patterns and trends – They outline key information e.g areas where crime is particularly
high, social characteristics of criminals etc. This can be used to inform policing (e.g more
officers patrolling the areas where crime is higher)
Secondary data – The data is freely available online and it does not require work from the
sociologist because it has already been collected by the government

The dark figure – Not all crime shows up in official statistics because it is not all reported,
recorded or detected. People may not report crimes such as domestic violence because they
are scared of the consequences. The police may not record crimes such as minor theft
because it is not seen as important enough. Finally, crimes such as tax evasion often go
undetected because there is no victim, so no one can report it to the police.
Low in validity – Official stats cannot explain the causes or impact of crime. No meaning can
be taken from statistics.

A questionnaire completed to reveal which crimes people have committed

Representative – Quick and easy to distribute and analyse, so can be given to a large sample
Anonymous – Participants are likely to be honest because the information is confidential
Uncovers the dark figure – Self-report surveys are particularly useful at uncovering
undetected crimes and those without victims e,g drug taking

Low in validity – People can easily lie

Lacks representativeness – It does not include the homeless, people who live in shared
residences (prison/children’s homes) or children under 10

A face-to-face survey which asks individuals what crimes they have been a victim of. The main
example in the UK is the BCS, which surveys over 11,000 people.

Representative – A very large sample is used

Rapport – Participants are likely to be honest because they are made to feel comfortable
Uncovers the dark figure – Self-report surveys are useful for uncovering unreported crimes
because the victim may find it easier telling the researcher than the police
 Validity – Includes detailed information e.g fear of crime/impact on victim

Low in validity – People can easily lie

Unethical – May cause psychological harm as it can bring back painful memories
Lacks representativeness – It does not include the homeless, people who live in shared
residences (prison/children’s homes) or children under 10

Functionalists are positivists, so the value quantitative data. They believe it is useful because it is
reliable, representative and allows for patterns and trends to be identified. Merton used official
statistics to identify that crime was more common amongst those with lower incomes. This
helped him create the “strain theory” to explain why poorer people would be more likely to
commit crime. However, Functionalists have largely been criticised for seeing official statistics as
“social facts” and believing that they are a valid reflection of society. The Functionalist view that
official stats are valid has been criticised for two main reasons:
The Dark Figure – Functionalists assume that all crime is reported and recorded and
therefore official statistics are a valid reflection of the amount of crime that is committed.
However, the British Crime Survey suggests that 69% of crime is in the dark figure.
Therefore, sociologists should not assume official stats are “social facts”.
The social construction of statistics – This is the idea that individuals in society create the
patterns that we identify in statistics. For example, official stats show that black people are much
more likely to commit crime. However, this could be explained because the police are 8 times
more likely to stop and search black people, so obviously they will be caught more. Therefore
Functionalists should not believe the trends that can be identified in official stats are valid and
really show what they appear to.

Marxists are critical of official statistics because they believe that data is only collected on things
which do not harm those in power. Marxists argue that Corporate Crime and Financial Crimes of
elites are not focused on by the government.

Marxists also believe that the type of crime committed means that middle class criminals are less
likely to be caught than working class. Middle class people are more likely to commit white collar
crimes e.g tax evasion, which is harder to detect because there is no victim. However, blue collar
crimes that the working class commit are much more likely to be reported because they usually
have a victim e.g burglary. This means that working class people are more likely to appear in
official statistics, suggesting they commit more crimes, when it is just reported more.

Marxists argue that statistics showing punishments are also distorted by those in power. Judges
stereotype working class criminals and give them harsher punishments, where as middle class
criminals benefit from the “halo effect” as they are seen as respectable and important to society.
The middle class can also afford to pay for better lawyers to reduce their punishment. Therefore,
official statistics are inaccurate because of the biased treatment in court.

Feminists are also critical of official statistics on crime. They argue that crimes such as domestic
violence and rape are significantly under-reported because women are fearful of the consequences
and question the support they will receive from a patriarchal criminal justice system. It is estimated
that only 15% of rapes are reported and only 5% of reported rapes result in conviction, illustrating
 the inaccuracy of official statistics.

In addition, the way the criminal justice system treats women can impact their appearance in official
statistics. Some feminists argue that women are treated more harshly by the CJS because their crime
is seen as “double deviance” as they have broken the law of society and the norms and values for
their gender. However, other feminists believe women experience the “chivalry thesis” where male
judges are more lenient on women because they see them as vulnerable. Feminists believe that a
woman’s fate is often a result of how well she conforms to the stereotypical respectable housewife
and mother image. Overall, official statistics are not accurate because women’s recorded crimes and
punishments are not always an accurate reflection of reality.

Identify and describe the following public debates: concerns over violent crime, sentencing, the
treatment of young offenders, the prison system and media coverage of crime.

Indictable offence – A serious crime of a violent nature e.g murder

Non-indictable offence – Less serious offences e.g speeding or theft
Violent crimes have risen by 18% in the past year in the UK. Sociologists have argued some
of the reasons could be:
Crisis in Masculinity – Men feel inferior now that women are increasingly gaining power and
independence, therefore they commit violent crime to show off their masculinity
Social Learning Theory – The media is increasingly showing violent content, so young people
are socialised into believing violence is a norm in society and imitating it.
Amplification of Deviance – The media labels youths as carrying knives. This increases the
problem because young people experience a self-fulfilling prophecy where they start to
carry knives in response to the media labelling.
Left Realist view:
Left Realism is made of Marxist sociologists and left wing politicians, such as the Labour party. They
sympathise with criminals and believe that that they are victims of the structures of society. They
believe that the following factors are the main cause of crime:
Relative deprivation – People feel a sense of resentment and jealousy when they have less
money and possessions in relation to others. This frustration causes them to commit crime.
Subcultures – Certain groups are blocked off from the rest of society, so they can form sub-
culture who have criminal/deviant norms and values to cope.
Marginalisation - Certain groups in society experience more political, economic and social
deprivation. Therefore, they feel segregated from society and have no voice. In response to
feeling powerless, they commit crime.
Left Realist solutions to violent crime:
This is a quotation from the 2017 Labour Party Manifesto “Our prisons are too often dumping
grounds for people who need treatment more than they need punishment. Labour will insist on
personal rehabilitation plans for all prisoners and review the mental health and drug treatment
services support to improve the support. Labour have turned round the lives of many young people,
steering them away from crime and toward a better life. In government, we will ensure local
 authorities, police forces and probation services to engage effectively with young people at risk of
drifting into anti-social or criminal behaviours. We will embed restorative justice practices across all
youth offending institutions.”
Right Realist views:
Right realism is made up of New Right sociologists (Charles Murray!) and right wing politicians, such
as the Conservative Party. They believe that crime is the fault of the criminal and the following
factors are the main cause of crime:
Underclass – Criminals are usually people who have no desire to work legally
Norms and Values – They are not socialised adequately as they are often from lone-parent
families and therefore have little moral regard for others
Broken windows – Crime starts out small in an area, but begins to develop and becomes a
larger problem. Right realists believe an abandoned building could have a broken window,
then people would graffiti around it, this would become a meeting place for gangs, driving
the middle class people out of the surrounding streets. One broken window would result in
an area populated by the underclass, who are engaging in drugs, prostitution and violence.
Right Realist solutions to violent crime:
Right realists propose two solutions to reducing violent crime:
Harsher punishments: They believe that criminals are less likely to offend if they fear the
threat of a serious punishment. Therefore, Theresa May has indicated she will invest
£1billion creating more prison space.
Zero tolerance: This is the idea that very small crimes should be punished harshly and to
prevent this from escalating to greater crimes. Currently individuals have to be caught
carrying a knife twice to be prosecuted, but right realists are petitioning to make it just once.

Criminal justice system – The group of institutions who maintain formal social control
Injustice – An unfair act where someone’s rights are violated
Judiciary – The term used to describe judges – the authority in a court
Law – A formal rule which defines criminal behaviour and can result in punishment if broken
Legislation – Laws made by the government
Legislative process – The process of passing a law through government
Legislature – The group of people who have the authority to create a law e.g government
Magistrate – The equivalent of a judge in a court which deals with minor crimes
Right of appeal – When a convicted criminal can ask for a higher court to review the
sentence if the convict believes the decision is unfair or an injustice

This is the process of sentencing:

Legislation is created
Someone breaks the law
They are arrested
They are charged as suspected of committing a crime
Most people will attend a hearing at a Magistrate court
They will either “plead guilty” or “not guilty” to the crime
Both sides will present their case
The panel of Magistrates will decide if the defendant is guilty or not guilty
The sentence will be decided for the conviction. This may be a custodial sentence, where the
convict goes into prison, or they may be on probation, which is where they serve a sentence
in the community e.g volunteer work.
 The criminal can appeal their conviction or sentence

Anti-social behaviour – Actions which are deviant and cause annoyance to others in the
community
Community service – Unpaid work in the community that an offender is required to do as
part of their sentence. The idea is to repay the community for the damage they caused.
Police caution – An alternative to a formal sanction – a record is kept, but no punishment
Probation system – When a convicted criminal has to regularly check in with an officer and
meet certain conditions, as an alternative to being in prison.
Youth crime – Crime committed by juveniles (under the age of 18)

These are some of the options for young offenders when they have been convicted:

Fine – This is when they are required to pay an amount of money to compensate for their
offence. This could be directly to a victim or to repair damage etc. The fine will reflect the
offence committed and the offender’s ability to pay. For offenders under 16, the fine is the
responsibility of a parent.
The victim receives compensation
This does not tackle the issue causing the crime, so reoffending is likely
Referral order/Youth rehabilitation order – This requires the offender to agree to a contract of
commitments, which will last between three months and a year. The aim is for the offender to
make up for the harm caused and address their offending behaviour e.g through community
service. They may also be required to meet certain conditions e.g drug/mental health treatment.

This tackles the problem and aims to rehabilitate the criminal, whilst benefiting the community
It is expensive for the government to conduct the treatment
Custodial sentences – This is when a person is kept in custody (similar to prison) so it is for the
most serious cases. When they are given, they aim to provide training and education and
rehabilitate the offender so they don’t reoffend. Sentences can be spent in secure children’s
homes, secure training centres and young offender institutions.
Young people are kept away from potential criminal situations – keeping society safe
This is seen as very harsh for young people and can cause mental health issues
ASBO – People over the age of 10 receive this for acting anti-socially. This includes: Drunken or
threatening behaviour, vandalism and graffiti or playing loud music at night. Getting
an ASBO means certain things will not be permitted e.g going to a particular area or staying
out after 9pm. An ASBO will last for at least 2 years.
This made the community feel safer
The government scrapped these because they became a “badge of honour”

Caution - A police caution is a formal alternative to prosecution in minor cases. The idea is that
the small offence is recorded, but no punishment exists. The purpose is to make sure the police
are aware of the past behaviour if future offences occur, but the caution is believed to be
enough to prevent this from happening.
This gives youths a second chance
 They may not take it seriously

Restorative justice – This allows victims and offenders to meet in order to host a conversation
where they can share their view, attempt to repair the harm and find a positive way forward.
This can give the victim closure and allow the offender to realise the harm they caused
It may be traumatic for the victim

Advantages of prisons – Society is protected from dangerous people, criminals can received the
rehabilitation treatment that they need, it acts as a deterrent because other people will not commit
crimes if they fear the consequence will be prison.
Disadvantages of prison – It causes mental health issues (46% of women in prison have attempted
suicide), reoffending rates are high (59% of people with a sentence less than 12 months reoffend),
prisons are overcrowding, it costs the government too much to maintain

Agenda setting – When the media has a motive behind the way that they present a story
Corporate crime – Crimes committed by a company e.g tax evasion
Deviancy amplification – When the media exaggerate an issue in the media and this leads to
more of the deviance happening
Folk devils – A group who are presented negatively in the media eg youths
Fundamentalism – Religious believers that are extreme and take holy texts very literally
Identity theft – A white collar crime where a criminal uses the victim’s personal details to
steal money through their bank account
Moral panic – When the media causes the public to be concerned about a social issue and
demand the government act upon it
News value – How important or interesting a news story is to the public
Pluralism – The idea the media is own by lots of different companies, creating a competitive
market, with a variety of perspectives represented
Propaganda – When the media sends hidden messages to consumers
Scapegoat – When the media blames a certain group for the problems in society
Terrorism – Groups or individuals who take violent action with a political or religious aim
Welfare scrounger/benefit cheat – People who claim benefits without genuine entitlement
Marxist view

Benefits capitalism – Marxists believe that the bourgeoise own the media and use it to
ideologically control members of society. They argue that the media uses propaganda to
manipulate the opinions of the public. Marxists use the term “agenda setting” to explain
how the media can present stories in a certain way to reflect positively on the government.
They can also scapegoat lower status social groups for the problems in society. For example,
the media might release stories about how much money benefit cheats are costing the
government to blame them for the cuts they have had to made to public spending
(education, NHS etc), so that the public do not blame them. This benefits capitalism because
it ensures that members of society do not challenge the state.
Representations of social groups – Marxists believe that the media reinforces negative
stereotypes of certain social groups e.g “Muslims are terrorists” etc. They use the term “folk
 devil” to explain how the media stigmatises them. This can lead to a moral panic in society,
because the public become fearful of the folk devils and demand the government acts.
Types of crime – The media is much more likely to report on blue collar, working class
crimes than it is the middle class, white collar crimes. The media is owned by the
bourgeoisie, so it is not within their interests to highlight the white collar and corporate
crimes that have been committed by the elite. However, when they publish stories about
racially aggravated violent crime, they know they are dividing the working class and
preventing them uniting and revolting against them.

Pluralist view

Newsworthy – Pluralists believe that there are many different companies that own the media and
they are all in competition with each other. This is beneficial for society because it prevents the
powerful people having control over what the public see and do not see and allows for a variety of
perspectives to be represented. In order to gain more viewers/readers, media companies decide to
publish what they think has the highest news value in order to make more profit. Our society are
very interested in reading about fundamentalist terrorist groups, gang violence, shaming people who
have been folk devils e.g benefit cheats etc, so these are often on the front page of newspapers.
However, the public are less interested in reading stories about identity theft, fraud or corporate
crime because it is less newsworthy, so papers are less likely to print middle class crime.

Does media coverage cause crime to increase?

Yes No
Amplification of deviance – The media Informal social control – Campaigns in the media e.g
can cause problems such as knife crime anti-knife adverts socialise individuals into the norms
to increase because they label young and values of society, reminding them that violence is
people as using them and then more deviant and criminal in our society
youths decide to carry them for Degradation ceremonies – Publicly naming and
protection. shaming criminals acts a deterrent because it reminds
Social learning theory – Young people people of the punishments, so media coverage
are socialised into believing that violence actually decreases crime
is a norm and imitate the behaviour they Social solidarity – Media coverage of crime (usually
see in the media. terrorists or child abusers) causes society to unite
Labelling – Certain groups are labelled against criminals and further reinforce the sense of
and presented as folk devils. This can community and value consensus, so people do not
lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy. want to commit crime

96% of the prison population are male

47% of prisoners have no qualifications
The peak age of offending is 17
Black people are more likely to go prison than a top university
Only 4% of the police force are ethnic minorities
The police are 8 times more likely to stop and search black people
It is estimated that only 15% of rapes are reported to the police
Only 5% of reported rapes result in conviction
 It is estimated that only 31% of criminal acts are recorded or reported to the police
46% of women in prison have attempted suicide
Corporate crime of tax evasion costs the UK £70 billion
Benefit cheats have cost the government £1.2 billion

The crime rate in the past year:

Reported crime has increased by 10%
Murder by 9%
Sexual offences by 14%
Robbery by 16%
Violent crime has risen by 18%
Knife crime has increased by 20%
Identity theft by 57%

Why don’t you create a mind map on each

topic in crime?
1. Social construction of C&D
2. Social control
3. Criminal and deviant behaviour
4. Data on crime
5. Public debates

The social construction of crime and deviance

1. Identify and describe one example of a criminal stereotype [3]

2. Identify and describe one example of deviance [3]
3. Identify what is meant by the social construction of crime and explain the role the police
play in this process [4]
4. Discuss how far sociologists would agree that the structures in society cause criminal
behaviour [12]

Social control

1. Identify and describe one example of an unwritten rule [3]

2. Identify and describe one sanction used by an agent of formal social control [3]
3. Identify one agency of informal social control and explain how they influence individuals to
conform [4]
4. Identify and explain one reason women commit less crime than men according to
Heidensohn including what you know about her perspective on crime [4]
5. Discuss how far sociologists would agree that shared norms and values are the main reason
individuals do not commit crime and deviance [12]
6. Discuss how far sociologists would agree that agencies of formal social control are most
effective in ensuring society conforms [12]
 7. Discuss how far sociologists would agree that all social groups experience the same levels of
social control [12]

Criminal and deviance behaviour

1. Identify one social group that are likely to commit crime and explain the reasons for this [4]
2. Identify one feature of a delinquent subculture and explain why individuals may choose to
join one [4]
3. Identify one reason why women commit less crime than men and explain why this may be
changing [4]
4. Discuss how far sociologists would agree that an individual’s social class has the biggest
influence on their likelihood to commit crime [12]
5. Discuss how far sociologists would agree that men continue to commit more crime than
women [12]

Public debates

1. Identify and describe one example of a moral panic [3]

2. Identify and describe one way that young offenders can be sanctioned [3]
3. Identify one way that the media can influence criminal behaviour and explain the impact of
this [4]
4. Discuss how far sociologists would agree that prisons are an effective form of punishment
[12]
5. Discuss how far sociologists would agree that media representations of crime increase the
overall level of crime in society [12]

Data on crime

1. Identify and describe one example of unreported crime [3]

2. Identify one source of data on crime and why this may be useful for sociologists [4]
3. Identify one way that sociologists can measure crime and explain why this might not
give an accurate picture of the level of crime [4]
4. Discuss how far sociologists would agree that official statistics fail to show an
accurate picture of crime [12]
5. Discuss how far sociologists would agree that official crime statistics are the most
effective way to measure crime levels [12]