Methods of Data Collection

Dr. Shabeer S Iqbal, PhD

Principal
Lisie College of Allied Health Sciences. Cochin
 INTRODUCTION
 Any observation collected in respect of any characteristic or event is
called data.
 Data can be define as the quantitative or qualitative value of a
variable (e.g. number, images, words, figures, facts or ideas)
 It is a lowest unit of information from which other measurements and
analysis can be done.
 Data is one of the most important and vital aspect of any research
study.
 The task of data collection begins after a research problem has been
defined and research design/ plan chalked out.
 Sources of Data

External Internal
sources sources

Primary Secondary
data data
Internal & External Sources of Data

Internal sources External sources

o Many institutions and o When information is collected

departments have information from outside agencies is called
about their regular functions,for external sources of data.
their own internal purposes.
o Such types of data are either
primary or secondary.
o When those information are
used in any survey is called
internal sources of data. o This type of information can be
collected by census or sampling
method by conducting survey.
o Eg…social welfare socities.
 Primary Data
 Data that has been collected from first-hand experiences/afresh
is known as primary data.

 It has more reliable,authentic and not been published anywhere.

 Primary data has not been changed or altered by human

being,therefore its validity is greater than secondary data.
 Primary Data
Merits
Demerits
Targeted issued are
addressed
Evaluated cost
Data interpretation is better
Time consuming

High accuracy of data

More number of resources
are required
Address as specific
research issues Required lot of skill with
labour
Greater control
 Direct
Personal
Investigation
(i.e. interview
method)
Indirect oral
Investigation investigation
through (i.e. through
observation Methods of enumerators)
collecting
primary data

Investigation Investigation
through through local
mailed reporters
questionnaire questionnaire
Effective way Involves verbal
of gathering and non-verbal
information communications

INTERVIEW

Can be conducted
1. face to face, 2. by telephone,
3. online or through mail
 Steps To An Effective Interview
Prepare your interview schedule

Select your subjects/ key informants

Conduct the interview

Analyze and interpret data collected from the interview

  TYPES OF INTERVIEWS

 PERSONAL INTERVIEWS

 Structured

 Unstructured

 Focussed

 Non Directive

 TELEPHONE INTERVIEWS
  1. PERSONAL INTERVIEWS

 It requires a person known as the interviewer asking questions

generally in a face-to-face contact to the other person or persons.

 At times the interviewer may also ask certain questions and the

responder responds to these, but usually the interviewer initiates the

interview and collects the information.

 Personal interviews may be direct/indirect oral investigation.

 Direct personal investigation

 The interviewer has to collect the information personally from the

sources concerned.

 He has to be on the spot and has to meet people from whom data
have to be collected.

 This method is particularly suitable for intensive investigations.

  Indirect oral examination

 Can be conducted under which the interviewer has to cross-

examine other persons who are supposed to have knowledge
about the problem under investigation and the information,
obtained is recorded.

 Most of the commissions and committees appointed by

government to carry on investigations make use of this method.
  Structured interviews:

 involve the use of a set of predetermined questions and of highly

standardised techniques of recording.

 Thus, the interviewer in a structured interview follows a rigid

procedure laid down, asking questions in a form and order
prescribed

 More commonly use in descriptive studies

  Unstructured interviews:

 flexible, do not follow a system of pre-determined questions and

standardised techniques of recording information.

 The interviewer is allowed much greater freedom to ask, in case of

need, supplementary questions or at times he may omit certain
questions if the situation so requires.

 He may even change the sequence of questions.

 He has relatively greater freedom while recording the responses to

include some aspects and exclude others.
 But this sort of flexibility results in lack of comparability of one interview with

another

 And the analysis of unstructured responses becomes much more difficult and

time-consuming than that of the structured responses obtained in case of

structured interviews.

 Unstructured interviews also demand deep knowledge and greater skill on the

part of the interviewer.

 Unstructured interview, however, happens to be the central technique of

collecting information in case of exploratory or formulative research studies


  Focussed interview:

 To confine the respondent to a discussion of issues with which he

seeks conversance

 Clinical interview is concerned with broad underlying feelings or

motivations or with the course of individual’s life experience.

 The method of eliciting information under it is generally left to

the interviewer’s discretion.
  Non-directive interview:

 The interviewer’s function is simply to encourage the respondent

to talk about the given topic with a bare minimum of direct
questioning.

 The interviewer often acts as a catalyst to a comprehensive

expression of the respondents’ feelings and beliefs
  MERITS OF PERSONAL INTERVIEW METHOD

 More information and that too in greater depth can be obtained.

 Interviewer by his own skill can overcome the resistance, if any, of the
respondents;

 There is greater flexibility under this method as the opportunity to

restructure questions is always there, specially in case of unstructured
interviews.

 Can record verbal answers to various questions.

 Personal information can as well be obtained easily under this method.

 Samples can be controlled more effectively as there arises no difficulty
of the missing returns; non-response generally remains very low.

 The interviewer can usually control which person(s) will answer the
questions. This is not possible in mailed questionnaire approach. If so
desired, group discussions may also be held.

 The language of the interview can be adopted to the ability or

educational level of the person interviewed and as such
misinterpretations concerning questions can be avoided.

 The interviewer can collect supplementary information about the

respondent’s personal characteristics and environment which is often of
great value in interpreting results.
 DEMERITS OF PERSONAL INTERVIEW METHOD

 Very expensive and time consuming method, specially when large

and widely spread geographical sample is taken.

 There remains the possibility of the bias of interviewer as well as that

of the respondent; there also remains the headache of supervision
and control of interviewers.

 Certain types of respondents such as important officials or

executives or people in high income groups may not be easily
approachable under this method and to that extent the data may
prove inadequate.
 The presence of the interviewer on the spot may over-stimulate
the respondent

 Effective interview presupposes proper rapport with

respondents that would facilitate free and frank responses. This
is often a very difficult requirement

 Under the interview method the organisation required for

selecting, training and supervising the field-staff is more
complex with formidable problems.
  2. TELEPHONE INTERVIEWS:

 Contacting respondents on telephone itself.

 Not very widely used, but plays important part in industrial surveys
 The chief merits of such a system are:

1. It is more flexible in comparison to mailing method.

2. It is faster than other methods i.e., a quick way of obtaining
information.
3. It is cheaper than personal interviewing method
4. Recall is easy; call backs are simple and economical.
5. Representative and wider distribution of sample is possible.
6. There is a higher rate of response than what we have in
mailing method; the non-response is generally very low.

7. Replies can be recorded without causing embarrassment to

respondents.

8. Interviewer can explain requirements more easily.

9. At times, access can be gained to respondents who otherwise

cannot be contacted for one reason or the other.

10. No field staff is required.

  Demerits of telephone interview

 Little time is given to respondents for considered answers;

interview period is not likely to exceed five minutes in most cases.
 Surveys are restricted to respondents who have telephone
facilities.
 Extensive geographical coverage may get restricted by cost
considerations.
 It is not suitable for intensive surveys where comprehensive
answers are required to various questions.
 Possibility of the bias of the interviewer is relatively more.
 Questions have to be short and to the point; probes are difficult
to handle.
 Observe verbal &
non-verbal communication, Need to keep
surrounding atmosphere, meticulous records of
culture & situation the observations

Observations

Can be done through discussions,

observations of habits, rituals,
review of documentation,
experiments
 Steps To An Effective Observation
Determine what needs to be observed
(Plan, prepare checklist, how to record data)

Select your participants

Random/Selected

Conduct the observation

(venue, duration, recording materials, take photographs )

Compile data collected

Analyze and interpret data collected

 TYPES OF OBSERVATIONS

 Structured
 Disguised
 Unstructured
 Controlled
 Participant
 Uncontrolled
 Non Participant
 In case the observation is characterised by a careful definition of
the units to be observed, the style of recording the observed
information, standardised conditions of observation and the
selection of pertinent data of observation, then the observation is
called as structured observation.

 But when observation is to take place without these characteristics

to be thought of in advance, the same is termed as unstructured
observation
 If the observer observes by making himself, more or less, a member
of the group he is observing so that he can experience what the
members of the group experience, the observation is called as the
participant observation.

 But when the observer observes as a detached emissary without

any attempt on his part to experience through participation what
others feel, the observation of this type is often termed as non-
participant observation.

 When the observer is observing in such a manner that his presence

may be unknown to the people he is observing, such an
observation is described as disguised (Hidden)observation.
 If the observation takes place in the natural setting, it may be
termed as uncontrolled observation

 Here, no attempt is made to use precision instruments.

 The major aim of this type of observation is to get a spontaneous

picture of life and persons.

 It has a tendency to supply naturalness and completeness of

behaviour, allowing sufficient time for observing it.
 When observation takes place according to definite pre-
arranged plans, involving experimental procedure, the same is
then termed controlled observation

 Here, we use mechanical (or precision) instruments as aids to

accuracy and standardisation.

 Such observation has a tendency to supply formalised data

upon which generalisations can be built with some degree of
assurance
 The most common Useful to collect
data collection instrument quantitative and qualitative
information

Survey
Questionnaire

Should contain 3 elements:

1. Introduction – to explain the objectives
2. Instructions – must be clear, simple language & short
3. User-friendly – avoid difficult or ambiguous questions
 Data collection through survey questionnaire is quite popular, particularly
in case of big enquiries.

 It is being adopted by private individuals, research workers, private and

public organisations and even by governments.

 In this method a questionnaire is sent (by post/ mail) to the persons

concerned with a request to answer the questions and return the
questionnaire.

 A questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed or typed in a

definite order on a form or set of forms.
 Respondents are expected to read and understand the questions and write
down the reply in the space meant for the purpose in the questionnaire itself.

 The respondents have to answer the questions on their own.

 Before using this method, it is always advisable to conduct ‘pilot study’ (Pilot
Survey) for testing the questionnaires

 Such a survey, being conducted by experts, brings to the light the weaknesses
(if any) of the questionnaires and also of the survey techniques.

 From the experience gained in this way, improvement can be effected

  MERITS

 There is low cost even when the universe is large and is widely spread
geographically

 It is free from the bias of the interviewer; answers are in respondents’ own
words.

 Respondents have adequate time to give well thought out answers.

 Respondents, who are not easily approachable, can also be reached

conveniently.

 Large samples can be made use of and thus the results can be made
more dependable and reliable.
 DEMERITS

 Low rate of return of the duly filled in questionnaires

 Can be used only when respondents are educated and cooperating.

 The control over questionnaire may be lost once it is sent.

 There is inbuilt inflexibility because of the difficulty of amending the

approach once questionnaires have been despatched.

 There is also the possibility of ambiguous replies or omission of replies

altogether to certain questions; interpretation of omissions is difficult.

 It is difficult to know whether willing respondents are truly representative.

 This method is likely to be the slowest of all.

 MAIN ASPECTS OF A QUESTIONNAIRE

 Quite often questionnaire is considered as the heart of a survey

operation.
 Hence it should be very carefully constructed. If it is not properly
set up, then the survey is bound to fail

 Three main aspects of a questionnaire

 1. General form
 2. Question sequence
 3. Question formulation and wording
 1. General form: either be structured or unstructured questionnaire.

 Structured questionnaire
 In which there are definite, concrete and pre-determined questions.

 The questions are presented with exactly the same wording and in the
same order to all respondents.
 Ensure that all respondents reply to the same set of questions

 Either open or closed; should be stated in advance

 All answers are specified and comments in the respondent’s own words
are held to the minimum

 Structured questionnaires are simple to administer and relatively

inexpensive to analyse.
 When the characteristics of structured questionnaires are not present
in a questionnaire, it can be termed as unstructured or non-structured
questionnaire.

 The interviewer is provided with a general guide on the type of

information to be obtained, but the exact question formulation is
largely his own responsibility

 Replies are to be taken down in the respondent’s own words to the

extent possible; in some situations tape recorders may be used to
achieve this goal

 On the basis of the results obtained in pre-test (testing before final use)
operations from the use of unstructured questionnaires, one can
construct a structured questionnaire for use in the main study
  2. Question sequence:
 Must be clear and smoothly-moving

 The relation of one question to another should be readily apparent to the

respondent

 Questions that are easiest to answer being put in the beginning.

 The first few questions are particularly important because they are likely to
influence the attitude of the respondent and in seeking his desired
cooperation

 Following the opening questions, we should have questions that are really vital
to the research problem and a connecting thread should run through
successive questions
 Relatively difficult questions must be relegated towards the end so that
even if the respondent decides not to answer such questions, considerable
information would have already been obtained

 Thus, question-sequence should usually go from the general to the more

specific and the researcher must always remember that the answer to a
given question is a function not only of the question itself, but of all previous
questions as well
  3. Question formulation and wording
 Must be very clear for any sort of misunderstanding can do irreparable
harm to a survey.

 Impartial in order not to give a biased picture of the true state of affairs

 Should be easily understood

 should be simple

 Should be concrete and should follow as much as possible to the

respondent’s way of thinking
 Basic Types of survey questions:

1. Open-ended Questions 1. Close-ended Questions

 Inviting Free-response i.e., of the type ‘yes’ or ‘no

 Can Fill-in relevant 1. Dichotomous question

information 2. Multiple-choice
3. Rank
4. Scale
5. Categorical
6. Numerical
 Steps To An Effective Survey Questionnaire
Prepare your survey questions
(Formulate & choose types of questions, order them, write instructions, make copies)

Select your respondents/sampling

Random/Selected

Administer the survey questionnaire

(date, venue, time )

Tabulate data collected

(Statistical analysis-frequency/mean/correlation/% )

Analyze and interpret data collected

 OTHER METHODS OF PRIMARY DATA COLLECTION
1. Warranty card
2. Distributor or store
3. Pantry audits
4. Consumer panels
[Link] of mechanical devices:
camera, audiometer, recorder etc..
6. Projective techniques ( Indirect interviewing techniques)-
psychologist
7. Depth interviews
8. Content-analysis
 Secondary Data
 Secondary data are those that have already been collected by
others.

 These are usually in journals, periodicals, research publication

,official record etc.

 Secondary data may be available in the published or

unpublished form.
 When it is not possible to collect the data by primary
method,the investigator go for secondary method.
 Method of collection secondary data
International/
Government

Federal agencies,
Published NIH etc.
Sources
Hospitals/clinics

Unpublished
Institutional/
sources commercial

Secondary data should be used by the researcher only when he finds them
reliable, suitable and adequate
 Secondary Data
Demerits
Merits No fulfill our specific
research needs
Quick, cheap source,
save money & time Poor accuracy

Wider geographical area Data are not up to date/

outdated

Leading to find primary

Poor accessibility in some
data cases
Difference b/w primary and secondary data
Primary data Secondary data

 Real time data  Past data

 Not sure about of sources
 Sure about sources of data
of data
 Help to give results/ finding  Refining the problem
 Costly and time consuming  Cheap and no time
process consuming process
 Avoid biasness of response  Can not know in data
data biasness or not
 Less flexible
 More flexible
SELECTION OF APPROPRIATE METHOD FOR DATA COLLECTION

 Factors should consider while selecting method for data

collection are as follows:-

 1. Nature, scope and object of enquiry

 2. Availability of funds

 3. Time factor

 4. Precision required

 One must always remember that each method of data

collection has its uses and none is superior in all situations