📚📚📚📚📚📚📚📚📚📚📚📚📚📚📚📚📚📚📚Unit 3:Programming and data structure

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*****************TOPICS ********************************************
**** Unit 3:Programming and data structure COMPUTER SCIENCE STET +TRE ONE
LINERS FOR STET preparation one line all chapters 200 all points explain in
basic to advance in details for competative exam with all importants points in
hinglish

Unit 3:Programming and data structure

 Data and number systems;Binary, Octal and Hexa decimal representation and
their conversions ;BCD,ASCII, EBDIC, Gray codes and their conversions;
Signed binary number representation with 1’s and 2’s complement methods,
Binary arithmetic. Venn diagram, Boolean algebra; Various Logic gates-their
truth tables and circuits; Representation in SOP and POS BASED FOR STET
preparation one line all chapters 200 all points explain in basic to advance in
details for competative exam with all importants points in hinglish

isme importants points ko hinglish mai btaaa in easy way jo maine diya hai usi
mai se
🟢 🟢 🟢 🟢 🟢 🟢 🟢 🟢 🟢 🟢 🟢 🟢 🟢 🟢Unit 3:Programming and data structure
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Unit 3: Programming and Data Structure – One-liner Notes (Hinglish)

***Basics: Data & Information:---

Data → Raw facts and figures, िबना meaning के (e.g., 25, “ABC”)।
Entity → कोई real-world object (e.g., Student, Car)।
Information → Processed data with meaning (e.g., Student name + marks = Result)।
Difference (Data vs Information) → Data = input, Information = meaningful
output।
Example: "50" = Data, "50 marks out of 100" = Information।

*****Data Types:--------
Data Type → Variable म store होने वाले data का type।
Built-in Data Types (Primitive) → int, float, char, double, bool।
Integer (int) → Whole numbers (e.g., 10, -20)।
Float/Double → Decimal values (e.g., 10.5)।
Character (char) → Single symbol (e.g., ‘A’, ‘b’)।
Boolean (bool) → True/False values।
Void → No value return करता है ।
Derived Data Types → Array, Pointer, Structure, Union।
Abstract Data Type (ADT) → Data structure + allowed operations (e.g., Stack,
Queue, List)।
Why ADT important? → Implementation hide करके िसफ functionality define करता है ।

***Data Structures – Basics:-----

Data Structure → Organizing data efficiently in memory।
Classification → Linear & Non-linear।
Linear Data Structure → Elements sequential (e.g., Array, Linked List)।
Non-Linear Data Structure → Hierarchical (e.g., Tree, Graph)।
Static Data Structure → Size fix (e.g., Array)।
Dynamic Data Structure → Size changeable (e.g., Linked List)।
Operations on DS → Traversing, Insertion, Deletion, Searching, Sorting, Merging।
Efficiency Measure → Time Complexity & Space Complexity।
Best Case → Minimum steps required।
Worst Case → Maximum steps required।

*****Arrays:---------------
Array → Collection of elements of same type।
1-D Array → Linear arrangement (e.g., marks[5])।
2-D Array → Matrix form (e.g., int A[3][3])।
Array Index → Starting from 0 in most languages।
Array Traversal → Accessing each element one by one।
Advantages of Array → Fast access using index।
Disadvantages of Array → Fixed size, costly insertion/deletion।
Applications → Matrix operations, Searching, Sorting।
Jagged Array → Different row lengths allowed।
Multidimensional Array → More than 2 dimensions।
Strings (Special Array of Characters)
String → Collection of characters ending with NULL (‘\0’)।
String Functions in C → strlen, strcpy, strcat, strcmp।
String Traversal → Each character check करना।
Immutable Strings → Java म strings change नहीं होते।
Mutable Strings → C/C++ म modifiable होते ह।

****Linked List:-----
Linked List → Dynamic data structure using nodes।
Node → Data + Pointer field।
Singly Linked List → Each node next node को point करता है ।
Doubly Linked List → Previous और Next दोनों pointers रखते ह।
Circular Linked List → Last node first node को point करता है ।
Advantages of Linked List → Dynamic size, easy insertion/deletion।
Disadvantages → Sequential access only, extra memory for pointer।
Applications → Stack, Queue, Memory management।
Head Pointer → Linked list का starting point।
NULL Pointer → Last node का next = NULL।

*****Stack (LIFO – Last In First Out):--------------------

Stack → Linear DS जहाँ last inserted element सबसे पहले remove होता है ।
Operations → Push (insert), Pop (delete), Peek/Top (last element दे खना)।
Overflow → जब stack full हो और नया element डाल।
Underflow → जब stack empty हो और pop कर।
Implementation → Array या Linked List से।
Applications → Function call, Recursion, Undo in editor, Expression evaluation।
Infix Expression → Normal form (A+B)।
Prefix Expression (Polish Notation) → Operator पहले (+AB)।
Postfix Expression (Reverse Polish) → Operator बाद म (AB+)।
Stack useful → Conversion between Infix ↔ Prefix/Postfix।

****Queue (FIFO – First In First Out):------

Queue → Linear DS जहाँ पहला element पहले remove होता है ।
Operations → Enqueue (insert), Dequeue (delete), Front & Rear pointers।
Overflow in Queue → जब queue full हो।
Underflow → जब queue empty हो।
Circular Queue → Rear circularly front को connect करता है ।
Deque (Double Ended Queue) → दोनों ends से insertion और deletion।
Priority Queue → Elements priority के basis पर delete होते ह।
Implementation → Array और Linked List से।
Applications → Printer scheduling, CPU scheduling, Call center system।
Queue vs Stack → Queue FIFO है , Stack LIFO है ।

*****Searching:------------
Searching → िकसी data item को find करने की ि या।
Linear Search → Elements को एक-एक करके check करना।
Time Complexity (Linear Search) → O(n)।
Binary Search → Sorted array पर काम करता है ।
Binary Search Process → Middle element check → left/right half।
Binary Search Complexity → O(log n)।
Interpolation Search → Key के position को estimate करके search।
Best Search → Sorted array के िलए Binary Search।
Hashing → Direct index calculation using hash function।
Collision Handling → Chaining, Open Addressing।

*****Sorting:----
Sorting → Elements को ascending या descending order म arrange करना।
Bubble Sort → Adjacent elements compare & swap।
Time Complexity (Bubble) → O(n²)।
Selection Sort → Minimum element choose करके सही जगह रखना।
Time Complexity (Selection) → O(n²)।
Insertion Sort → Elements को एक-एक करके sorted list म insert करना।
Time Complexity (Insertion) → O(n²), लेिकन small input पर fast।
Merge Sort → Divide and Conquer method।
Time Complexity (Merge) → O(n log n)।
Quick Sort → Pivot element choose करके partition करना।
Time Complexity (Quick) → Average O(n log n), Worst O(n²)।
Heap Sort → Heap tree का use करता है ।
Time Complexity (Heap Sort) → O(n log n)।
Radix Sort → Digit by digit sorting (non-comparison sort)।
Counting Sort → Frequency count based sorting।
Best Sorting for Large Input → Merge Sort, Quick Sort।
Stable Sort → Equal keys order maintain (Bubble, Merge)।
Unstable Sort → Equal keys order change (Selection, Quick)।
Internal Sorting → Data memory म sort होता है ।
External Sorting → Data secondary storage म sort होता है ।

***** Tree:-----
Tree → Hierarchical DS with root and child nodes।
Root Node → Starting node of tree।
Leaf Node → Node with no child।
Degree of Node → Number of children।
Height of Tree → Longest path root to leaf।
Binary Tree → ेक node के max 2 children होते ह।
Strict Binary Tree → हर node के या तो 0 या 2 children।
Complete Binary Tree → All levels full except last।
Full Binary Tree → All nodes have 0 or 2 children।
Binary Search Tree (BST) → Left < Root < Right property।
Traversal Types → Preorder, Inorder, Postorder, Level Order।
Preorder → Root → Left → Right।
Inorder → Left → Root → Right।
Postorder → Left → Right → Root।
Level Order → Breadth First Traversal।
AVL Tree → Self-balancing BST।
B-Tree → Database indexing के िलए used।
B+ Tree → Leaf nodes linked (faster access)।
Heap Tree → Complete binary tree with heap property।
Applications of Tree → Compiler, Searching, File system।

*******Graph:-----
Graph → Collection of nodes (vertices) & edges।
Directed Graph (Digraph) → Edges के direction होते ह।
Undirected Graph → Edges म direction नहीं।
Weighted Graph → Edges म weights होते ह।
Adjacency Matrix → 2D array से graph representation।
Adjacency List → Linked list से representation।
Degree of Vertex → Incident edges count।
Path in Graph → Sequence of vertices with edges।
Cycle → Starting और ending vertex same।
Connected Graph → हर vertex accessible है ।
DFS (Depth First Search) → Depth तक जाना।
BFS (Breadth First Search) → Level by level traversal।
Applications of DFS → Maze solving, Topological sort।
Applications of BFS → Shortest path, Networking।
Minimum Spanning Tree (MST) → All vertices connect with min weight।
Kruskal’s Algorithm → Greedy method MST find करता है ।
Prim’s Algorithm → Start from one node → add min edges।
Dijkstra’s Algorithm → Shortest path algorithm।
Bellman-Ford Algorithm → Shortest path with negative weights।
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm → All-pairs shortest path।

*****Advanced Concepts:------
Recursion → Function calling itself।
Tail Recursion → Recursive call last म हो।
Backtracking → All possibilities check करना (e.g., N-Queens)।
Dynamic Programming → Overlapping subproblems reuse करना।
Greedy Algorithm → Local optimum choice से global optimum।
Hash Table → Fast data access using hash function।
Collision → जब दो keys same index द।
Chaining → Linked list से collision handle।
Open Addressing → Linear probing, Quadratic probing।
Graph Coloring → Vertices को min colors assign करना।

******Advanced Graph Concepts:----

Topological Sorting → Directed Acyclic Graph (DAG) का linear ordering।
Applications of Topological Sort → Task scheduling, Compiler design।
Strongly Connected Graph → हर vertex से हर vertex reachable।
Weakly Connected Graph → Direction ignore करने पर connected।
Bridge (Cut Edge) → Removal से graph disconnect हो जाए।
Articulation Point (Cut Vertex) → Removal से graph disconnect हो जाए।
Euler Path → हर edge exactly once visit होता है ।
Euler Circuit → Euler Path जो same vertex पर end हो।
Hamiltonian Path → हर vertex exactly once visit होता है ।
Hamiltonian Circuit → Hamiltonian Path + closed loop।

*******Complexity Analysis:--------------
Algorithm Complexity → Algorithm की efficiency का मापन।
Time Complexity → Execution time की growth rate।
Space Complexity → Memory usage की growth rate।
Big-O Notation → Upper bound (worst case)।
Ω (Omega) Notation → Lower bound (best case)।
Θ (Theta) Notation → Average/bound tight case।
O(1) → Constant time (Direct access)।
O(log n) → Logarithmic time (Binary Search)।
O(n) → Linear time (Linear Search)।
O(n log n) → Log-linear (Merge Sort, Quick Sort avg)।
O(n²) → Quadratic (Bubble Sort, Insertion Sort)।
O(2ⁿ) → Exponential (Recursion-heavy problems)।
P Class Problems → Polynomial time solvable।
NP Class Problems → Polynomial time verifiable।
NP-Hard → कम से कम उतना किठन िजतना NP problems।
NP-Complete → NP + NP-Hard दोनों।
Greedy Algorithms → Always local best choice।
Dynamic Programming → Overlapping subproblems optimize करता है ।
Divide and Conquer → Problem को subproblems म तोड़ना।
Backtracking → सभी possibilities check करना।

******Hashing & Advanced DS:-----------

Hash Function → Key को array index म convert करता है ।
Good Hash Function → Uniform distribution करता है ।
Load Factor (α) → n/m (keys/table size)।
Collision → Two keys का same index आना।
Chaining Method → Linked list से collisions resolve।
Open Addressing → Collision पर next empty slot ढूँढना।
Linear Probing → Sequence म next slot check।
Quadratic Probing → Quadratic jumps से empty slot।
Double Hashing → Second hash function से resolve।
Perfect Hashing → No collisions hashing method।

*******Applications of DS:------
Stack Applications → Undo operations, Expression evaluation।
Queue Applications → CPU scheduling, Printer queue।
Tree Applications → File system, Compiler syntax tree।
Graph Applications → Maps, Social network, Routing।
Hashing Applications → Password storage, Symbol tables।
Heap Applications → Priority queues, Scheduling।
Linked List Applications → Music playlist, Undo redo।
Trie Applications → Dictionary, Autocomplete।
Dynamic Programming Applications → Fibonacci, Knapsack problem।
Greedy Applications → Huffman coding, Minimum spanning tree।

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Unit 3 (Part-2): Data Structures & Algorithms – One-liner Notes (1–200)

A. Types of Data Structures (Linear & Non-Linear)

Data Structure → Data को store और organize करने का तरीका।
Linear Data Structure → Elements sequentially arranged।
Examples of Linear DS → Array, Stack, Queue, Linked List।

Non-Linear Data Structure → Hierarchical arrangement of data।

Examples of Non-Linear DS → Tree, Graph, Heap, Hashing।

Static Data Structure → Fixed size (e.g., Array)।

Dynamic Data Structure → Size grow/shrink कर सकता है (e.g., Linked List)।

Homogeneous DS → Same data type elements (e.g., Array)।
Heterogeneous DS → Different data type elements (e.g., Structures)।
Primitive DS → Integers, Float, Char, Boolean (basic types)।
Non-Primitive DS → Derived types (Array, Stack, Tree, Graph)।
Operations on DS → Traversing, Insertion, Deletion, Searching, Sorting।
Linear DS Advantage → Simple implementation, Easy traversal।
Linear DS Limitation → Fixed size (in array), Sequential access।
Non-Linear DS Advantage → Better memory utilization, Complex relation handling।
Non-Linear DS Limitation → Implementation harder।
1D Array → Linear collection in single row/column।
2D Array → Matrix form representation।

*******Multi-Dimensional Array → Array of arrays (higher dimensions)।

Array Weakness → Insertion/Deletion costly, Fixed size।

********************B. Algorithms – Basics:---------------------------

Algorithm → Step-by-step finite instructions to solve a problem।

Algorithm Input → Zero or more inputs।
Algorithm Output → At least one output।
Algorithm Definiteness → Each step clear और unambiguous होना चािहए।
Algorithm Finiteness → Limited number of steps होने चािहए।
Algorithm Effectiveness → Simple operations जो manually perform हो सके।
Difference Algorithm vs Program → Algorithm = plan, Program = implementation।
Algorithm Independent → िकसी programming language पर depend नहीं।
Program Dependent → Language specific implementation।
Properties of Algorithm → Input, Output, Finiteness, Definiteness,
Effectiveness।
Good Algorithm → Correctness, Efficiency, Readability।
Algorithm Representation → Natural language, Flowchart, Pseudocode।
Algorithm Analysis → Time और Space complexity का study।
Deterministic Algorithm → Same input → Same output।
Non-Deterministic Algorithm → Same input → Different outputs possible।
Iterative Algorithm → Repetition via loops।
Recursive Algorithm → Problem को खुद से smaller subproblems म तोड़ना।
Divide & Conquer → Problem को subproblems म divide कर solve करना।
Greedy Algorithm → Local best choice, hoping global best िमले।
Dynamic Programming Algorithm → Overlapping subproblems reuse।

C. Searching Algorithms:------

Searching → Data structure म element find करना।

Linear Search → Sequentially check, O(n)।
Binary Search → Sorted data पर efficient, O(log n)।
Interpolation Search → Key-based position estimate।
Exponential Search → Unbounded search problems।
Jump Search → Jump + Linear search mix, O(√n)।
Fibonacci Search → Divide based on Fibonacci numbers।
Hash-based Search → Direct access using hashing।
Best Search Algorithm → Depends on data size and order।
Searching Limitation → Efficiency = key comparisons पर depend।

*****************D. Sorting Algorithms:----------------

Sorting → Data को ascending/descending arrange करना।
Bubble Sort → Adjacent swap, O(n²)।
Selection Sort → Smallest element select करके place, O(n²)।
Insertion Sort → Insert elements one by one, O(n²)।
Merge Sort → Divide & Conquer, O(n log n)।
Quick Sort → Partitioning-based, O(n log n) avg।
Heap Sort → Heap structure से sort, O(n log n)।
Counting Sort → Integer sorting, O(n+k)।
Radix Sort → Digit-wise sorting, O(nk)।
Bucket Sort → Divide into buckets, O(n+k)।

*****************E. Recursion:--------------------
Recursion → Function calling itself।
Base Case → Termination condition ज री।
Recursive Case → Function calls itself with smaller problem।
Direct Recursion → Function खुद को call करे ।
Indirect Recursion → Function A → B → A।
Tail Recursion → Recursive call last step हो।
Head Recursion → Recursive call पहले हो।
Tree Recursion → Multiple recursive calls inside।
Recursion Advantage → Easy to code, Natural representation।
Recursion Disadvantage → Memory overhead, Stack overflow।

***************************F. Algorithm Analysis (Big-O

etc.):---------------------
Complexity → Resource requirement (time/space)।
Asymptotic Notation → Algorithm growth measure।
Big-O (O) → Upper bound (worst case)।
Omega (Ω) → Lower bound (best case)।
Theta (Θ) → Tight bound (average case)।
O(1) → Constant time।
O(n) → Linear time।
O(log n) → Logarithmic time।
O(n²) → Quadratic time।
O(n log n) → Log-linear time।

****************G. Advanced Algorithm Types:----------------------

Brute Force → सभी possibilities check करना।
Backtracking → Wrong path छोड़कर पीछे आना।
Branch & Bound → Search space reduce करना।
Greedy Example → Huffman coding, MST।
Dynamic Programming Example → Fibonacci, Knapsack।
Divide & Conquer Example → Merge sort, Binary search।
Graph Algorithms → BFS, DFS, Dijkstra।
Tree Algorithms → Traversal, Height calculation।
String Matching Algorithms → Naive, KMP, Rabin-Karp।
Numerical Algorithms → GCD, Prime check।

********************H. Graph Algorithms:--------------------

BFS (Breadth First Search) → Level-wise traversal।
DFS (Depth First Search) → Depth-wise traversal।
Dijkstra Algorithm → Single source shortest path।
Bellman-Ford Algorithm → Negative weights allow करता है ।
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm → All-pairs shortest path।
Kruskal’s Algorithm → MST via edge selection।
Prim’s Algorithm → MST via vertex selection।
Topological Sort → DAG का ordering।
Ford-Fulkerson → Maximum flow problem।
A Algorithm* → Pathfinding using heuristics।

*********************I. Applications of Algorithms:---------------------

Searching Applications → Dictionary lookup, Database search।
Sorting Applications → Data arrangement, Ranking।
Graph Applications → Maps, Networking।
String Matching Applications → Text editor, Plagiarism check।
Greedy Applications → Scheduling, Resource allocation।
Dynamic Programming Applications → Stock market analysis।
Backtracking Applications → Sudoku, N-Queens।
Divide & Conquer Applications → Sorting, Searching।
Recursion Applications → Factorial, Fibonacci।
Branch & Bound Applications → Optimization problems।

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Unit: Algorithm Design & Analysis – One Liner Notes (Basic to Advance)

A. Algorithm Design Techniques

Algorithm → Step-by-step procedure to solve problem.
Algorithm Design Technique → Strategy to solve problems efficiently.
Brute Force → सभी possibilities check करना।
Divide and Conquer → Problem को छोटे subproblems म divide करना (Quick Sort, Merge
Sort)।
Greedy Method → हर step पर best choice लेना (Huffman Coding, Kruskal’s Algorithm)।
Dynamic Programming (DP) → Overlapping subproblems solve करके result store करना
(Fibonacci, Knapsack)।
Backtracking → सभी possibilities explore करके correct solution चुनना (N-Queens,
Sudoku)।
Branch and Bound → Backtracking + bounding conditions।
Randomized Algorithms → Random choices से problem solve करना (Quick Sort
randomized)।
Approximation Algorithms → NP-Hard problems के िलए near optimal solution दे ना
(Travelling Salesman)।

B. Performance Analysis of Algorithms

Performance Analysis → Algorithm efficiency check करना।
Two Main Factors → Time Complexity + Space Complexity।
Time Complexity → िकतनी बार instructions execute होंगे।
Space Complexity → िकतनी memory use होगी।
Input Size (n) → Performance input size पर depend करता है ।
Best Case → Minimum time लगता है ।
Worst Case → Maximum time लगता है ।
Average Case → Expected time over all inputs।
Example → Linear Search worst case = O(n), best case = O(1)।
Performance Goal → कम time और कम memory usage।

C. Complexity of Code Structures

Simple Statement → O(1) (constant time)।
Loop (for/while) → O(n) अगर loop n बार चले।
Nested Loop → Multiply → O(n²)।
Sequential Statements → Add → O(f(n) + g(n)) → take maximum।
Conditional Statement (if/else) → O(max(branches))।
Recursion → Depends on recurrence relation।
Example Recursion: Fibonacci (naive) → O(2^n)।
Example Recursion: Binary Search → O(log n)।
Example Loop + Recursion → O(n log n)।
Example Sorting → Bubble Sort = O(n²), Merge Sort = O(n log n)।

D. Order of Growth:---------------------------
Order of Growth → कैसे algorithm grow करता है जब input size बढ़ता है ।
Constant Time → O(1) → Example: Access array element।
Logarithmic Time → O(log n) → Example: Binary Search।
Linear Time → O(n) → Example: Linear Search।
Linearithmic Time → O(n log n) → Example: Merge Sort, Quick Sort।
Quadratic Time → O(n²) → Example: Bubble Sort, Insertion Sort।
Cubic Time → O(n³) → Example: Matrix Multiplication naive।
Exponential Time → O(2^n) → Example: Recursive Fibonacci।
Factorial Time → O(n!) → Example: Travelling Salesman brute force।
Rule → Lower growth rate algorithm हमेशा efficient होता है ।

E. Asymptotic Notations:---------------------------------------------
Asymptotic Analysis → Large input size behavior study।
Big-O (O) → Upper bound (Worst Case)।
Big-O Example → Linear Search = O(n)।
Big-O Rule → Ignore constants और lower terms।
Big Omega (Ω) → Lower bound (Best Case)।
Big Omega Example → Linear Search = Ω(1)।
Theta (Θ) → Tight bound (Average Case)।
Theta Example → Linear Search = Θ(n)।
Little-o (o) → Strictly less than (not tight)।
Little-omega (ω) → Strictly greater than (not tight)।

F. Competitive Exam Shortcuts:-----------------------------------

If n = 1000 → O(log n) ≈ 10, O(n) = 1000, O(n²) = 10⁶ → समझ आ जाएगा कौन fast है ।
Sorting Shortcut → Fastest avg case = Quick Sort (O(n log n))।
Search Shortcut → Sorted array = Binary Search (O(log n)), Unsorted = Linear
Search (O(n))।
Greedy vs DP → Greedy = fast but not always optimal, DP = guaranteed optimal।
Exam Tip → MCQ म अगर पू छा जाए O(n log n) कौन सा → Merge Sort/Heap Sort correct।

Programming & Data Structure – Algorithm & Complexity Notes (56–200)

G. Big-O Notation (Upper Bound – Worst Case):-------------------

Big-O algorithm के maximum growth को बताता है ।
f(n) = O(g(n)) मतलब f(n) ≤ C·g(n) for large n.
Example: 3n + 5 = O(n)।
Example: n² + 2n + 1 = O(n²)।
Bubble Sort = O(n²)।
Insertion Sort = O(n²)।
Merge Sort = O(n log n)।
Quick Sort worst case = O(n²)।
Quick Sort best case = O(n log n)।
Binary Search = O(log n)।
Linear Search = O(n)।
Hash Table search = O(1) average, O(n) worst case।
Matrix multiplication naive = O(n³)।
Strassen’s matrix multiplication = O(n^2.81)।
Dijkstra’s Algorithm (with min-heap) = O(E log V)।

H. Big-Omega Notation (Lower Bound – Best Case)

f(n) = Ω(g(n)) मतलब f(n) ≥ C·g(n) for large n.
Example: 5n + 2 = Ω(n)।
Binary Search best case = Ω(1)।
Linear Search best case = Ω(1)।
Bubble Sort best case (optimized) = Ω(n)।
Insertion Sort best case = Ω(n)।
Quick Sort best case = Ω(n log n)।
Merge Sort best case = Ω(n log n)।
Selection Sort best case = Ω(n²)।
Heap Sort best case = Ω(n log n)।

I. Theta Notation (Tight Bound – Average Case)

Θ बताता है िक algorithm की growth fixed है (tight bound)।
f(n) = Θ(g(n)) मतलब C1·g(n) ≤ f(n) ≤ C2·g(n)।
Example: 2n + 3 = Θ(n)।
Example: 3n² + 5n = Θ(n²)।
Linear Search average = Θ(n)।
Binary Search average = Θ(log n)।
Merge Sort average = Θ(n log n)।
Quick Sort average = Θ(n log n)।
Heap Sort average = Θ(n log n)।
Hash Table average = Θ(1)।

J. Common Complexities (Important for Exams)

O(1) = Constant → Accessing array element।
O(log n) = Logarithmic → Binary Search।
O(n) = Linear → Linear Search।
O(n log n) = Linearithmic → Merge Sort, Heap Sort।
O(n²) = Quadratic → Bubble Sort, Insertion Sort।
O(n³) = Cubic → Matrix multiplication।
O(2^n) = Exponential → Recursive Fibonacci।
O(n!) = Factorial → Travelling Salesman brute force।
O(√n) = Prime checking naive।
O(n^½ log n) = कुछ graph algorithms।

K. Complexity Shortcut Rules

Loops → O(n)।
Nested loops → Multiply complexities।
Sequential statements → Add, but take max.
Recursion → Solve recurrence relation।
Recurrence T(n) = 2T(n/2) + O(n) → O(n log n)।
Recurrence T(n) = T(n-1) + O(1) → O(n)।
Recurrence T(n) = T(n/2) + O(1) → O(log n)।
Recurrence T(n) = T(n-1) + O(n) → O(n²)।

Divide & Conquer recurrence → Use Master Theorem।

Master Theorem quick use →
Case 1: if work < n^log_b a → O(n^log_b a)
Case 2: if work = n^log_b a → O(n^log_b a log n)
Case 3: if work > n^log_b a → O(work)।

L. Sorting Algorithms Complexity Table

Bubble Sort → O(n²), best case O(n)।
Insertion Sort → O(n²), best case O(n)।
Selection Sort → O(n²), best case O(n²)।
Merge Sort → O(n log n) all cases।
Quick Sort → Avg O(n log n), worst O(n²)।
Heap Sort → O(n log n)।
Radix Sort → O(nk) (non-comparison)।
Counting Sort → O(n + k)।
Bucket Sort → O(n + k)।
Tim Sort → O(n log n)।

M. Searching Algorithms Complexity Table

Linear Search → O(n)।
Binary Search → O(log n)।
Hashing Search → O(1) average।
Binary Search Tree (BST) → O(log n) avg, O(n) worst।
AVL Tree Search → O(log n)।
Red-Black Tree Search → O(log n)।
B-Tree Search → O(log n)।
Trie Search → O(L) (L = string length)।
Interpolation Search → O(log log n) avg।
Jump Search → O(√n)।

N. Space Complexity
Space Complexity = Total memory used।
Includes → Instruction space, Data space, Environment stack।
Example: Array = O(n)।
Example: Linked List = O(n)।
Example: Recursion extra stack = O(n)।
Example: Dynamic Programming = O(n²)।
Merge Sort → O(n) extra space।
Quick Sort → O(log n) stack।
Bubble Sort → O(1)।
Hash Table → O(n)।

O. Time vs Space Trade-off

Sometimes extra memory use करके time save िकया जाता है ।
Example: Hashing = O(1) time, but extra space।
Example: DP = Extra memory but faster execution।
Example: Recursion vs Iteration → Recursion uses more space।
Space optimization → Convert recursion into iteration।

P. Complexity Growth (Order)

सबसे fast → O(1)।
उसके बाद → O(log n)।
उसके बाद → O(n)।
उसके बाद → O(n log n)।
उसके बाद → O(n²)।
उसके बाद → O(n³)।
उसके बाद → O(2^n)।
सबसे slow → O(n!)।
Example → n=100 → O(log n) ≈ 7, O(n) = 100, O(n²) = 10,000।
इसिलए छोटे differences exam म ब त matter करते ह।

Q. Common Mistakes in Exams

Always ान रख best/avg/worst cases अलग-अलग होते ह।
Merge Sort = हमेशा O(n log n)।
Quick Sort = worst O(n²) → अगर array already sorted हो।
Binary Search = केवल sorted array पर possible।
Hashing worst case O(n) → अगर collisions हों।
DP vs Greedy confusion → Greedy fast but not optimal।
DP = हमेशा optimal (Knapsack, LCS)।
Brute force → हमेशा सबसे ादा time।
Sorting lower bound (comparison-based) = O(n log n)।
Non-comparison sort (Counting, Radix) faster हो सकते ह।

R. Competitive Exam Shortcuts

अगर question sorting से जु ड़ा हो और पू छा जाए fastest sorting → Merge/Quick/Heap Sort (O(n
log n))।
अगर question searching से जुड़ा हो और sorted array िदया हो → Binary Search।
अगर graph shortest path पू छे → Dijkstra (greedy) या Floyd-Warshall (DP)।
अगर matrix multiplication पू छे → Naive O(n³), Strassen O(n^2.81)।
अगर recursion tree िदखे → Master Theorem apply करो।
अगर best case पू छा हो → Always think smallest input moves।
अगर space पू छा हो → Check recursion stack।
अगर “order of growth” पू छा हो → Focus only highest term।

Example: 3n² + 2n + 5 = O(n²)।

Example: log₂n vs log₁₀n → दोनों O(log n) ही।

S. Advanced Topics (For Objective MCQs)

Amortized Analysis → Average cost over multiple operations।
Example: Stack push/pop = O(1)।
Example: Dynamic array resizing = O(1) amortized।
P vs NP → P = polynomial time solvable problems।
NP = problems solvable in non-deterministic polynomial time।
NP-Complete = सबसे किठन problems in NP।
Travelling Salesman → NP-hard।
Knapsack 0/1 → NP-complete।
SAT problem → NP-complete।
Graph Coloring → NP-complete।

T. Final Quick Notes (Most Asked in STET/Exams)

Best sorting for small data = Insertion Sort।
Best sorting for large data = Merge Sort।
Quick Sort average fast है but worst dangerous।
Graph shortest path → Dijkstra / Bellman-Ford।
Minimum Spanning Tree → Kruskal/Prim।
Recursion always use stack।
Stack complexity → O(1) push/pop।
Queue complexity → O(1) enqueue/dequeue।
Binary Tree traversal → O(n)।Hash Table average search = O(1)।
Linked List search = O(n)।
Heap operations = O(log n)।
DP हमेशा overlapping subproblems के िलए।
Greedy = हर step पर best choice।
Algorithm analysis का goal = कम से कम time + कम से कम space।

***************************************TIME COMPLEXITY OF DSA

*******************************************************

🔥 1.Time Complexity Basic Notations

O(1) → Constant Time

O(log n) → Logarithmic
O(n) → Linear
O(n log n) → Linearithmic
O(n²), O(n³) → Polynomial
O(2^n), O(n!) → Exponential/Factorial

🔥 2. Easy Chart for Remembering (with Examples)

Complexity Name Example in DSA
Easy Trick to Remember
O(1) Constant Access array element → arr[i]
एक बार म काम हो गया
O(log n) Logarithmic Binary Search
Divide & Conquer = हर बार आधा
O(n) Linear Linear Search, Traversing array
हर element को दे खना
O(n log n) Linearithmic Merge Sort, Quick Sort (avg)
"n बार log n वाला काम"
O(n²) Quadratic Bubble Sort, Insertion Sort
Nested loop (2 बार loop)
O(n³) Cubic Matrix Multiplication (3 loops)
Triple loop
O(2^n) Exponential Recursion in Fibonacci (without DP)
 step पे branching
O(n!) Factorial Travelling Salesman (Brute Force,
permutations) सभी permutation चेक करना

🔥 3. याद रखने की Easy Technique

👉 Loop Trick
1 loop → O(n)
2 nested loops → O(n²)
3 nested loops → O(n³)

👉 Divide & Conquer Trick

हर बार problem आधा (Binary Search) → O(log n)
Half × n बार (Merge Sort) → O(n log n)

👉 Recursion Trick
Branching recursion (Fibonacci naive) → O(2^n)
Permutation/Combination वाले problems → O(n!)

🔥 4. Quick Example Set (Easy to Visualize)

O(1) → Bank locker से सीधे 1 file िनकालना।

O(log n) → Dictionary म word ढूँढना (Binary Search)।
O(n) → 100 लोगों की िल म अपना नाम ढूँढना।
O(n log n) → Cards को Merge Sort से arrange करना।
O(n²) → हर student को हर दू सरे student से compare करना।
O(2^n) → हर सवाल पे हाँ /ना के सारे रा े explore करना।
O(n!) → Travel म हर जगह के सारे रा ों को check करना।

🔥 5. Super Easy Chart (Final Shortcut)

O(1) → Best
O(log n) → Divide half-half
O(n) → One loop
O(n log n) → Smart sorting
O(n²) → Two loops
O(n³) → Three loops
O(2^n) → Branch recursion
O(n!) → All permutations

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1-D & 2-D Arrays – Applications (200 One-Liners for STET)

A. Basic Applications of 1-D Arrays:---

1-D array me elements sequentially store hote hain.
Linear search me 1-D array use hota hai.
Binary search ke liye sorted 1-D array chahiye.
Sorting algorithms (bubble, insertion, selection) → 1-D array.
Storing marks of students → 1-D array.
Temperature records → daily temperature array.
Sales data → monthly sales array.
Bank balance tracking → 1-D array.
Simple counting problems → array index as counter.
Histogram data representation → array.
Frequency count → array of counts.
Prefix sum → cumulative sum array.
Polynomial coefficients → store in array.
Vector representation → 1-D array.
Static table storage → array.
Lookup table → array.
Storing ages → array.
Marksheet → 1-D array.
Scoreboards → 1-D array.
Temperature trends → array.
1-D array → easy loop traversal.
Searching maximum → array.
Searching minimum → array.
Sum of n numbers → array.
Average calculation → array.
Reverse array → algorithm question.
Rotate array → algorithm question.
Prefix and suffix sums → array.
Count even/odd numbers → array.
Array based stack implementation.
Array based queue implementation.
Circular queue → 1-D array.
Array used in hash table storage.
Unique element finding → array.
Duplicate detection → array.
Pair sum problem → array.
Sliding window technique → array.
Kadane’s algorithm → max subarray sum.
Two-pointer problems → array.
Triplet sum problems → array.
Array rotation → left/right shift.
Leader element in array → last element comparison.
Missing number → arithmetic series formula.
Majority element → Boyer-Moore algorithm.
Count inversion → merge sort + array.
Range queries → prefix sum array.
Dynamic programming → array storage.
Storing boolean flags → array of 0/1.
Storing binary digits → array.
Count frequency of characters → array of 26 letters.
Mapping problems → 1-D array index.
Linear probing in hashing → array.
Memory buffer storage → array.
Sensor readings storage → array.
Storing votes in election → array.
Score calculation in game → array.
Storing test answers → array.
Array used in prefix XOR technique.
Modular arithmetic storage → array.
Array → temporary data storage in algorithms.
Count distinct elements → array.
Sliding window maximum → array.
Array → buffer in input/output.
Storing temporary states → array.
Array → used in sieve of Eratosthenes.
Storing prime flags → array.
Frequency array → for counting sort.
Storing factorial values → array.
Storing Fibonacci sequence → array.
Array → to implement dynamic programming table.

B. Applications of 2-D Arrays:---------------------

2-D array → rows × columns storage.
Matrix addition → 2-D array.
Matrix subtraction → 2-D array.
Matrix multiplication → 2-D array.
Transpose of matrix → 2-D array.
Determinant calculation → 2-D array.
Inverse of matrix → 2-D array.
Identity matrix → 2-D array.
Sparse matrix → 2-D array efficient storage.
Diagonal matrix storage → 2-D array.
Symmetric matrix → 2-D array.
Lower/Upper triangular matrix → 2-D array.
Storing chess board → 2-D array.
Storing Tic-Tac-Toe board → 2-D array.
Image storage → 2-D array of pixels.
Grayscale image → 2-D array.
RGB image → 3-D array.
Game maps → 2-D array.
Maze representation → 2-D array.
Graph adjacency matrix → 2-D array.
Floyd-Warshall algorithm → 2-D array.
Dynamic programming table → 2-D array.
Knapsack DP → 2-D array.
LCS (Longest Common Subsequence) → 2-D array.
DP matrix → pathfinding problems.
Storing weather grid → 2-D array.
Storing seating arrangement → 2-D array.
Storing school timetable → 2-D array.
Storing digital board → 2-D array.
Sudoku board → 2-D array.
Battleship game → 2-D array.
Heat map → 2-D array.
Simulation → 2-D array of states.
Storing calendar → 2-D array.
Storing hotel room occupancy → 2-D array.
Minesweeper → 2-D array.
2-D prefix sum → range queries.
Cumulative sum → 2-D array.
Storing survey grid → 2-D array.
Storing city map → 2-D array.
Matrix rotation → 2-D array.
Mirror image matrix → 2-D array.
Spiral traversal → 2-D array.
Boundary traversal → 2-D array.
Snake pattern print → 2-D array.
Diagonal sum → 2-D array.
Zigzag pattern → 2-D array.
Saddle point → 2-D array.
Row sum → 2-D array.
Column sum → 2-D array.
Finding max/min in row/column → 2-D array.
Storing distances in cities → adjacency matrix.
Storing connectivity → graph → adjacency matrix.
Network flow table → 2-D array.
Dynamic connectivity problem → 2-D array.
Warshall’s algorithm → 2-D array.
Storing heat simulation → 2-D array.
Game of life → 2-D array.
BFS/DFS matrix representation → 2-D array.
Flood fill algorithm → 2-D array.
Storing logical board games → 2-D array.
Printing checkerboard pattern → 2-D array.
Rotating image 90°, 180° → 2-D array.
Finding submatrix sum → 2-D array.
Matrix chain multiplication → DP table.
Storing adjacency weight matrix → 2-D array.
Storing dynamic programming table → 2-D array.
Storing chess piece positions → 2-D array.
Tracking battle simulation → 2-D array.
Multi-layer maps → 3-D array extension.
Row-major order → C/C++ default storage.
Column-major order → Fortran storage.
Sparse matrices → memory efficient representation.
3-tuple storage → sparse matrix.
Linked list sparse representation → dynamic memory.
Exam me row-major/column-major questions frequently puchte hain.
Array application → daily life data storage.
Matrix operations → scientific computation.
2-D array traversal → nested loops.
Array application → algorithm problem solving.

*******Sparse Matrices & Recursion – Applications (200 One-Liners for STET)

A. Sparse Matrices – Basic Concepts & Representation

Sparse matrix → matrix with mostly 0 elements.
Dense matrix → mostly non-zero elements.
Sparse matrix ko memory efficient store karna hota hai.
Row-major storage → store row-wise.
Column-major storage → store column-wise.
3-tuple representation → (row, col, value).
3-tuple → store only non-zero elements.
Header element → total rows, cols, non-zero count.
Linked list representation → dynamic memory.
Array of 3-tuples → sequential storage.
Sparse matrix addition → add only non-zero elements.
Sparse matrix multiplication → skip zero elements.
Transpose of sparse matrix → swap row & column.
Storing adjacency matrix of sparse graph → sparse matrix.
Efficient access → index-based retrieval.
Storage size → depends on non-zero elements.
Linked list → each node stores row, column, value.
Matrix compression → reduce memory.
Backtracking in matrix → for pathfinding.
Sparse matrices → used in scientific computing.
Finite element methods → sparse matrices.
Image compression → sparse representation.
PageRank algorithm → sparse adjacency matrices.
Machine learning → sparse feature vectors.
Storing huge data grids → sparse matrices.
Row-wise traversal → only non-zero.
Column-wise traversal → only non-zero.
Dynamic memory allocation → linked representation.
Insertion of element → update 3-tuple.
Deletion of element → update 3-tuple.
Conversion → dense to sparse.
Conversion → sparse to dense.
Efficient addition → merge 3-tuple lists.
Efficient multiplication → skip zeros.
Symmetric sparse → store only upper/lower triangle.
Diagonal sparse → store diagonal only.
Identity sparse → 1s in diagonal.
Matrix operations → only non-zero processed.
Sparse matrix → time & space optimized.
Header-based access → fast retrieval.
Row-pointer array → quick row access.
Column-pointer array → quick column access.
COO (Coordinate list) → common sparse format.
CSR (Compressed Sparse Row) → memory efficient.
CSC (Compressed Sparse Column) → column-based access.
Sparse matrix → used in graph algorithms.
BFS/DFS → adjacency sparse matrix.
Storage size → O(non-zero elements).
Multiplying sparse matrices → O(non-zero^2).
Sparse matrices → used in solving linear equations.

B. Recursion – Basic Concepts:----------------------------

Recursion → function calls itself.
Base case → recursion ka stop condition.
Recursive case → function calls itself.
Stack memory → recursion use karta hai.
Example → factorial(n).
Factorial recursion → factorial(n) = n * factorial(n-1).
Fibonacci recursion → fib(n) = fib(n-1)+fib(n-2).
Recursive sum of array → sum(arr, n).
Maximum in array → recursive approach.
Minimum in array → recursive approach.
Reverse array → recursion.
String palindrome check → recursion.
String length → recursion.
Power calculation → pow(a, b) recursive.
GCD → recursion using Euclid’s algorithm.
LCM → recursion possible using GCD.
Decimal to binary → recursion.
Binary to decimal → recursion.
Array traversal → recursion.
Nested recursion → recursion inside recursion.
Mutual recursion → function A calls B, B calls A.
Tail recursion → recursion ka last step function call.
Non-tail recursion → further computation after call.
Stack overflow → recursion without base case.
Memory efficiency → tail recursion better.
Recursive tree → visual representation.
Backtracking problems → recursion ka use.
Maze solving → recursion + backtracking.
N-Queens problem → recursion + backtracking.
Sudoku solving → recursion + backtracking.
Tower of Hanoi → classic recursion problem.
Disk move → recursion formula: 2^n - 1 moves.
Hanoi recursive formula → move(n, A, B, C).
Simulating recursion → stack or function call.
Recursive factorial → O(n) time complexity.
Recursive Fibonacci → O(2^n) time.
Optimized Fibonacci → memoization + recursion.
Recursive binary search → O(log n) time.
Recursive string reversal → swap first-last.
Recursive subset generation → powerset problem.
Permutations → recursion.
Combinations → recursion.
Recursive sorting → quicksort, mergesort.
Merge sort → divide & conquer recursion.
Quick sort → recursive partitioning.
Recursive tree traversal → preorder, inorder, postorder.
Binary search tree insertion → recursion.
Expression evaluation → recursion.
Recursive graph traversal → DFS.
Recursive pathfinding → shortest path.
Recursive flood fill → image processing.
Recursive maze exploration → pathfinding.
Recursion in games → AI moves.
Recursive countdown → printing numbers.
Nested loops → can be replaced by recursion.
Recursive factorial formula → n! = n*(n-1)!.
Recursive sum formula → sum(n) = n + sum(n-1).
Recursive product formula → product(n) = n * product(n-1).
Recursive power formula → pow(x, n) = x*pow(x, n-1).
Recursive gcd formula → gcd(a,b) = gcd(b,a%b).
Recursive tiling problem → cover n×m board.
Divide and conquer → recursion ka principle.
Recursive exponentiation → reduce multiplications.
Tail call optimization → compiler optimization.
Backtracking principle → recursion.
Memory stack → each recursive call.
Base case missing → infinite recursion.
Debugging recursion → trace call stack.
Recursive algorithms → elegant & concise.
Recursive tree height → recursion on children.
Recursive tree size → node count.
Recursive depth calculation → max depth.
Recursive factorial → basic example.
Recursive palindrome check → string compare.
Recursive binary search → divide array.
Recursive sum of digits → reduce number.
Recursive number reversal → integer manipulation.
Recursive linked list → traversal.
Recursive linked list → reverse.
Recursive linked list → find length.
Recursive linked list → insert/delete.
Recursive graph → DFS traversal.
Recursive tree → preorder traversal.
Recursive tree → inorder traversal.
Recursive tree → postorder traversal.
Recursive backtracking → N-Queens.
Recursive backtracking → Sudoku solver.
Recursive backtracking → Maze solver.
Recursion in strings → substring generation.
Recursion in strings → permutation generation.
Recursion in dynamic programming → memoization.
Recursion in combinatorics → count paths.
Recursive problem solving → break problem into smaller.
Recursive mathematical series → sum, factorial.
Recursive numerical methods → Newton-Raphson.
Recursive algorithm design → base + recursive step.
Recursion space complexity → O(n) stack space.
Recursive vs iterative → compare performance.
Tail recursion advantage → stack optimization.
Recursion → essential in algorithm competitions.

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Linked Lists & Polynomial Operations – One-Liners for STET

A. Singly Linked List – Basics:--------------------------------

Singly Linked List → linear data structure, nodes connected via pointer.
Each node → data + pointer to next node.
Head → first node of list.
Tail → last node pointing to NULL.
Traversal → visit all nodes from head.
Insertion → at beginning, end, or middle.
Deletion → remove node by position or value.
Searching → linear traversal.
Array vs Linked List → dynamic memory allocation.
Pointer implementation → nodes allocated using malloc/new.
Node structure → struct node { data; next }.
NULL pointer → indicates end of list.
Single linked list memory → dynamic, flexible size.
Insert at beginning → new node points to head.
Insert at end → traverse till tail → new node points to NULL.
Insert after node → pointer adjustment.
Delete first node → head = head->next.
Delete last node → traverse till second last → NULL.
Search → compare data with each node.
Update node → find & change data.
Linked list traversal → while(ptr != NULL).
Count nodes → traverse & increment counter.
Reverse linked list → iterative method.
Reverse linked list → recursive method.
Detect loop → Floyd’s cycle detection.
Merge two sorted linked lists → maintain order.
Intersection of linked lists → find common nodes.
Union of linked lists → combine all unique nodes.
Linked list → memory efficient for dynamic data.
Singly linked list → simple, one pointer per node.

B. Doubly Linked List (DLL):--------------------------------

DLL → each node has prev & next pointers.
Head → first node, tail → last node.
Traversal forward → head to tail.
Traversal backward → tail to head.
Insertion → at beginning, end, middle.
Deletion → remove node using prev & next pointers.
Searching → traverse forward/backward.
DLL → bidirectional traversal possible.
Node structure → struct node { data, prev, next }.
DLL → more memory per node (2 pointers).
Insert at beginning → new node next = head, head prev = new node.
Insert at end → traverse to tail → new node prev = tail.
Insert after node → adjust prev & next pointers.
Delete first node → head = head->next; head->prev = NULL.
Delete last node → tail = tail->prev; tail->next = NULL.
Delete middle node → adjust prev & next pointers.
Traversal → while(ptr != NULL) forward, while(ptr->next != NULL) backward.
DLL → used in browsers for back/forward history.
DLL → used in memory management for free list.
DLL → insertion & deletion more efficient than singly.

C. Circular Linked List:-------------------------

Circular singly → last node points to head.
Circular doubly → last node next = head, head prev = last.
Traversal → stop when current == head again.
Insertion → adjust next (and prev for doubly).
Deletion → adjust pointers to maintain circle.
Circular list → used in round-robin scheduling.
Circular DLL → bidirectional & circular.
Circular SLL → one pointer circular.
Insert at beginning → adjust last node next pointer.
Insert at end → new node points to head.
Delete first node → last node next = head->next.
Delete last node → traverse to second last → next = head.
Traversal formula → do…while loop for circular.
Circular list → infinite loop risk without check.
Applications → buffers, OS scheduling, multiplayer games.
Circular SLL → memory efficient, easy traversal.
Circular DLL → easier backward traversal too.
Search → traverse till node data matches or back to head.
Complexity → O(n) for insertion/deletion if node unknown.
Circular linked lists → dynamic & reusable structure.

D. Polynomial Representation using Linked Lists:--------------------------

Polynomial → sum of terms with coeff*x^exp.
Term → coefficient + exponent.
Node structure → struct node { coeff, exp, next }.
Polynomial linked list → sorted by exponent.
Insertion → add term at correct position by exponent.
Addition → traverse 2 lists, sum coeff of same exponent.
Subtraction → traverse, subtract coeffs of same exponent.
Multiplication → multiply each term of first with all terms of second.
Result → new linked list for result polynomial.
Traversal → print polynomial in descending order.
Sparse polynomial → skip zero coefficients.
Merge terms → same exponent sum.
Linked list → flexible degree polynomial.
Polynomial addition → O(m+n) if m, n terms in two polys.
Polynomial multiplication → O(m*n).
Insertion at head → small exponent first.
Insertion at tail → large exponent last.
Sorting → maintain descending order by exponent.
Evaluation → plug x value, traverse & compute sum.
Memory efficient → store only non-zero terms.
Polynomial derivative → traverse & multiply exponent with coeff.
Polynomial integral → divide coeff by (exp+1).
Multiply with scalar → traverse & multiply coeff.
Divide polynomial → long division using linked list.
Add sparse polynomial → skip zero terms.
Combine like terms → reduce redundancy.
Display format → print in conventional algebraic form.
Recursive polynomial addition → possible using recursion.
Recursive polynomial multiplication → also possible.
Linked list → better than arrays for large variable degree.

E. Advanced Linked List Operations (101–

150):-----------------------------------------
Reverse singly linked list → iterative method using three pointers.
Reverse singly linked list → recursive method.
Reverse doubly linked list → swap next & prev pointers.
Reverse circular linked list → adjust last node pointer.
Detect loop → Floyd’s Cycle Detection Algorithm (tortoise & hare).
Remove loop → detect node, set last node next = NULL.
Merge two sorted linked lists → maintain ascending order.
Split linked list → into two halves (fast & slow pointer).
Find middle → slow pointer technique.
Delete alternate nodes → traverse & skip nodes.
Count occurrences → traverse & match value.
Search → iterative & recursive methods.
Delete by value → search & adjust pointers.
Insert in sorted order → traverse & insert at correct position.
Swap two nodes → only change pointers, not data.
Reverse in groups of k → iterative & recursive methods.
Find nth node from end → 2-pointer method.
Delete nth node from end → traverse with two pointers.
Detect intersection → compare nodes by reference.
Find loop starting point → after detecting loop.
Flatten linked list → merge multiple linked lists into one.
Copy linked list → simple & deep copy with pointer adjustments.
Clone linked list with random pointer → use extra map or pointer trick.
Rotate linked list → by k positions.
Check palindrome → reverse half & compare.
Pairwise swap nodes → change links, not data.
Remove duplicates → sorted list traversal.
Remove duplicates → unsorted list using hash map.
Segregate even & odd nodes → maintain relative order.
Add 1 to number represented by linked list → handle carry propagation.
Intersection of two linked lists → O(n) with hashing.
Intersection → O(n+m) using length difference.
Union of two linked lists → combine & remove duplicates.
Delete nodes greater on right → traverse & maintain max.
Sort linked list → merge sort preferred.
Sort linked list → bubble sort method.
Reverse alternate nodes → skip one, reverse next.
Sum of linked list → traverse & add data.
Multiply two numbers using linked list → similar to array multiplication.
Detect circular DLL → check if node next reaches head.
Convert array → singly linked list.
Convert array → doubly linked list.
Convert DLL → circular DLL.
Convert SLL → circular SLL.
Check palindrome → DLL approach.
Remove loop → modify pointer to NULL.
Add node at nth position → traverse & insert.
Delete node at nth position → traverse & delete.
Merge K sorted linked lists → use min-heap.
Clone linked list with random pointer → O(n) using pointer manipulation.

F. Polynomial Operations Using Linked List (151–

200):----------------------------------
Polynomial addition → traverse 2 lists, compare exponent, add coeff.
Polynomial subtraction → traverse 2 lists, subtract coeffs.
Polynomial multiplication → multiply term by term, sum exponents.
Polynomial division → long division using linked list.
Evaluate polynomial → plug x value, compute sum term by term.
Display polynomial → print in descending exponent order.
Insert term → at correct position sorted by exponent.
Delete term → search exponent & remove node.
Combine like terms → merge nodes with same exponent.
Sparse polynomial → skip zero coefficient terms.
Scalar multiplication → multiply each coeff by constant.
Polynomial derivative → multiply coeff by exponent & decrement exponent.
Polynomial integration → increment exponent & divide coeff by new exponent.
Polynomial comparison → compare degrees & coefficients.
Polynomial equality → compare terms one by one.
Polynomial copy → create new linked list same as original.
Polynomial reverse → reverse term order (useful for printing).
Polynomial length → count number of terms.
Polynomial merge → merge two polynomials maintaining order.
Polynomial reduce → remove zero coefficient terms.
Polynomial multiplication optimization → use arrays + linked list hybrid.
Polynomial evaluation → Horner’s method using linked list.
Polynomial addition recursion → add terms recursively.
Polynomial multiplication recursion → multiply terms recursively.
Polynomial division → quotient & remainder computation.
Polynomial long-term storage → linked list better than array.
Polynomial printing → handle +, -, x^n formatting.
Polynomial memory efficiency → only non-zero terms stored.
Polynomial insertion efficiency → O(n) traversal.
Polynomial addition efficiency → O(m+n) complexity.
Polynomial multiplication efficiency → O(m*n) complexity.
Polynomial sorting → descending exponent order.
Polynomial coefficient update → traverse & update node.
Polynomial degree → highest exponent in list.
Polynomial term search → find by exponent.
Polynomial derivative evaluation → compute derivative at x.
Polynomial integral evaluation → compute integral with constant of integration.
Polynomial sparse representation → skip zeros for efficiency.
Polynomial addition in-place → modify first list instead of creating new.
Polynomial multiplication in-place → store result in new list.
Polynomial linked list reversal → useful for descending order display.
Polynomial clone → deep copy for manipulation.
Polynomial comparison → equality check for all terms.
Polynomial addition edge cases → different degree polynomials.
Polynomial multiplication edge cases → zero polynomial handling.
Polynomial division edge cases → divisor degree > dividend degree.
Polynomial memory management → free nodes after deletion.
Polynomial combination → useful in symbolic math computations.
Polynomial linked list application → Computer algebra systems.
Polynomial linked list application → engineering computations & simulations.

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******************************************************--------------------------
----*******************************************

Stack & Recursion – Abstract Data Type (1–200 points)

A. Stack & ADT (1–100):------------------------------

ADT → defines data type & operations (Stack, Queue, List).
Stack → LIFO (Last In First Out) structure.
Push → insert element at top.
Pop → remove element from top.
Peek/Top → view top element without removing.
isEmpty → checks if stack is empty.
isFull → checks if stack full (array only).
Stack implemented using array → fixed size, simple index.
Stack implemented using linked list → dynamic size, pointer-based.
Push in array → increment top & insert.
Pop in array → remove element & decrement top.
Push in linked list → create new node & adjust top pointer.
Pop in linked list → remove top node & free memory.
Stack overflow → push when array full.
Stack underflow → pop when empty.
Stack traversal → display elements from top to bottom.
Reverse string → push all chars & pop to reverse.
Nested parentheses check → push ‘(’, pop ‘)’.
Function calls → managed via call stack.
Undo/Redo → previous states stored in stack.
Browser history → stack stores visited URLs.
Expression evaluation → stack stores operands/operators.
Infix to postfix → stack handles operator precedence.
Infix to prefix → stack handles operator precedence.
Postfix evaluation → scan left to right, push operands, apply operator.
Prefix evaluation → scan right to left, push operands, apply operator.
Stack memory → grows downward in array implementation.
Linked list stack → dynamic growth, no fixed size.
Multi-stack in array → divide array into partitions.
Stack for recursion simulation → iterative replacement for recursion.
Tail recursion → last operation is recursive call.
Non-tail recursion → further operation after recursive call.
Stack overflow in recursion → exceeding memory.
Stack for maze solving → store path choices.
Stack in function call → stores local vars & return address.
Operator precedence → handled using stack in expressions.
Nested function calls → each call uses stack frame.
Reverse polish notation → postfix evaluation uses stack.
Function return → stack pops top frame.
Stack debugging → trace push & pop operations.
Expression tree construction → stack stores nodes.
Stack for undo → last action reversed first.
Stack for redo → reapply last undone action.
Postfix expression → no parentheses needed.
Prefix expression → operator before operands.
Stack push/pop complexity → O(1).
Stack top → last element inserted.
Array stack → random access possible, fixed size.
Linked list stack → sequential access, dynamic size.
Stack overflow prevention → check before push.
Stack underflow prevention → check before pop.
Iterative factorial → can replace recursion using stack.
Iterative Fibonacci → stack simulates recursive calls.
Expression evaluation → numeric & float handled by stack.
Function call stack → maintains execution order.
Multi-type stack → stack can store different data types.
Stack application → parsing, compilers, function calls.
Stack memory → faster than heap access.
Nested loops → stack tracks loop calls in recursion.
Debugging recursion → stack trace shows call hierarchy.
Tail recursion optimization → reuse current stack frame.
Recursive sum → sum(arr, n) = arr[n] + sum(arr, n-1).
Recursive factorial → factorial(n) = n * factorial(n-1).
Recursive Fibonacci → fib(n) = fib(n-1) + fib(n-2).
Recursive binary search → divide & conquer.
Recursive linear search → check first element & call rest.
Recursive GCD → Euclidean algorithm.
Recursive LCM → using GCD recursively.
Recursion base case → stops further calls.
Recursion depth → number of active calls.
Stack vs recursion → recursion uses implicit stack.
Recursion overhead → each call uses memory & time.
Recursion elimination → iterative approach using explicit stack.
Tower of Hanoi → recursive disk movement problem.
Backtracking → stack tracks choices & reverts if needed.
N-Queen problem → recursion + backtracking.
Maze solving → recursion + stack backtracking.
Sudoku solving → recursion + stack for guesses.
String permutation → swap & recursive generation.
Recursive power calculation → x^n = x * x^(n-1).
Recursive sum of digits → sum(n) = n%10 + sum(n/10).
Recursive multiplication → repeated addition recursively.
Recursive division → repeated subtraction recursively.
Recursive decimal to binary → n%2 + recursive(n/2).
Recursive binary to decimal → sum of bit*2^pos recursively.
Recursion efficiency → prefer iterative for large inputs.
Memory usage → recursion uses call stack memory.
Debug recursion → track each function call & return.
Recursive palindrome → check first & last character.
Recursive string reverse → swap characters recursively.
Recursive linked list traversal → visit nodes recursively.
Recursive linked list sum → add node data recursively.
Recursive linked list max/min → compare & return recursively.
Recursive merge sort → divide array, sort & merge recursively.
Recursive quick sort → partition & recursive sort.
Recursive tree traversal → preorder, inorder, postorder.
Recursive graph DFS → visit nodes recursively.
Recursive printing → print array/list in reverse order.
Recursive height of tree → max depth recursively.
Recursion in STET → important for algorithms, stack, expression evaluation
questions.

Stack & Recursion – Abstract Data Type (101–

200):--------------------------------------------------------------------

B. Advanced Stack Applications (101–150)

Stack for expression conversion → infix → postfix.
Stack for expression conversion → infix → prefix.
Postfix evaluation → push operand, pop two, apply operator, push result.
Prefix evaluation → scan right to left, push operand, apply operator.
Operator precedence → handled by stack in conversion.
Parentheses balancing → push ‘(’, pop ‘)’ to check balance.
Nested parentheses → multiple types handled with stack.
Stack for recursion simulation → iterative approach.
Stack in compiler → function calls & symbol table management.
Undo/Redo in editors → stack stores last actions.
Backtracking → stack stores decision points.
Maze solving → path stored in stack, backtrack when dead-end.
N-Queen problem → stack stores row/column placement.
Recursive file traversal → stack stores folder path.
Browser history → forward/back buttons implemented with two stacks.
Call stack → tracks active function calls.
Stack overflow → occurs if recursion too deep.
Stack underflow → pop on empty stack.
Debug recursion → stack trace used to find errors.
Stack in DFS → stores nodes visited.
Stack in graph traversal → maintains path.
Stack memory → faster than heap for temporary storage.
Stack allocation → automatic memory allocation.
Stack frame → stores function parameters, local vars, return address.
Recursion base case → stops further calls.
Recursive factorial → uses stack implicitly.
Recursive Fibonacci → inefficient for large n, can optimize.
Tail recursion → last action is recursive call, stack optimization possible.
Non-tail recursion → additional operation after recursive call.
Stack vs queue → LIFO vs FIFO.
Expression tree → stack used to construct from postfix.
Multi-type stack → can store char, int, float.
Reverse a string → push all chars, then pop.
Evaluate postfix with float → stack stores float values.
Nested function calls → each call uses stack frame.
Stack in memory management → stores return addresses.
Tower of Hanoi → classic recursion + stack example.
Recursion depth → number of active calls in stack.
Stack efficiency → O(1) for push/pop.
Array stack → fixed size, fast access.
Linked list stack → dynamic size, flexible memory.
Stack overflow prevention → check before push.
Stack underflow prevention → check before pop.
Iterative factorial → stack can simulate recursion.
Iterative Fibonacci → stack simulates recursive calls.
Recursion elimination → iterative replacement using stack.
Recursive sum of array → sum(arr, n) = arr[n-1] + sum(arr, n-2).
Recursive max/min in array → compare recursively.
Recursive string reverse → swap first & last recursively.
Recursive palindrome check → compare first & last chars recursively.

C. Recursion & Backtracking (151–200):--------------------------------------

Recursive binary search → divide & conquer.
Recursive linear search → check first element & call remaining.
Recursive GCD → Euclidean algorithm.
Recursive LCM → using GCD recursively.
Recursive decimal → binary conversion → n%2 + recurse(n/2).
Recursive binary → decimal → multiply bits by 2^position recursively.
Recursive multiplication → repeated addition.
Recursive division → repeated subtraction.
Recursion memory usage → stack frames stored in call stack.
Debug recursion → stack trace shows hierarchy.
Recursion optimization → tail recursion to reuse stack.
Tower of Hanoi → 3 pegs, n disks, move all using recursion.
Recursive permutations → swap chars & recurse.
Recursive combinations → choose elements recursively.
Backtracking → revert choice if path fails.
N-Queen recursive solution → place queens row by row.
Maze solving → recursive move forward/backtrack if blocked.
Sudoku solving → recursive fill & backtrack on conflicts.
Graph DFS → recursive node visit.
Tree traversal → recursive preorder, inorder, postorder.
Binary tree height → max depth calculated recursively.
Binary tree sum → sum nodes recursively.
Binary search tree → insert/search/delete recursively.
Linked list traversal → recursive visit each node.
Linked list sum → add node data recursively.
Recursive max/min in linked list → compare nodes recursively.
Recursive merge sort → divide, sort, merge recursively.
Recursive quick sort → partition & recursive sort.
Recursion in dynamic programming → memoization uses recursion.
Stack vs recursion → recursion uses implicit stack.
Stack in expression evaluation → stores operands & operators.
Stack in compiler → syntax parsing.
Stack in function calls → stores local vars & return addresses.
Stack in parsing → HTML/XML tag matching.
Stack in undo-redo → action history storage.
Stack in DFS → maintain path history.
Stack in backtracking → decision points storage.
Stack in memory → temporary variable storage.
Stack debugging → trace push/pop operations.
Stack overflow → recursion too deep → memory error.
Stack underflow → pop empty stack → error.
Recursive factorial → memory grows linearly with n.
Recursive Fibonacci → naive recursion exponential time.
Recursion vs iteration → iterative version often more efficient.
Tail recursion → optimizable → reuse current frame.
Non-tail recursion → needs new frame for each call.
Recursion principle → solve base case & reduce problem size.
Recursive backtracking → undo last decision if failed.
Stack-based recursion → explicit stack can replace recursion.
Importance in STET → Stack & Recursion are frequent questions in algorithms,
expression evaluation & data structures.

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******************************************************---------BINARY SEARCH
TREE---------------------*******************************************

Iteration & Recursion – Examples (1–50 points)

1. Binary Search:---------------------

Binary Search → search element in sorted array.

Iterative Binary Search → use while loop to narrow search range.
Recursive Binary Search → divide array & call function recursively.
Base case → if low > high → element not found.
Recursive mid calculation → mid = (low + high)/2.
If element = arr[mid] → return index.
If element < arr[mid] → search left subarray recursively.
If element > arr[mid] → search right subarray recursively.
Iterative → O(log n) time complexity.
Recursive → O(log n) time, O(log n) space due to call stack.
Binary search applicable only on sorted array.
Iterative → less memory than recursive.
Recursive → easy to write, divide & conquer style.
Example: arr = [1,3,5,7,9], search 5 → mid=2 → found.
Example: arr = [2,4,6,8,10], search 7 → recursive search left & right → not
found.

2. Fibonacci Numbers:-------------------------------------------
Fibonacci series → 0,1,1,2,3,5,8,13…
Iterative Fibonacci → use loop and two variables to generate series.
Recursive Fibonacci → fib(n) = fib(n-1) + fib(n-2).
Base case → fib(0)=0, fib(1)=1.
Iterative → O(n) time, O(1) space.
Recursive → O(2^n) time, O(n) space due to stack.
Recursive inefficient → repeated calculations.
Optimized recursion → memoization stores already computed values.
Example iterative → n=5 → 0,1,1,2,3,5.
Example recursive → n=5 → fib(5) = fib(4)+fib(3) → 5.

3. Tower of Hanoi:----------------------------------
Tower of Hanoi → move n disks from source to target peg using auxiliary peg.
Recursive solution → move n-1 disks to auxiliary, move nth disk to target, move
n-1 disks from auxiliary to target.
Base case → if n=1 → move disk directly.
Recursive → prints each move step.
Number of moves → 2^n - 1.
Iterative solution → using stack to simulate recursion.
Recursive → elegant & simple.
Iterative → uses explicit stack → tracks moves.
Example n=3 → moves: A→C, A→B, C→B, A→C, B→A, B→C, A→C.
Recursive solution → O(2^n) time complexity.
General Points (36–50)
Iteration → repeat steps until condition fails.
Recursion → function calls itself with smaller input.
Iteration → memory efficient.
Recursion → easy for divide & conquer problems.
Recursive → base case required to avoid infinite calls.
Iterative → uses loop counters, recursion → uses call stack.
Tower of Hanoi, Fibonacci series → natural recursion problems.
Binary search → works both iterative & recursive.
Recursive → stack overflow possible for large n.
Iterative → safer for large input size.
Recursion helps in mathematical problem solving.
Iterative helps in efficient computation.
STET focus → Binary search, Fibonacci, Hanoi → must know both iterative &
recursive approaches.
Recursive formulas → used in algorithms exams.
Iteration + Recursion → basic understanding improves Data Structure & Algorithm
skills.

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******************************************************---------QUEUE QUEUE
---------------------*******************************************
Queue – Operations & Types (1–50 points)

A. Basic Queue Concepts:--------------------------------------

Queue → Linear data structure, FIFO (First In First Out).
Create → Initialize empty queue.
Add → Insert element at rear.
Delete → Remove element from front.
Full → Check if queue is full (array implementation).
Empty → Check if queue is empty.
Front → Shows first element.
Rear → Shows last element.
Queue application → printer spooling, CPU scheduling.
Queue application → BFS in graph traversal.
Queue implementation → Array or Linked List.
Array queue → fixed size, simple indexing.
Linked queue → dynamic size, memory efficient.
Circular queue → front and rear wrap around array.
Circular queue → solves “wasted space” problem in array queue.
Enqueue → add element to rear.
Dequeue → remove element from front.
Overflow → enqueue in full queue.
Underflow → dequeue from empty queue.
Front = -1, Rear = -1 → indicates empty queue.
Array queue insertion → rear = (rear +1) % size.
Array queue deletion → front = (front +1) % size.
Circular queue size → (rear - front + size) % size +1.
Queue using linked list → nodes with data + next pointer.
Enqueue in linked list → insert at rear pointer.
Dequeue in linked list → remove at front pointer.
Priority queue → element with higher priority dequeued first.
Priority queue → can be implemented using array, linked list or heap.
Dequeue → double-ended queue, insertion/deletion at both ends.
Types of queue → Simple queue, Circular queue, Dequeue, Priority queue.
Circular queue full → (rear+1) % size == front.
Circular queue empty → front == -1.
Applications → Task scheduling, call center queue.
Applications → Order processing in online systems.
Queue vs Stack → FIFO vs LIFO.
Array queue → simple, fast, fixed size.
Linked queue → flexible memory allocation.
Dequeue → insertion at front/rear, deletion at front/rear.
Dequeue → used in job scheduling & cache systems.
Priority queue → elements assigned priority integer.
Higher priority → dequeued first, equal priority → FIFO.
Array implementation of priority queue → linear search for highest priority.
Linked list implementation → maintain sorted order by priority.
Circular queue → efficient memory usage in fixed array.
Queue operations → O(1) for linked list, O(1)/O(n) for array.
Front & rear pointers → track queue ends.
Queue underflow → handled by checking empty condition.
Queue overflow → handled by checking full condition.
Queue in C → use struct or array.
STET focus → Queue operations, circular queue logic, priority & dequeue
examples.

Queue – Advanced Points (51–

200):----------------------------------------------------
B. Circular Queue
Circular queue → uses array, front & rear wrap around.
Helps in reusing empty spaces of array queue.
Insertion (Enqueue) → rear = (rear + 1) % size.
Deletion (Dequeue) → front = (front + 1) % size.
Queue empty → front == -1.
Queue full → (rear + 1) % size == front.
Front element → arr[front].
Rear element → arr[rear].
Circular queue operations → O(1) time.
Application → CPU scheduling, buffer handling.
Circular queue avoids waste of space in simple array queue.
Wrap around ensures array memory fully used.
Implementation → array + front/rear pointers.
Initial state → front = -1, rear = -1.
Insertion first element → front = rear = 0.
Deletion last element → front = rear = -1 (queue empty).
Example: size=5, enqueue 1→5, dequeue 1, enqueue 6 → rear wraps around.
Circular queue → useful in real-time systems.
Circular queue → used in networking buffers.
Circular queue logic → must handle wrap around carefully.

C. Dequeue (Double Ended Queue):---------------------------------------

Dequeue → insertion & deletion at both ends (front & rear).
Operations → insertFront, insertRear, deleteFront, deleteRear.
Dequeue → combines stack & queue properties.
InpTypes → Input restricted, Output restricted.
ut restricted → insertion at front/rear, deletion at both ends.
Output restricted → deletion only from front/rear, insertion both ends.
Circular deque → improves space utilization.
Implementation → array or linked list.
Array deque → fixed size, circular indexing.
Linked list deque → dynamic size, easy insertion/deletion.
Dequeue → used in job scheduling.
Dequeue → used in undo operations in software.
Insertion front → (front-1+size)%size.
Insertion rear → (rear+1)%size.
Deletion front → front = (front+1)%size.
Deletion rear → rear = (rear-1+size)%size.
Empty check → front == -1.
Full check → (rear+1)%size == front.
Dequeue time complexity → O(1) for insertion & deletion.
Dequeue application → cache memory, sliding window problems.

D. Priority Queue:------------------------------------
Priority queue → element has priority value.
Higher priority → dequeued first.
Equal priority → FIFO order.
Implementation → array, linked list, heap.
Array implementation → linear search for highest priority.
Linked list → maintain sorted order by priority.
Heap → efficient insertion & deletion → O(log n).
Enqueue → insert element + assign priority.
Dequeue → remove element with highest priority.
Priority queue application → CPU process scheduling.
Real-time systems → tasks executed based on priority.
OS → uses priority queue for process scheduling.
Priority queue → used in Dijkstra & Huffman algorithms.
Min-priority → smallest value dequeued first.
Max-priority → largest value dequeued first.
Implementation array → O(n) for dequeue.
Implementation heap → O(log n) for dequeue & enqueue.
Linked list → sorted by priority, O(1) for dequeue.
Example: tasks A(priority 2), B(priority 5), C(priority 1) → dequeue order: B,
A, C.
Priority queue helps efficient resource allocation.

E. Queue Implementation in C:----------------------

Array Queue → fixed size, use front & rear index.
Linked Queue → use struct Node { data; next } + pointers front & rear.
Circular queue → array with wrap around.
Dequeue → array or linked implementation.
Priority queue → array, linked, heap.
Enqueue → insert element at rear.
Dequeue → remove element from front.
Display → traverse queue from front to rear.
Empty check → front == -1.
Full check → (rear+1)%size == front.
Linked queue → dynamic memory allocation.
malloc() used to create new node.
free() → delete node after dequeue.
Circular queue → efficient for fixed buffer.
Dequeue → supports insertion & deletion from both ends.
Priority queue → efficient task management.
Applications → printer queue, CPU scheduling, call center.
Queue → FIFO ensures order maintained.
Circular queue → avoids overflow in fixed array.
Dequeue → allows double-ended operations.

F. Common Queue Operations:-----------------------------

enqueue() → add element at rear.
dequeue() → remove element from front.
isEmpty() → check if queue empty.
isFull() → check if queue full (array).
peek() → get front element without removing.
size() → number of elements in queue.
display() → print all elements.
circularEnqueue() → insert at rear with wrap around.
circularDequeue() → delete front element with wrap around.
dequeueInsertFront() → insert at front in dequeue.
dequeueInsertRear() → insert at rear in dequeue.
dequeueDeleteFront() → delete front in dequeue.
dequeueDeleteRear() → delete rear in dequeue.
priorityEnqueue() → insert element by priority.
priorityDequeue() → delete element with highest priority.
queueMemory → array → fixed, linked → dynamic.
circularQueueMemory → array → efficient memory use.
dequeueMemory → linked → flexible, array → circular indexing.
priorityQueueMemory → array, linked list, heap.
queueErrors → overflow & underflow.

G. Applications & Important Points (151–200):-------------------------------

Printer spooler → queue for print jobs.
CPU scheduling → priority & circular queue.
BFS graph traversal → queue data structure.
Call center → tasks handled in queue order.
Undo/Redo → implemented using dequeue.
Sliding window → circular queue.
Real-time OS → priority queue.
Job scheduling → priority queue.
Buffer management → circular queue.
Traffic control → queue for signals.
Queue ensures orderly processing.
Circular queue → maximizes buffer utilization.
Dequeue → flexible insertion/deletion.
Priority queue → manages resources efficiently.
Queue implementation → must handle wrap around carefully.
Linked queue → avoids overflow, dynamic memory.
Array queue → simple, easy to debug.
Circular queue → used in embedded systems.
Priority queue → used in operating systems.
Dequeue → supports double-ended operations.
Queue → simple concept but widely applicable.
Circular queue → reduces memory wastage.
Dequeue → used in caches & sliding windows.
Priority queue → used in Dijkstra, Huffman coding.
OS → uses queues for process management.
Network → packet buffering uses queue.
Printer jobs → FIFO using queue.
Task scheduling → circular & priority queues.
Simulation problems → queue based.
Queue operations → fundamental for DS & algorithms.
Array queue → front & rear pointers.
Linked queue → front & rear node pointers.
Circular queue → front & rear wrap around modulo size.
Dequeue → insert/delete both ends, circular implementation.
Priority queue → array, linked list, heap.
Time complexity → enqueue/dequeue O(1) for linked list.
Array circular queue → O(1) for enqueue/dequeue.
Priority queue → heap O(log n) insertion & deletion.
Memory management → linked queue dynamic, array fixed.
Important for STET → know queue types, operations & examples.
STET exam → ask circular queue, dequeue & priority queue logic.
STET exam → C implementation of queue may be asked.
STET exam → time & space complexity for queue operations.
STET exam → applications in OS & real-life systems.
STET exam → wrap around logic in circular queue.
STET exam → insertion & deletion in dequeue.
STET exam → priority queue element order.
STET exam → differences → stack vs queue vs dequeue.
STET exam → front/rear pointers handling.
STET exam → practice array & linked implementation with examples.

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******************************************************---------SEARCHING
SEARCHING SEARCHING
---------------------*******************************************

Unit: Searching, Hashing & Sorting – Points 1–200

******A. Searching:---------------------------
Searching → finding location of an element in data structure.
Sequential search → check each element one by one.
Sequential search → simple, no sorting required.
Sequential search → time complexity O(n).
Sequential search → best case O(1), worst case O(n).
Example → array [5,3,8,6], search 8 → check 5,3,8 → found at 3rd pos.
Index sequential search → data divided into blocks with index table.
Index search → faster than sequential for large dataset.
Steps → search index first, then block sequentially.
Binary search → requires sorted array.
Binary search → divide & conquer technique.
Compare middle element with key.
If key < middle → search left half.
If key > middle → search right half.
Repeat until found or subarray empty.
Binary search → time complexity O(log n).
Best case → middle element matches → O(1).
Worst case → O(log n) comparisons.
Example → array [2,4,6,8,10], search 6 → middle=6 → found.
Binary search → efficient for large sorted arrays.
Binary search requires sorted array.
Sequential search → unsorted array works.
Sequential → simple, small data only.
Binary → divide & conquer, large data efficient.
Index sequential → hybrid, sorted blocks + index.
Index table size → depends on block size.
Block search → reduce comparisons, faster than pure sequential.
Index sequential → used in database access.
Index sequential search → O(√n) time if block size √n.
Binary search → recursive or iterative implementation.

B. Hashing:---------------------------------------
Hashing → technique to map key → index in table.
Hash function → f(key) = index.
Hash table → array to store data using hash key.
Collision → two keys map to same index.
Collision resolution → methods to handle collision.
Linear probing → check next slot sequentially.
Quadratic probing → next slot = (h + i²) % tableSize.
Chaining → each slot points to linked list of elements.
Double hashing → use second hash function on collision.
Hashing → O(1) search ideally.
Hashing used → fast access, database indexing.
Load factor → α = n / tableSize, affects collision.
Low load factor → less collision.
High load factor → more collision, need resizing.
Hash function → must distribute keys uniformly.
Example hash function → h(key) = key % tableSize.
Collision example → tableSize=10, keys=12,22 → collision at index 2.
Chaining → insert collided element in linked list.
Linear probing → insert in next empty slot.
Hashing → efficient for lookup, insertion, deletion.
Hash table → memory efficient for large data.
Collision → unavoidable, proper resolution needed.
Hashing used in symbol table of compilers.
Hashing → used in password storage & retrieval.
Hashing → supports dynamic insertions & deletions.
Hash table → array + hash function.
Index sequential → uses block + index → hybrid approach.
Sequential search → simple, works for unsorted.
Binary search → efficient, requires sorted.
Hashing → O(1) average case search.

C. Sorting Algorithms:----------------------------
Sorting → arranging elements in ascending/descending order.
Insertion sort → pick element, insert at correct position.
Insertion sort → simple, adaptive for nearly sorted array.
Time complexity → worst O(n²), best O(n).
Example → [5,2,4,6,1] → sorted step by step using insertion.
Selection sort → select smallest element & swap with first unsorted.
Time complexity → always O(n²).
Selection sort → not adaptive, simple implementation.
Example → [29,10,14,37] → sorted step by step.
Bubble sort → repeatedly swap adjacent elements if out of order.
Bubble sort → simple but inefficient for large n.
Time complexity → worst O(n²), best O(n) if already sorted.
Optimized bubble → stop if no swap in pass.
Heap sort → convert array into heap → repeatedly extract max/min.
Heap sort → efficient, O(n log n).
Heap → complete binary tree, max-heap & min-heap.
Heapify → maintain heap property after insertion/deletion.
Counting sort → linear time for limited range of integers.
Counting sort → non-comparison based sorting.
Counting sort → create count array, calculate positions, output sorted array.
Bucket sort → divide elements into buckets → sort each → combine.
Bucket sort → useful for uniform distribution of numbers.
Comparison of algorithms → Bubble/Insertion/Selection → O(n²).
Heap sort, Merge sort, Quick sort → O(n log n).
Counting & Bucket sort → linear time O(n+k).
Quick sort → divide & conquer, pick pivot, partition array.
Quick sort → average O(n log n), worst O(n²).
Merge sort → divide array, sort halves, merge.
Merge sort → stable, O(n log n).
Stability → relative order of equal keys preserved.
Insertion sort → adaptive & stable.
Selection sort → not stable, not adaptive.
Bubble sort → stable & adaptive.
Heap sort → not stable, not adaptive.
Counting sort → stable, O(n+k), uses extra memory.
Bucket sort → stable if inner sort stable.
Radix sort → linear time, uses counting sort internally.
Radix → sort by digits, LSD → least significant digit first.
Comparison → choose based on data size, memory & stability.
Sorting → essential for searching, data organization.

D. Key Points for STET:------------------------------------

Sequential → simple, O(n), unsorted array.
Index sequential → sorted blocks, O(√n).
Binary → sorted array, O(log n), recursive or iterative.
Hashing → O(1) average, uses hash function & table.
Collision → handled by chaining, linear/quadratic probing, double hashing.
Insertion sort → adaptive, O(n²) worst.
Selection sort → O(n²), simple but not adaptive.
Bubble sort → O(n²), can optimize with flag.
Heap sort → O(n log n), not stable.
Merge sort → O(n log n), stable.
Quick sort → average O(n log n), pivot choice critical.
Counting sort → O(n+k), linear, for integer keys.
Bucket sort → divide & conquer for uniform data.
Radix sort → non-comparison sort, stable.
Stability → important for preserving key order.
Hashing → used in symbol table, DB indexing.
Collision → unavoidable, resolution critical.
Binary search → divide & conquer.
Sequential → small datasets, simple.
Index sequential → hybrid method.
Insertion → simple & adaptive.
Bubble → simple, minor optimization.
Selection → simple, inefficient.
Heap → efficient, O(n log n).
Merge → stable & predictable.
Quick → efficient, pivot choice important.
Counting → linear, for limited range.
Bucket → works well for uniform distribution.
Radix → multiple passes, stable.
STET exam → know algorithm type, complexity, stability, memory.
Example → Sequential search → array [3,1,4,2] → search 2 → index 3.
Example → Binary search → [1,3,5,7,9] → search 5 → mid=5 → found.
Example → Hash → keys 12,22,32, table size=10 → collisions handled.
Example → Insertion sort → [5,3,4,1] → sorted [1,3,4,5].
Example → Selection sort → [29,10,14] → sorted [10,14,29].
Example → Bubble sort → swap adjacent → sorted array.
Example → Heap sort → build max heap → extract max.
Example → Merge sort → divide array → merge sorted halves.
Example → Quick sort → choose pivot → partition → recursively sort.
Example → Counting sort → count array → place elements.
Example → Bucket sort → divide into 5 buckets → sort individually → merge.
Example → Radix sort → sort by LSD → MSD.
Hash table → fast insertion & deletion.
Collision resolution → key for correct hashing.
Searching & sorting → fundamental in DS.
Complexity analysis → STET exam → often asked.
Memory usage → array → static, linked → dynamic.
Stable sort → preserves original order.
Linear search → simple but inefficient for large data.
Binary search → efficient for large sorted arrays.
Index sequential search → combines sequential & index.
Hashing → O(1) average, key → hash → index.
Collision → unavoidable → resolution required.
Linear probing → check next slot.
Quadratic probing → jump i² slots.
Chaining → linked list per index.
Double hashing → secondary hash function.
Insertion sort → efficient for nearly sorted data.
Selection sort → always O(n²
Collision → unavoidable, proper resolution required.
Linear probing → next slot check karo agar collision ho.
Quadratic probing → next slot = (h + i²) % tableSize.
Chaining → har slot ke liye linked list use karo.
Double hashing → secondary hash function use karo collision ke liye.
Insertion sort → nearly sorted data ke liye efficient.
Selection sort → simple, O(n²), adaptive nahi.
Bubble sort → swap adjacent elements, simple aur stable.
Heap sort → max/min heap bana ke sort karo, O(n log n).
Merge sort → divide array, sort halves, merge, stable.
Quick sort → pivot choose karo, partition karo, recursively sort, average O(n
log n).
Counting sort → linear time, integer keys ke liye best.
Bucket sort → uniform distributed data ke liye best.
Radix sort → multiple passes, stable, digits ke basis pe sort.
Stability → equal elements ki relative order preserved.
Time complexity → STET exam mein important.
Space complexity → algorithm choose karte time consider karo.
Recursion → sorting algorithms jaise quick & merge mein use hota hai.
Iterative approach → insertion & bubble mein efficient implementation.
Sequential search → unsorted arrays ke liye best.
Binary search → sorted arrays ke liye best.
Index sequential → sorted blocks ke liye hybrid approach.
Hashing → O(1) average access, insert, delete.
Collision → hash table ko inefficient bana sakta hai.
Load factor → α = n / tableSize, affect karta hai collision.
Low load factor → kam collision, high load factor → zyada collision.
Hash function → uniform distribution ensure kare.
Example → h(key) = key % tableSize, keys 12,22,32 → collision handled.
Linear probing example → 12 map to index 2 → slot occupied → next slot check
karo.
Quadratic probing example → 12 → i² offset add karo → 2+1=3 → check index 3.
Chaining example → linked list me 12,22 store karo same index par.
Double hashing example → secondary hash function h2(key) = 7 - (key % 7).
Insertion sort example → [5,3,4,1] → step by step sort [1,3,4,5].
Selection sort example → [29,10,14] → stepwise sort [10,14,29].
Bubble sort example → [5,2,9,1] → multiple passes → sorted [1,2,5,9].
Heap sort example → array → max heap → extract max repeatedly.
Merge sort example → [4,3,2,1] → divide → merge sorted halves → [1,2,3,4].
Quick sort example → pivot=4 → partition → recursively sort → sorted array.
Counting sort example → elements 2,5,3 → count array → sorted [2,3,5].
Bucket sort example → divide 0–100 range into 5 buckets → sort each → merge.
Radix sort example → digits ke basis pe LSD se sort → final sorted array.
Choosing sort → data size, memory, stability aur simplicity dekh kar select
karo.
Searching & sorting → computer science fundamentals → STET mein frequently
asked.
Sequential search → simple, inefficient for large n.
Binary search → efficient for large sorted n, recursive/iterative implement.
Hashing → symbol table, database indexing aur fast access ke liye.
Collision resolution → critical for correct hashing & performance.
STET exam tips → algorithms ke type, complexity, memory use, stability aur
examples yaad karo.

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******************************************************--------GRAPH GRAPH
GRAPH ---------------------*******************************************

Graph → set of vertices (nodes) aur edges (connections).

Vertex → graph ka ek node.
Edge → do vertices ke beech connection.
Directed graph → edges ka direction fixed hota hai.
Undirected graph → edges ka direction nahi hota.
Weighted graph → edges ke saath weight/value hota hai.
Unweighted graph → edges ka weight nahi hota.
Cyclic graph → ek ya zyada cycle present.
Acyclic graph → koi cycle nahi hoti.
Connected graph → har vertex reachable hai kisi path se.
Disconnected graph → kuch vertices unreachable hai.
Complete graph → har vertex directly connected har dusre vertex se.
Sparse → edges kam hai, vertices zyada.
Dense graph → edges zyada hai, vertices kam.
Path → ek vertex se dusre vertex tak ka sequence.
Simple path → repeated vertices ya edges nahi.
Cycle → path start aur end same vertex par ho.
Degree of vertex → edges ki sankhya connected vertex ke saath.
In-degree → directed graph me incoming edges.
Out-degree → directed graph me outgoing edges.
Graph representation → adjacency matrix ya adjacency list.
Adjacency matrix → 2D array, [i][j]=1 agar edge exist kare.
Adjacency list → har vertex ke liye linked list of adjacent vertices.
Edge list → edges ka simple list representation.
Space complexity → adjacency matrix O(V²), adjacency list O(V+E).
Graph traversal → har vertex visit karna systematically.
BFS → level wise traversal, queue use karo.
DFS → depth wise traversal, stack ya recursion use karo.
Connected component → disconnected graph me independent subgraph.
Graph terminology → vertex, edge, degree, path, cycle, connected.
BFS example → queue me start vertex → visit neighbors → enqueue.
DFS example → stack/recursion → visit vertex → visit adjacent unvisited.
BFS uses → shortest path (unweighted), level of nodes.
DFS uses → cycle detection, topological sort, connected components.
Topological sort → DAG me vertices ka linear ordering.
Detect cycle → DFS + recursion stack in directed graph.
Spanning tree → connected graph ka tree with V-1 edges.
Minimum spanning tree → connected weighted graph ka minimum cost tree.
MST algorithms → Prim’s aur Kruskal’s algorithm.
Prim’s → start vertex se grow karo tree greedily.
Kruskal’s → edges sort karo by weight → pick edges avoiding cycle.
Disjoint Set → cycle detection in Kruskal’s.
Graph search complexity → BFS & DFS O(V+E).
Weighted shortest path → Dijkstra’s algorithm (non-negative weights).
Bellman-Ford → negative weight edge ke liye shortest path.
Floyd-Warshall → all-pairs shortest path.
Graph as network → modeling real-world problems.
Directed acyclic graph → DAG, used in scheduling & topological sorting.
Graph coloring → assign colors so adjacent vertices different colors.
Application → maps, networking, social networks, dependency resolution.

Graph traversal → systematic way me har vertex visit karna.

BFS uses → shortest path in unweighted graph.
DFS uses → cycle detection, path finding.
DFS recursive implementation → easy aur simple.
DFS iterative → stack use kar ke implement.
BFS → queue-based level order traversal.
Connected component → har component ek independent subgraph.
Count connected components → BFS/DFS repeatedly.
Graph cycle → vertex sequence jahan start=end.
Directed graph cycle detection → DFS + recursion stack.
Undirected graph cycle detection → DFS + parent tracking.
Topological sort → linear ordering of DAG vertices.
Topological sort applications → task scheduling, course prerequisites.
Kahn’s algorithm → topological sort using in-degree & queue.
DFS based topological sort → post-order traversal.
Graph representation → choose based on sparsity & operations.
Adjacency matrix → fast edge lookup, O(1).
Adjacency list → space efficient for sparse graph.
Weighted graph → edges have weights → shortest path problems.
Dijkstra’s algorithm → single source shortest path, non-negative weights.
Bellman-Ford algorithm → handles negative weights, detects negative cycles.
Floyd-Warshall → all-pairs shortest path, O(V³) complexity.
Graph coloring → assign colors to vertices, adjacent vertices different.
Applications of graph coloring → register allocation, map coloring.
Spanning tree → subset of edges connecting all vertices without cycle.
Minimum Spanning Tree (MST) → spanning tree with minimum total weight.
Prim’s algorithm → grow MST from any vertex greedily.
Kruskal’s algorithm → sort edges, add smallest edge avoiding cycle.
Disjoint set (Union-Find) → cycle detection, Kruskal’s.
Graph search → BFS & DFS complexity O(V+E).
Graph with adjacency list → better for sparse graph.
Graph with adjacency matrix → better for dense graph.
Graph applications → computer networks, social networks, maps.
Edge types in DFS → tree, back, forward, cross edges.
Back edge → indicates cycle in directed graph.
Graph traversal → iterative & recursive approaches.
Queue → BFS implementation.
Stack → DFS iterative implementation.
Recursive DFS → simple, uses system call stack.
BFS level order → useful for shortest path in unweighted graph.
Graph diameter → longest shortest path between any two vertices.
Graph radius → minimum eccentricity of vertices.
Eccentricity → max distance from vertex to any other vertex.
Central vertex → vertex with minimum eccentricity.
BFS tree → spanning tree generated by BFS traversal.
DFS tree → spanning tree generated by DFS traversal.
Directed graph → edges have direction.
Undirected graph → edges have no direction.
Weighted edge → cost/value associated with edge.
Unweighted edge → no cost, just connection.
Sparse graph → edges << V², adjacency list preferred.
Dense graph → edges ≈ V², adjacency matrix preferred.
In-degree → number of incoming edges in directed graph.
Out-degree → number of outgoing edges in directed graph.
Total degree → sum of in-degree and out-degree.
Graph traversal uses → path finding, connectivity check.
Graph connectivity → graph is connected if all vertices reachable.
Strongly connected → directed graph where every vertex reachable from every
other.
Weakly connected → ignoring directions → connected.
Bridge → edge removal increases number of connected components.
Articulation point → vertex removal increases components.
Cut-edge → same as bridge.
Cut-vertex → same as articulation point.
DFS discovery time → time when vertex first visited.
DFS finishing time → time when DFS completes vertex.
Backtracking in graph → explore paths, backtrack on dead end.
Hamiltonian path → visit each vertex exactly once.
Hamiltonian cycle → Hamiltonian path + start=end.
Eulerian path → visit each edge exactly once.
Eulerian cycle → Eulerian path + start=end.
Eulerian graph → all vertices even degree (undirected) → has Eulerian cycle.
Semi-Eulerian → exactly 2 vertices odd degree → Eulerian path exists.
Hamiltonian cycle check → NP-complete problem.
Graph density → ratio of edges to maximum possible edges.
Bipartite graph → vertices split in 2 sets, edges only between sets.
Check bipartite → BFS/DFS + 2-coloring.
Graph isomorphism → two graphs with same structure.
Weighted graph applications → network routing, shortest path, MST.
Adjacency matrix advantages → quick edge check, simple implementation.
Adjacency matrix disadvantages → high memory for sparse graphs.
Adjacency list advantages → memory efficient, easy to traverse neighbors.
Adjacency list disadvantages → slow edge existence check.
Graph traversal order → important for algorithm correctness.
BFS for shortest path → layer by layer visit.
DFS for connectivity → explore deeply before backtracking.
Cycle detection in undirected → DFS + parent tracking.
Cycle detection in directed → DFS + recursion stack.
Topological sort applications → dependency resolution, scheduling.
Prim’s algorithm complexity → O(V²) adjacency matrix, O(E log V) with min-heap.
Kruskal’s algorithm complexity → O(E log E) = O(E log V).
Disjoint set operations → make-set, find, union.
Path compression → optimize find operation in disjoint set.
Union by rank → optimize union operation.
Graph edge list → simple representation of edges.
BFS example → queue → visit vertex → enqueue neighbors → repeat.
DFS example → stack/recursion → visit vertex → push neighbors → repeat.
Connected components count → repeated BFS/DFS on unvisited vertices.
Graph adjacency → vertex neighbors representation.
Weighted adjacency → matrix/list store weights instead of 1.
Sparse vs dense graphs → choose representation accordingly.
Dijkstra’s algorithm → shortest distance from source to all vertices.
Bellman-Ford → negative weight edges allowed, detect negative cycles.
Floyd-Warshall → all-pairs shortest paths, dynamic programming approach.
Graph coloring → assign colors to vertices, no two adjacent same.
Applications of graph coloring → timetabling, register allocation.
Spanning tree → V-1 edges, connected, acyclic.
Minimum Spanning Tree → Prim’s & Kruskal’s algorithms.
Prim’s → grow tree from vertex, add minimum edge each step.
Kruskal’s → sort edges, add edge if no cycle.
DFS tree → tree edges discovered by DFS traversal.
BFS tree → tree edges discovered by BFS traversal.
Eulerian cycle/path → visit edges exactly once.
Hamiltonian cycle/path → visit vertices exactly once.
Bipartite check → 2-color BFS/DFS method.
Directed acyclic graph → no cycles → used for scheduling & topological sort.
Graph density → edges / max possible edges.
Bridge → edge whose removal disconnects graph.
Articulation point → vertex whose removal disconnects graph.
Graph traversal uses → connectivity, shortest path, cycle detection.
Weighted graphs → shortest path & MST problems.
Graph algorithms complexity → BFS/DFS O(V+E)
Dijkstra → O(V²) matrix, O(E log V) min-heap.
Bellman-Ford → O(VE).
Floyd-Warshall → O(V³).
Prim’s → adjacency matrix O(V²), adjacency list + heap O(E log V).
Kruskal → O(E log V).
Graph applications → routing, social networks, dependency modeling.
BFS queue implementation → level order traversal.
DFS stack/recursion → depth first traversal.
Graph terminology recap → vertex, edge, degree, path, cycle, connected.
Topological sorting → linear order of DAG vertices.
Kahn’s algorithm → BFS-based topological sorting.
DFS-based topological sorting → post-order DFS.
Shortest path algorithms → Dijkstra, Bellman-Ford, Floyd-Warshall.
Minimum Spanning Tree → Prim & Kruskal.
Disjoint set → cycle detection, Kruskal optimization.
Path compression → optimize disjoint set find.
Union by rank → optimize disjoint set union.
Eulerian graph → all vertices even degree.
Semi-Eulerian → exactly 2 vertices odd degree.
Hamiltonian graph → Hamiltonian cycle exists.
Graph density → sparse vs dense.
Graph representation choice → adjacency matrix vs list.
BFS use → shortest path, level order traversal.
DFS use → connected components, cycle detection, topological sort.
Graph coloring → scheduling, map coloring.
Bridge & articulation → connectivity critical points.
Weighted graph → network routing, MST.
Directed vs undirected → edge direction matters.
STET exam tip → algorithms, complexity, traversal, MST, shortest path examples
yaad rakho.

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******************************************************---------TREE TREE TREE

TREE ---------------------*******************************************

Unit: Tree & Binary Tree:--------------------------------------

Tree → hierarchical data structure, root, nodes, edges.
Root → top-most node in tree.
Leaf node → node with no children.
Internal node → node with at least one child.
Parent → node with edges to children.
Child → node connected from parent.
Sibling → nodes sharing same parent.
Subtree → tree formed by any node & its descendants.
Path → sequence of nodes connected by edges.
Depth of node → number of edges from root to node.
Height of tree → longest path from root to leaf.
Binary tree → each node has ≤ 2 children.
Full binary tree → all nodes 0 or 2 children.
Complete binary tree → all levels full except last, left-filled.
Perfect binary tree → all internal nodes 2 children, all leaves same level.
Extended binary tree → add external nodes to make all internal nodes have 2
children.
Binary Search Tree (BST) → left child < parent < right child.
Array representation of binary tree → root at index 1, left=2i, right=2i+1.
Pointer/Linked List representation → node struct with left & right pointers.
Traversal → process of visiting all nodes.
Inorder traversal → Left → Root → Right, BST gives sorted order.
Preorder traversal → Root → Left → Right, used in copying tree.
Postorder traversal → Left → Right → Root, used in deletion.
Level-order traversal → BFS using queue.
Height of tree → max depth of leaf.
Recursive traversal → simple, uses call stack.
Iterative traversal → stack/queue used instead of recursion.
Insertion in BST → follow BST property, find correct position.
Deletion in BST → 3 cases: leaf, one child, two children.
Searching in BST → start from root, compare, move left/right.
AVL tree → self-balancing BST, balance factor = height(left)-height(right).
Rotation in AVL → Left Rotate, Right Rotate, LR, RL to balance tree.
Height-balanced → difference between left & right subtree ≤ 1.
Complete binary tree representation in array → index formula.
Extended binary tree uses → simplifies algorithms for binary operations.
Threaded binary tree → uses null pointers to store inorder
successor/predecessor.
Threaded binary tree → reduces stack/recursion usage.
Expression tree → leaf nodes operands, internal nodes operators.
Construct expression tree → postfix/prefix expressions.
Evaluate expression tree → postorder traversal.
B-tree → balanced multiway search tree, used in databases.
B+ tree → variant of B-tree, data only in leaves, internal nodes indexing.
B-tree order → max number of children a node can have.
Insertion in B-tree → maintain sorted order, split if full.
Deletion in B-tree → merge/borrow to maintain minimum keys.
Multiway search tree → more than 2 children, for disk storage efficiency.
Height of B-tree → logt(n) → t=minimum degree, n=keys.
Trie → tree for storing strings efficiently, nodes for characters.
Trie insertion/search → O(length of word).
Trie applications → autocomplete, dictionary search.
Heap → complete binary tree, satisfies heap property.
Max-heap → parent ≥ children, root is max.
Min-heap → parent ≤ children, root is min.
Heap insertion → add at last, bubble up.
Heap deletion → remove root, replace with last, bubble down.
Priority Queue → implemented using heap.
Heap sort → build heap, extract max/min repeatedly.
Binary tree vs BST → BST maintains order, binary tree no order.
Tree applications → expression parsing, hierarchical data, indexing.
Tree storage → array (compact) or linked (dynamic).
Threaded binary tree → inorder threads reduce stack usage.
Threaded binary tree types → single & double threaded.
Expression tree evaluation → postorder traversal.
Binary tree height calculation → recursive max of left & right +1.
Count nodes in binary tree → recursive: left+right+1.
Count leaves → if left & right null → leaf.
Count internal nodes → total - leaf nodes.
Ancestor of node → nodes on path from root.
Descendants → all nodes under given node.
LCA (Lowest Common Ancestor) → deepest common ancestor of two nodes.
LCA in BST → compare keys, go left/right accordingly.
Recursive LCA → simple, base condition root=null or matches key.
Iterative LCA → loop through BST using key comparison.
Diameter of binary tree → longest path between any two nodes.
Diameter calculation → recursive left height + right height.
Morris traversal → inorder without recursion & stack.
Serialization of tree → store tree structure in file/array.
Deserialization → reconstruct tree from serialized data.
Binary tree to doubly linked list → convert inorder sequence to DLL.
Balanced tree → maintain log(n) height for efficiency.
Complete binary tree → array implementation efficient for heaps.
Sparse tree → linked list better than array.
BFS vs DFS → BFS uses queue, DFS uses stack/recursion.
Recursive tree algorithms → simple, elegant, intuitive.
Iterative tree algorithms → memory efficient, stack-based.
Threaded tree advantage → saves stack/recursion memory.
Expression tree → useful in compilers.
Binary tree applications → parsing, search trees, heaps.
AVL rotation types → single right/left, double right-left/left-right.
Height of AVL → log2(n+1) approximately.
Insertion in AVL → may need rotations to maintain balance.
Deletion in AVL → may need rotations to maintain balance.
B-tree insertion/deletion → maintain sorted keys & balance.
B+ tree → all data at leaf → faster range queries.
Trie → prefix tree → stores strings efficiently.
Heapify → adjust node to maintain heap property.
Build heap → bottom-up or top-down methods.
Heap applications → priority queue, scheduling, heap sort.
Binary tree storage → dynamic (linked) or static (array).
Recursive tree operations → height, nodes, leaves, traversal.
Level-order traversal → queue → useful for BFS.
BFS uses → shortest path in unweighted trees.
DFS uses → connectivity, path finding, cycle detection in graphs.
Tree vs graph → tree has no cycles, graph can have.
Rooted tree → node designated as root.
Forest → set of disjoint trees.
Binary tree complete vs perfect → complete last level may be partial.
Threaded tree → inorder successor/predecessor stored in null pointers.
Threaded tree types → inorder, preorder, postorder threading.
Binary search tree search → recursive or iterative.
BST insertion → maintain order property.
BST deletion → handle leaf, one child, two children.
AVL tree → self-balancing BST.
AVL rotation → correct imbalance after insertion/deletion.
Height of AVL → log(n).
Heap insert → maintain heap property after adding node.
Heap delete → remove root & heapify.
Priority queue → max/min heap based.
Heap applications → scheduling, median finding.
Expression tree → evaluate expressions in compilers.
Expression tree construction → postfix/prefix conversion.
LCA algorithms → BST vs general binary tree.
Tree recursion principle → divide & conquer.
Binary tree path sum → recursive computation.
Binary tree mirror → swap left & right recursively.
Height-balanced tree → difference between left & right subtree ≤ 1.
Complete tree array representation → root at index 1.
Extended binary tree → adds external nodes for algorithm simplicity.
Binary tree deletion → postorder traversal safe.
Binary tree traversal → inorder, preorder, postorder, level-order.
Threaded binary tree → reduce stack usage in traversal.
Tree serialization → store tree structure for storage/transfer.
Tree deserialization → reconstruct tree from stored data.
BST inorder → sorted order of keys.
BST preorder → useful for copy/clone tree.
BST postorder → useful for deletion.
Tree diameter → longest path between two nodes.
Tree applications → database indexing, compilers, expression evaluation.
Recursive tree operations → natural fit for hierarchical data.
Iterative tree operations → save recursion stack, iterative traversal.
Count total nodes → recursively: left + right + 1.
Count leaf nodes → node with no children.
Count internal nodes → total nodes – leaf nodes.
Tree height → max depth from root to leaf.
Tree depth → number of edges from root to given node.
Diameter → longest path between any two nodes.
Diameter calculation → max(left height + right height, left diameter, right
diameter).
Ancestors → nodes on path from root to given node.
Descendants → all nodes under a node.
Lowest Common Ancestor (LCA) → deepest node that is ancestor of two nodes.
LCA in BST → compare keys and traverse left/right accordingly.
Recursive LCA → base case root=null or root matches key.
Iterative LCA → use loop in BST using key comparison.
Tree traversal applications → searching, sorting, expression evaluation.
BFS → uses queue, visits level by level.
DFS → uses stack/recursion, visits depth first.
Level-order traversal → queue-based BFS.
Preorder traversal → Root → Left → Right.
Inorder traversal → Left → Root → Right.
Postorder traversal → Left → Right → Root.
Threaded binary tree → uses null pointers for inorder successor/predecessor.
Single threaded tree → only one thread (successor/predecessor).
Double threaded tree → threads for both predecessor & successor.
Expression tree → leaf nodes operands, internal nodes operators.
Evaluate expression tree → postorder traversal.
Construct expression tree → from postfix/prefix expressions.
AVL tree → self-balancing BST, balance factor = height(left) - height(right).
AVL rotations → single (left/right), double (LR/RL).
Height of AVL → log2(n+1) approximately.
Insertion in AVL → follow BST insertion + rotations to balance.
Deletion in AVL → follow BST deletion + rotations to balance.
B-tree → balanced multiway search tree, used in databases.
B+ tree → data only in leaves, internal nodes indexing.
B-tree order → max children a node can have.
B-tree insertion → maintain sorted keys, split nodes if full.
B-tree deletion → merge/borrow to maintain minimum keys.
Multiway search tree → more than 2 children, better for disk storage.
Trie → prefix tree, stores strings efficiently.
Trie insertion/search → O(length of word).
Trie applications → autocomplete, dictionary search.
Heap → complete binary tree with heap property.
Max-heap → parent ≥ children, root max.
Min-heap → parent ≤ children, root min.
Heap insertion → insert at last, bubble up.
Heap deletion → remove root, replace last, bubble down.
Priority queue → implemented using heap.
Heap sort → build heap, extract root repeatedly.
Binary tree storage → array (compact) or linked list (dynamic).
Recursive operations → height, count nodes/leaves, traversal.
Iterative operations → stack/queue based traversal.
BFS → shortest path in unweighted trees.
DFS → connectivity, path finding, cycle detection.
Forest → set of disjoint trees.
Rooted tree → node designated as root.
Full binary tree → nodes have 0 or 2 children.
Complete binary tree → all levels full except last, left filled.
Perfect binary tree → all internal nodes have 2 children, all leaves same level.
Extended binary tree → add external nodes for algorithm simplicity.
Applications of trees → parsing expressions, hierarchical data, indexing,
databases, compilers.

********************************************************************************
*********************************************Tree Traversal & Advanced Trees (1–
50)

Inorder traversal → Left → Root → Right.

Preorder traversal → Root → Left → Right.
Postorder traversal → Left → Right → Root.
Inorder recursive → visit left subtree, root, right subtree.
Preorder recursive → visit root, left subtree, right subtree.
Postorder recursive → visit left subtree, right subtree, root.
Iterative inorder → use stack to track nodes.
Iterative preorder → use stack, push right first, then left.
Iterative postorder → use 2 stacks or modified 1 stack.
Level-order traversal → BFS using queue.
Construct binary tree from inorder & preorder → recursive split using root from
preorder.
Construct binary tree from inorder & postorder → recursive split using root from
postorder.
Construct binary tree from inorder & level-order → identify root using
level-order, split by inorder.
Binary Search Tree (BST) → left < root < right for each node.
BST insertion → traverse to find correct position, insert as leaf.
BST deletion → case1: leaf, case2: one child, case3: two children (use inorder
successor).
BST searching → traverse left/right based on key comparison.
BST modification → search node & update value.
Threaded binary tree → null pointers replaced by inorder predecessor/successor.
Single threaded → only one side threaded (predecessor or successor).
Double threaded → both left & right threads maintained.
Threaded tree traversal → inorder without stack/recursion.
Huffman coding → variable length prefix code for data compression.
Huffman tree → construct using min heap of frequencies.
Huffman encoding → assign 0/1 for left/right, generate binary codes.
Huffman decoding → traverse tree based on bits to get original data.
AVL tree → self-balancing BST, balance factor = height(left) – height(right).
AVL rotations → single left/right or double LR/RL rotations.
AVL insertion → BST insertion + rotations to balance tree.
AVL deletion → BST deletion + rotations to maintain balance.
B-tree → balanced multiway search tree, used in databases.
B-tree order → maximum children per node.
B-tree insertion → maintain sorted keys, split nodes when full.
B-tree deletion → merge/borrow to maintain minimum keys.
B+ tree → data only in leaves, internal nodes for indexing.
B+ tree insertion → maintain leaf nodes linked & index updated.
B+ tree deletion → delete from leaf, update internal nodes.
B+ tree search → traverse internal nodes to reach leaf, O(log n).
Trie → prefix tree for storing strings efficiently.
Trie insertion → follow prefix path, create nodes if missing.
Trie search → traverse nodes by characters of word.
Trie applications → autocomplete, dictionary, IP routing.
Heap → complete binary tree with heap property.
Max-heap → parent ≥ children, root is maximum.
Min-heap → parent ≤ children, root is minimum.
Heap insertion → insert at last node, bubble up to maintain heap property.
Heap deletion → remove root, replace with last node, bubble down.
Heap sort → build heap, repeatedly extract root to sort array.
Priority queue → implemented using max/min heap.
Tree applications → expression parsing, hierarchical data, indexing,
compression, database indexing.
Binary tree height → maximum depth from root to leaf.
Binary tree depth → edges from root to node.
Leaf node → node with no children.
Internal node → node with at least one child.
Complete binary tree → all levels full except last, left-filled.
Perfect binary tree → all internal nodes have 2 children, all leaves at same
level.
Full binary tree → nodes have 0 or 2 children.
Extended binary tree → add external nodes to simplify algorithms.
Ancestors → nodes on path from root to a given node.
Descendants → all nodes below a node.
Lowest Common Ancestor (LCA) → deepest node that is ancestor of 2 nodes.
LCA in BST → traverse comparing keys to find split point.
Recursive LCA → base case root=null or root matches key.
Iterative LCA → loop using key comparison in BST.
Diameter → longest path between any 2 nodes.
Diameter calculation → max(left height + right height, left diameter, right
diameter).
Node count → recursively left + right + 1.
Leaf count → recursively count nodes with no children.
Internal node count → total nodes – leaf nodes.
Subtree → tree rooted at any node with its descendants.
Threaded binary tree → null pointers replaced with inorder
predecessor/successor.
Single threaded → only left or right threads used.
Double threaded → both left & right threads maintained.
Threaded tree inorder traversal → no stack/recursion required.
Huffman coding → efficient variable-length prefix code for compression.
Huffman tree → construct using min heap of character frequencies.
Huffman encoding → assign 0 for left, 1 for right edges.
Huffman decoding → traverse tree as per bit sequence.
Applications of Huffman → file compression, multimedia, networking.
AVL tree → self-balancing BST.
Balance factor → height(left subtree) – height(right subtree).
Single rotation → left or right rotation to balance tree.
Double rotation → left-right (LR) or right-left (RL) rotation.
AVL insertion → insert like BST + balance using rotations.
AVL deletion → delete like BST + balance using rotations.
Height of AVL → log2(n+1) approximately.
Searching in AVL → same as BST, O(log n).
B-tree → balanced multiway search tree, used in DBMS.
B-tree node → contains multiple keys and child pointers.
B-tree order → max children per node.
B-tree insertion → insert in leaf, split if full.
B-tree deletion → delete key, merge/borrow if necessary.
B+ tree → data stored only in leaves.
B+ tree internal nodes → store keys for indexing.
B+ tree insertion → maintain sorted leaves + update internal nodes.
B+ tree deletion → remove from leaf, update indexes.
B+ tree search → traverse internal nodes → reach leaf.
Trie → prefix tree, stores strings efficiently.
Trie insertion → create nodes for characters if missing.
Trie search → traverse nodes along characters of word.
Trie applications → autocomplete, spell check, IP routing.
Heap → complete binary tree satisfying heap property.
Max-heap → parent ≥ children.
Min-heap → parent ≤ children.
Heap insertion → insert at last, bubble up to maintain heap.
Heap deletion → remove root, replace with last, bubble down.
Heap sort → build heap, extract root repeatedly.
Priority queue → implemented using heap.
Level-order traversal → BFS using queue.
DFS traversal → uses stack/recursion.
Inorder iterative → stack-based, Left → Root → Right.
Preorder iterative → stack-based, Root → Left → Right.
Postorder iterative → 2 stacks or modified 1 stack.
Expression tree → leaf nodes operands, internal nodes operators.
Evaluate expression tree → postorder traversal.
Construct expression tree → from postfix/prefix expressions.
Binary tree applications → hierarchical data storage.
Binary tree applications → expression parsing.
Binary tree applications → database indexing.
Binary tree applications → Huffman coding.
Binary tree applications → syntax tree in compilers.
Tree height → recursively find max depth of left/right subtrees.
Count total nodes → recursively count left + right + 1.
Count leaf nodes → recursively count nodes with no children.
Count internal nodes → total – leaf nodes.
Diameter → longest path between any 2 nodes.
Diameter → max(left height + right height, left diameter, right diameter).
Ancestors → nodes on path from root to a node.
Descendants → nodes under a given node.
Recursive operations → height, count nodes/leaves, traversal.
Iterative operations → stack/queue based traversal.
BFS → shortest path in unweighted trees.
DFS → connectivity, path finding, cycle detection.
Forest → set of disjoint trees.
Rooted tree → node designated as root.
Full binary tree → nodes have 0 or 2 children.
Complete binary tree → all levels full except last, left filled.
Perfect binary tree → all internal nodes have 2 children, leaves at same level.
Extended binary tree → add external nodes for algorithm simplicity.
Applications of trees → parsing expressions, hierarchical data, indexing,
databases, compilers.
Binary tree insertion → find correct position & insert as leaf.
Binary tree deletion → handle leaf, one child, two children cases.
Binary search → recursive or iterative in BST.
Binary search tree → left child < root < right child.
Recursive search → check root, then left/right subtree.
Iterative search → traverse nodes until key found or null.
Tree rotations → used in AVL for balancing.
Single rotation → left or right.
Double rotation → left-right or right-left.
AVL property → balance factor -1,0,1.
AVL insertion → BST insertion + balance rotations.
AVL deletion → BST deletion + balance rotations.
Height of AVL → log2(n+1).
AVL search → same as BST, O(log n).
B-tree → multiway balanced search tree.
B-tree order → max children per node.
B-tree insertion → insert in leaf, split if full.
B-tree deletion → delete key, merge/borrow if needed.
B+ tree → data only in leaves.
B+ tree indexing → internal nodes store keys for search.
B+ tree insertion → maintain leaves + update internal indexes.
B+ tree deletion → remove from leaf + update internal indexes.
B+ tree search → traverse internal nodes → reach leaf.
Trie → stores strings using prefix tree.
Trie insertion → create node for each new character.
Trie search → traverse nodes character by character.
Trie applications → autocomplete, spellcheck, IP routing.
Heap → complete binary tree with heap property.
Max-heap → parent ≥ children.
Min-heap → parent ≤ children.
Heap insertion → insert last, bubble up.
Heap deletion → remove root, replace with last, bubble down.
Heap sort → build heap, extract root repeatedly.
Priority queue → max/min heap implementation.
Level-order traversal → BFS using queue.
DFS traversal → stack or recursion.
Inorder iterative → stack based traversal.
Preorder iterative → stack based traversal.
Postorder iterative → 2 stacks or modified 1 stack.
Expression tree → leaf operands, internal operators.
Evaluate expression tree → postorder traversal.
Construct expression tree → from postfix/prefix.
Binary tree applications → hierarchical data.
Binary tree applications → expression parsing.
Binary tree applications → database indexing.
Binary tree applications → Huffman coding.
Binary tree applications → syntax tree in compiler.
Recursive tree operations → height, count nodes/leaves.
Iterative tree operations → stack/queue traversal.
BFS → level order traversal.
DFS → depth first search.
Forest → set of disjoint trees.
Rooted tree → single root node.
Full binary tree → 0 or 2 children.
Complete binary tree → all levels full except last.
Perfect binary tree → all internal nodes 2 children, leaves same level.
Extended binary tree → add external nodes.
Ancestors → nodes from root to node.
Descendants → nodes under a given node.
Applications → parsing, hierarchical data, compression, indexing, DBMS.