Experimental study of Al2O3-H2O nanofluid in a square

natural convection cavity

Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Master of Technology

in Mechanical Engineering
(Thermal science and Heat power engineering)

Submitted By

ABHILASH KANUNGO
Registration no: 2061026004

Supervised by
Prof. DEBASHIS DEY
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Institute of Technical Education and
Research

SIKSHA ‘O’ ANUSANDHAN (DEEMED TO BE UNIVERSITY)

Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India

JULY 2022
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the thesis entitled, “An experimental study on natural convection of
alumina nanofluid in a cavity with magnetic field.” submitted by Abhilash kanungo bearing

Registration No. 2061026002 student of 4th semester MTech in Mechanical Engineering

(Thermal Science and Heat Power Engineering) from INSTITUTE OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION
& RESEARCH, BHUBANESWAR, under my guidance has been completed by him and worthy of
the acceptance for the degree of Master of Technology in Mechanical Engineering, under
Siksha ‘O’ Anusandhan (Deemed To Be University), Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India.
 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the matter embodied in this project report is original and has not been
submitted for the award on any other degree. I have also confirmed to the norms and guidelines
given in the Ethical Code of Conduct of the Institute. Whenever I have used materials (data,
theoretical analysis, figures and text) from other resources, I have given due credit to them by

Abhilash kanungo

MTech (HPTE)

Registration No. 2061026004

Siksha O Anusandhan (Deemed to be University)

 REPORT APPROVAL

This Thesis Report on “An experimental study on natural convection of alumina nanofluid
in a cavity with magnetic field” by “Abhilash kanungo” is approved for Degree of Mater
of Technology in Mechanical Engineering (Thermal Science and Heat Power Engineering).

Examiners

Supervisors

Chairman
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to thank the almighty for giving me an opportunity to pursue my Master of
Technology. My deepest sense of gratitude to my respected guide, Prof. Debasis Dey for giving
me an opportunity to work under his guidance. I am also thankful for Sir’s continuous
encouragement, support and belief. Sir’s guidance has not only helped me to complete this
project work but I also have a strong belief that it will help me to achieve my future endeavors.
My sincere thanks are also extended to all the respected faculty members of Department of
Mechanical Engineering, ITER, SOA University. I am especially grateful and highly obliged to the
Professors and teaching staff for their valuable lectures and guidance that I have received
throughout my entire course work of MTech Most importantly, for their continuous support
and belief. Whatever good I am and I will be all the credit goes to my parents and mentors. I am
also thankful to my parents, mentors for their continuous support.

Abhilash kanungo

2061026004
 ABSTRACT

In this study, a square cross-section cavity 20 cm long is used. This cavity is filled with a two-
liter alumina nanofluid. The constant heat flux condition is maintained using a spiral winding
heater on the left copper wall of the cavity. The isothermal right copper wall is maintained
using a water jacket on the right wall. This jacket is connected to a fabricated constant
temperature water bath and the flow rate of water is monitored. The alumina nanoparticles
are of 13 nm average particle size (APS). Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) image has
confirmed the size. X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) analysis has confirmed impurity-free nano-powder
and its type. Each nanofluid solution is prepared by a two-step method. Ultra-sonication (at
40 kHz with the heater on) is done using bath type ultra-sonicator model number ATS 3.5 for
one hour. This is done to disintegrate any nano-powder chunks present in the solution. Here
concentration (ppm), electrical conductivity (COM – 80 TDS), pH of the sample (pH tester),
and all the major thermo-physical properties e.g., specific heat capacity, thermal conductivity,
viscosity, and specific gravity are measured at equilibrium conditions. Instead of using
correlations from the literature, characterization and property evaluations of nanofluid
samples are useful. Here as per the author’s best knowledge for the first time, experimental
fluid flow visualization using nanoparticles is reported.
Contents

1- Certificate

2- Declaration
3- Report approval
4- Acknowledgement
5- Abstract
6- Nomenclature
7- List of tables
8- List of figures

9 CHAPTER 1 1-9

1.1 General 1-2

1.2 Nanofluid 3
1.3 Heat transfer mechanism 3
1.4 Convection 4-5
1.5 Definitions 6
1.6 Dimensionless parameter 7-8
1.7 Objective of work 9

10 CHAPTER 2 10-13

Literature Review

11 CHAPTER 3 14-17

Theoretical Background
3.1 Synthesis and preparation of nanofluid 14-15
3.2 Thermo-physical properties and discussion 16-17
12 CHAPTER 4 18-23

4.1 Experimental description and procedure 18-19

4.2 components descriptions 20-21
4.3 Sensor calibrations data 22-23

13 CHAPTER 5 24-27

Experimental results and Discussions

14 LIST OF FIGURES 15-25

Fig 1 Synthesis Methods of nanoparticles 15

Fig 2 3D- Model of experimental set-up 18

Fig 3-7 Nanoparticles and its preparation 21

Fig 8 Different parts of guarded hot plate apparatus (schematic and actual parts) 24

Fig 9 TEM image of γ-Al2O3 nanoparticles 25

Fig 10 XRD of γ-Al2O3 nanoparticles 25

15 LIST OF TABLES 30-35

Table 1 Sensor calibration data (RPM meter) 30

Table 2 Sensor calibration data (Temperature controller) 31

Table 3 Kinematic viscosity and specific gravity of nanofluids 34

Table 4 Nanofluid measurements by pH meter, COM-80 meter, and guarded heat plate
apparatus 35
 1

CHAPTER 1

Introduction

1.1General

It is a science which gives idea about the energy transfer take place between bodies
because of temperature difference. The science of heat transfer explains how heat
energy transfers, and also provide the idea about the rate at which the exchange
takes place under certain specified conditions.
The technology of heat transfer was known to human being in the primitive age
while they are using solar energy as a source of heat it is directly related to the growth
of human civilization. With the invention of stream engine by James’s watt in 1765
A. D., The heat transfer got its first boom in industrial sector and it’s been gradually
spread across the globe for different engineering studies and research. In past decades
the introduction of different scientific and advance computers made it easy to study the
complex heat transfer process which in future results in inventions of different heat
transfer equipment.
Heat transfer analysis had most important use in nuclear reactors for fuel elements to
avoid burnout, in aircrafts the cooling of engines, in chemical plants it is used in mass
transfer processes. All the conversion and transfer of heat is due to heat transfer
process and thermodynamics deals with those heat transfer processes hence, governed
by the first as well as the second law of thermodynamics. The heat transfer is also
related commonly with fluid mechanics as because of the fact that the heat flow is
occurred only when there is a difference or temperature gradient in between.

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.
The solid-sized nanoparticles suspended in a fluid is called “nanofluid”. In other words,
Nanofluid is a fluid containing nanometer-sized particles, called nanoparticles.
The size is of about 10 . Suspensions of nanoparticles (i.e., particles with diameters
˂ 100 nm) in liquids, termed nanofluid. Nanofluids have been studied for at least
two decades and have shown growth to enhance a wide range of liquid properties.
Applications of nanoparticles in thermal field are to enhance heat transfer and to
improve efficiency of coolants. It has been shown that mixing nanoparticles in a
liquid (nanofluid) has a dramatic effect on the liquid thermophysical properties
such as thermal conductivity. Nanoparticles also gives the potential of improving the
radiative properties of liquids, leading to an increase in the efficiency of absorption of
heat.

Forced convection induces movement of a fluid by the application of an external

force. For example, a fan or pump. Generally forced convection is used to increase
heat transfer whenever the natural convection is not sufficient to provide the desired
rate of heat transfer.
The most suitable way to increase the rate of heat transfer is by adding nanoparticles
with high conductive fluid, that is considered as base fluid and the mixture is termed as
nanofluid. The proper definition of nanofluid is “it is a fluid containing nano-sized
particles with a high conductive base fluid”, there are different forms of nanoparticles
like oxides, carbides or even carbon made nanotubes. Just like nanoparticles the base
fluid are chosen like ethylene glycol, oil, distilled water, DM water, etc. Generally, the
nanofluids are used in cooling purposes in different engineering sector like nuclear and
thermal plants, different electronics product like laptop, smartphones etc. In
automobiles sector nanofluids has been served as a coolant for heavy engines.

Natural convection is a mechanism or type of heat transfer in which the fluid motion is
not generated by any external source (like a pump, fan etc.) but only by densit y
change in the fluid due to varying temperature.

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The fluid is absorbed by the fluid and get less dense as a result it rises up; a heat current is developed
during this process generally called convection current by the help of which the warm fluid gets
replaced by cooler ones. In general, two main heat flow is observed one is natural another is forced
convection mode. In natural the fluid get farer from a region of high temperature and moves closer
to region of low temperature. The mechanism involved in this process is that the fluid as soon as
touches the high temperature it suddenly gains energy and become less dense which makes a part
of that fluid to move upward, and the higher denser fluid remains in the down part due to force of
gravity.

1.2 Nanofluid Preparations

The fluid with solid-sized nanoparticles suspended in them is called “nanofluid”. In other
words, Nanofluid is a fluid containing nanometer-sized particles, called nanoparticles.
The size is of about 10 . The preparation of nanofluids is done by two methods i.e., two
step and one step methods

1.3 Heat transfer Mechanism

Heat is the form of energy that can be transferred from one system to another as a
result of temperature difference. The science that deals with the determination of the
rates of such energy transfers is the heat transfer. The transfer of energy as heat is
always from the higher temperature medium to the lower temperature one, and heat
transfer stops when the two mediums reach the same temperature. Heat can be
transferred in three different mechanisms or modes: conduction, convection and
radiation. All modes of heat transfer require the existence of a temperature
difference, and all modes are from the high temperature medium to lower
temperature one. In reality, the combined effect of these three modes of heat
transfer control temperature distribution in a medium. Below we give a brief
description of convection mode.

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1.4 Convection Process

Convective heat transfer is the heat transfer mechanism affected by the flow of
fluids. The amount of energy and matter is conveyed by the fluid can be predicted
through the convective heat transfer. The convective heat transfer is divided into two
branches; the natural convection and the forced convection. Forced convection
regards the heat transport by induced fluid motion that is forced to happen. This
induced flow needs consistent mechanical power. But natural convection differs from
the forced convection through the fluid flow driving force that happens naturally.
The flows are driven by the buoyancy effect due to the presence of density gradient
and gravitational field. The density difference gives rise to buoyancy effects due to
which the flow is gyrated. Buoyancy is due to the combined presence of the fluid
density gradient and the body force. As the temperature distribution in the natural
convection depends on the intensity of the fluid currents that is dependent on the
temperature potential itself, the qualitative and quantitative analysis of natural
convection heat transfer is very difficult. Numerical investigation instead of
theoretical analysis is more needed in this field. Two genres of natural convection
heat transfer phenomena can be observed in the nature. One is that external free
convection that is caused by the heat transfer interaction between a single wall and a
very large fluid reservoir adjacent to the wall. Another is that internal free convection
which befalls within an enclosure. The thermo-fluid fields developed inside the
cavity depend on the orientation and geometry of the cavity. Reviewing the nature
and the practical applications, the enclosure phenomena can loosely be organized
into two classes. One of these is enclosure heated from the side which is found in
solar collectors, double wall insulations, laptop cooling system and air circulation
inside the room and another one is enclosure heated from below which is happened
in geophysical system like natural circulation in the atmosphere, the hydrosphere and
the molten core of the earth.

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If the motion of the fluid arises due to an external agent, such as the externally imposed flow
of fluid stream over a heated object, the process is termed as forced convection. The fluid
flow may be the results of, for instance, a fan, a blower, the wind or the motion of the
heated object itself. Such problems are very frequently encountered in technology where
heat transfer to, or from, a body is often due to an imposed flow of a fluid at a temperature
different from that of the body. It has wide applications in compact heat exchanger, central
air conditioning system, cooling tower, gas turbine blade, internal cooling passage,
chemical engineering process industries, nuclear reactors and many other cases. If, on the
other hand, no such externally induced flow is provided and the flow arises “naturally”
simply due to the effect of a density difference, resulting from a temperature difference,
in a body force field, such as gravitational field, the process is termed as natural or free
convection. The density deference gives rise to buoyancy effects due to which the flow is
generated. A heated body cooling in ambient air generates such a flow in the region
surrounding it. Similarly, the buoyant flow arising from heat rejection to the atmosphere and
to other ambient media, Heat transfer by free convection occurs in many engineering
applications, such as heat transfer from hot radiators, refrigerator coils, transmission lines,
electric transformers, electric heating elements and electronic equipment etc.

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1.5 Term and Definitions

1.5.1 Thermal conductivity

Thermal conductivity of a material can be defined as the rate of heat transfer through a unit
thickness of the material per unit area per unit temperature difference. Therefore,
the thermal conductivity of a material is a measure of the ability of the material to conduct
heat. A high value for thermal conductivity indicates that the material is a good heat
conductor, and a low value for thermal conductivity indicates that the material is a poor heat
conductor or insulator. For example, the materials such as copper and silver that are good
electric conductors are also good heat conductors, and have high values of thermal
conductivity. Materials such as rubber, wood are poor conductors of heat and have low
conductivity values. The rate of heat conduction through a medium depends on the
geometry of the medium, its thickness, and the material of the medium, as well as the
temperature difference across the medium.

1.5.2 Flow inside an enclosure

Flow is generally inside a closed enclosure with two walls facing opposite to each other,
different temperatures, has been researched frequently. In all the applications having this
kind of situation, heat transfer occurs due to the temperature difference across the fluid
layer, one horizontal solid surface being at a temperature higher than the other. If the upper
plate is the hot surface, then the lower surface has heavier fluid and by virtue of buoyancy
the fluid would not come to the lower plate. Because in this case the heat transfer
mode is restricted to only conduction. But if the fluid is enclosed between two horizontal
surfaces of which the upper surface is at lower temperature, there will be the existence of
cellular natural convective currents which are called as Benard cells. For fluids whose
density decreases with increasing temperature, this leads to an unstable situation.

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1.6 Important parameters (Dimensionless)

The parameters which are dimensionless are been used for analyzing the flow aspect and
frequently used in researches and are being mentioned below.

Prandtl Number (Pr)

The relative thickness of the velocity and the thermal boundary layers is best described
by the dimensionless parameter Prandtl number, defined as Pr = Molecular diffusivity of
momentum / Molecular diffusivity of heat = υ/ α. It is named after Ludwig Prandtl, who
introduced the concept of boundary layer in 1904 It is named after Ludwig Prandtl, who
introduced the concept of boundary layer in numbers of fluids range from less than 0.01
for liquid metals to more than 100,000 for heavy oils. Note that the Prandtl number is in
the order of 10 for water. The Prandtl numbers of gases are about 1, which indicates that
both momentum and heat dissipate through the fluid at about the same rate.

Nusselt Number Nu

The Nusselt number represents the enhancement of heat transfer through a fluid layer as a
result of convection relative to conduction across the same fluid layer, and is defined as
Nu = hL / k

where k is the thermal conductivity of the fluid, h is the heat transfer coefficient and L is the
characteristics length. The Nusselt number is named after Wilhelm Nusselt, who made
significant contributions to convective heat transfer in the first half of the twentieth century,
and it is viewed as the dimensionless convection heat transfer coefficient. The larger
Nusselt number indicates a large temperature gradient at the surface and hence, high heat
transfer by convection. A Nusselt number of Nu = 1, for a fluid layer represents heat
transfer across the layer by pure conduction. To understand the physical significance of
the Nusselt number, consider the following daily life problems. We remedy to forced
convection whenever we want to increase the rate of heat transfer from a hot object.

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Rayleigh Number Ra

The Rayleigh number (Ra) for a fluid is a dimensionless number associated with buoyancy-
driven flow, also known as free convection or natural convection. When the Rayleigh
number is below a critical value for that fluid, heat transfer is primarily in the form of
conduction, when it exceeds the critical value of heat transfer is primarily in the form
of convection. The Rayleigh number is named after Lord Rayleigh and is defined as the
product of the Grashof number, which describes the relationship between buoyancy and
viscosity within a fluid, and the Prandtl number, which describes the relationship between
momentum diffusivity and thermal diffusivity. Hence the Rayleigh number itself may
also be viewed as the ratio of buoyancy and viscosity forces multiplied by the ratio of
momentum and thermal diffusivities.

Grashof Number Gr

The flow regime in free convection is governed by the dimensionless Grashof number,
which represent the ratio of the buoyancy force to the viscous forces acting on the fluid, and
is defined as

where g is the acceleration due to gravity,  is the volumetric thermal expansion

coefficient, Tw is the wall temperature, T is the ambient temperature, L is the
characteristic length and  is the kinematics viscosity. The Grashof number plays the same
role played by the Reynolds number in free convection. As such, the Grashof number
provides the main criterion in determining whether the fluid flow is laminar or turbulent in
free convection. For vertical plates, the critical value of the Grashof number is observed to
be about 109. Therefore, the flow regime on a vertical plate becomes turbulent at Grashof
numbers greater than109.

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1.7 Motivation of work

From the literature review it is mentioned that a very few experimental works have been done
introducing temperature dependent thermal conductivity and viscosity properties of
nanofluid. In spite of that there is a large scope to work with nanofluid flow and heat transfer
by analyzing these properties. In this paper, we investigated experimentally the effect of
variable thermal conductivity and other thermo physical properties across the nanofluid
in square cavity and

The present theoretical study may be useful guide for research and experiments on heat
transfer in closed enclosure using nanofluids to enhance thermal efficiency. The results
obtained in this thesis are likely to be helpful in applications including manufacturing,
chemical and pharmaceutical processes, medical treatments, cosmetics, modeling
solar thermal receivers, refrigerator and electronic cooling process etc.

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CHAPTER 2

Literature Review

The study is all about natural and mixed convection heat transfer of nano-fluids basically
Al O − H O inside a laterally heated square cavity. The numerical approach is carried out by
solving 2D-continuity, Navier-stokes, energy and volume fraction equations in finite volume
methodology. The parameters that are analysed during the method are Rayleigh number (10
≤ Ra ≤ 10 ), volume fraction ( 0 ≤ Ψ ≤ 0.05 ), size of nano-particles ( 25nm ≤ d ≤ 145nm ),
Richardson number ( 0.01 ≤ Ri ≤ 1000 ) and Grashof number (10 ≤ Gr ≤10 ). The motive of
this experiment is to obtain maximum heat transfer rate. It has been found that the nano-
particle distribution is directly depends on the value of Ra and RI.(Garoosi et al., 2014)

At first De Vahl Davis conducted a numerical stimulation inside a square cavity with a cold and
hot vertical isothermal wall whose boundary condition is known as differentially heated cavity
(DHC). Bouafia and Daube both had an experimental analysis of natural convection in air filled
cavity and found two instability type driven types driven by different physical mechanism that
is shear and buoyancy instabilities. In recent days free convection heat transfer of nanofluid
in a square cavity along with a square central heater of various sizes are been conducted in a
computational procedure to get numerical results for analysis of thermo-physical
properties.(Boulahia & Sehaqui, 2015)

This paper gives a brief knowledge of numerical simulation of natural convection cooling of
heat-conducting and heat-generating source using an alumina-water nanofluid under the
effect of cold vertical walls. Finite difference method was used to solve Governing equations
formulated in dimensionless stream function, vorticity and temperature variables. Many
experimental and theoretical works have been performed for analysis of convective heat
transfer in enclosures. Numerically conjugate and non-conjugate natural convection in semi-
circular pool and square cavity with internal heat generation method was adapted by Liaqut
and baytas and found that conjugate heat transfer is more essential for analysis of engineering
applications. Study of natural convection in a Cu-water filled enclosure in the presence of

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internal heat generation was done by Rajarathinam and Nithyadevi. An analytical problem for
Fourier and non-Fourier heat transfer in longitudinal fin with internal heat generation and
periodic boundary conditions was also carried out. Heat line visualization technique was
adapted by many researcher to perform simulation of heat transport in energy system.
(Bondarenko et al., 2019)

A comparative study of different model based on thermo physical properties of copper-water

nano-fluids are developed and analyzed, thus the numerical results showed the heat transfer
rate at any given grashof number. The heat transfer correlation of average Nusselt number
for various Grashof number and volume fraction had been proposed by authors. A model of
Al O -water based nano-fluid in a rectangular enclosure also been studied, and resulted that
increasing in buoyancy and volume fraction increases the effective heat transfer. Two
different formulae are also been proposed for effective viscosity and conductivity of the nano-
fluids. Oatward-de waele model for non-Newtonian shear thinning fluid has been considered
for the calculation of shear stress. It has been found that different models had different impact
on the properties of nano-fluids inside the closed enclosure. Oztrop and Abu-Nada performed
a numerical study of natural convection in partially heated rectangular enclosure and found
that the location of the heater effects the flow and temperature fields by using nano-fluids.
some of studies are also been conducted based upon Rayleigh-Benard convection in a
horizontal layer of nano-fluid heated below, by increase in density, heat capacity and
decreasing the thermal conductivity and shape factor.(Alloui et al., 2011)

Fluent and Open FOAM codes have been used to assess the Boussinesq approximation for a
wide range of Ra numbers (10 − 10 ) for two dimensional (square cavity) and three
dimensional (cubic cavity) cases Fluent and open FOAM codes have been used to assess the
Boussinesq approximation for a wide range of Ra numbers (10 -10 ) for two dimensional
(square cavity) and three dimensional (cubic cavity) cases. Natural convection in closed
cavities had a vital role in many engineering and scientific applications such as energy transfer,
boilers, nuclear reactor systems, energy storage devices etc. Fluent and open FOAM software
has been used here to solve problems based on natural convection in geometrical shapes.
Related to natural convection in closed cavities, both in laminar and turbulent regimes, there

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are two significant benchmark problems, the two-dimensional numerical solution given by De
Vahl Davis and its three-dimensional counterpart with experimental results taken from

Ampofo et. Regarding the former it has a set of numerical results for four values of Rayleigh
number, namely10 ,10 , 10 and 10 that were obtained with second-order central
difference approximation in a square cavity filled with air (Pr = 0.71) in laminar regime.
Regarding three dimensional cases, the experimental data for turbulent natural convection in
a air filled cavity (0:75 m high × 0:75 m wide ×1:5 m deep) with a Ra = 1:59× 10 .(Corzo et
al., 2011)

One of the first works on the numerical simulation of free convection heat transfer inside
cavities is the pioneering work of De Vahl Davis. He considered an air-filled cavity with two
vertical isothermal walls, one cold and one hot, and two horizontal adiabatic walls. This cavity
with those boundary conditions is known as differentially heated cavity (DHC). Ho et al.
numerically and experimentally investigated on the effects of the HAC position in an air-filled
circular enclosure with insulated walls and subjected to external convection in the range of
Rayleigh numbers between 10 and 10 . Vertical and horizontal orientations of the heater
were studied and the results showed that the heat transfer is higher in the case of vertical
orientation of the heater compare to the horizontal orientation. This study is the first one
which investigated on the natural convection inside cavities using nanofluids at this range of
Rayleigh numbers and variation of the design parameters.(Garoosi et al., 2013)

Experimental studies been performed in the field of nanofluid natural convection. Studied
natural convection of Al O −water and CuO-water in a horizontal cylinder, experimentally.
They found that the Nusselt number decreases along with increasing in volume fraction of
nanoparticles. Analyzed natural convection of TiO -water in between two disks
experimentally and resulted that the same result as of investigated in the natural convection
of Al O water nanofluid in square enclosures of three different sizes, experimentally. In the
non-homogeneous model, it is assumed that nanoparticles transport due to relative velocity
between nanoparticles and the base fluid. Nanoparticles transport may lead to non-
homogeneity in nanofluid.(Sheikhzadeh et al., 2013)

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Analyzing the effects due to uncertainties for effective dynamic viscosity and thermal
conductivity of nanofluid on laminar natural convection heat transfer in a square enclosure.
Some numerical simulations had been undertaken with a homogeneous solid–liquid mixture
formulation for the two-dimensional buoyancy-driven convection in the enclosure filled with
alumina–water nanofluid. Simulations had been carried out for the parameters in the
following ranges: the Rayleigh number, Ra = 10 –10 and the volumetric fraction of alumina
nanoparticles, of 0–4%. Significant difference in the effective dynamic viscosity enhancement
of the nanofluid calculated from the two adopted formulas, beside that the thermal
conductivity enhancement, was found to perform a important role, by leading to results of
nanofluid properties inside the enclosure.(Ho et al., 2008)

The study mainly focused on the natural convection of nanofluid Al O −water in a vertical
square enclosure using the lattice Boltzmann method (LBM). The results of the entire
stimulation indicate that the average Nusselt number increases with increase in Rayleigh
number as well as volume concentration. The heat transfer rate of the nanofluid has a lower
value than water at a fixed temperature difference along the enclosure due to enhancement
physical properties of a nanofluid are also identified.(Lai & Yang, 2011)

The study is focused on some forces and their interaction (gravity and buoyancy force, drag
force, interaction potential force, and Brownian force) between nanoparticles and a base fluid,
by using two-phase Lattice Boltzmann model for natural convection of nanofluid. The main
reason of the experiment conducted is to investigate the natural convection in a square
enclosure (the left wall is kept at a high constant temperature (TH), and the top wall is kept at
a low constant temperature (TC)) filled with aluminum-dioxide and water mixed nanofluid.
The effects of different nanoparticle fractions and Rayleigh numbers on natural convection
heat transfer of nanofluid are investigated, and resulted that the average Nusselt number of
the enclosure increases as volume fraction increased, even more in increase of Rayleigh
number. Also, the effects of forces on different properties of nanoparticles also been
investigated inside the enclosure.(Qi et al., 2015)

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CHAPTER 3

Theoretical Background

3.1 Synthesis and preparation of nanofluids

 Two step methods.

 One or single step method.

Drying, storage, transportation, and dispersion are the four important processes involved in
two step methods of nano-fluid preparation. By using some chemical as well as physical means
nano-particles along with other nano-based materials are been prepared. These nano based
materials are powered and agitated with ultra-sonic vibrator or high shear homogenizer.
These processes are economical and preferred by many industries but yet we didn’t get much
highly stabilized nano-fluid out of it. Two step method works well for oxides but not so for
metallic particles.

One step method involves preparation and dispersion at a time. various researchers
developed techniques or methods in one-step process for preparing nanofluids of different
metals and their oxides. Some of them are mentioned below: -

1. VEROS (Vacuum evaporation onto a running oil substrate).

2. Modifies VEROS (for Ag, Au, and Cu).
3. A novel one step chemical method (for Cu in ethyl glycol under microwave irradiation).
4. Vacuum SANSS (submerged arc nano particle synthesis system).
5. SANSS method (for Ni and Ag)
6. Modified magnetron sputtering method (for Ti ).
7. Chemical solution method.

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One step method produces stable nanofluids but only considered for low vapor-pressure
fluids. This method didn’t deal with removing impurities or residues which is very much
needed for analyzing the effects of nano-fluids. The stability of nanofluids are evaluated by
various processes like sedimentation photograph capturing, UV-spectrometer, dynamic light
scattering.

Nanomaterial synthesis Methods

Physical Method Chemical Methods Biological Methods

Green Synthesis
Mechanical Vapour Method

Sol-gel
Using plant
Mechanical leaves, seeds,
Milling Chemical vapour flower etc
Deposition

Colloidal Method Using microbes

Spray Pyrolysis

Sputtering Laser Ablation Laser Pyrolysis

Fig.1 Synthesis methods of nanoparticles

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3.2 Thermo-physical properties: -

There has been many research taken out for the study of thermo physical properties of
nanofluid. Some of them are mentioned below

 Convective heat transfer coefficient: - For detail study of this property kalbasi
proceeded with , Ti enhancement and deterioration of Si at low thermal
conductivity but the nanofluid behaves as non-Newtonian fluid at high concentration
as a result precipitation has not been fully checked in the experiment.
Utomo and heris found uncertain change in the value of Nusselt number and
coefficient of convective heat transfer respectively due to , Ti and CNT but
no such detailed analysis was done in experiment further.
For turbulent flow analysis Xia proposed a critical Rayleigh no≈ 25×10 above which
the nusselt no is equal to base fluid but the value of α is not been specified.
Therefore, according to zoubia more experiment using different metal oxides solution
are required to be done for a solid result.
 Thermal conductivity: - According to Maxwell theory dispersing solid in fluid generally
enhance the thermal conductivity of fluid but it is confined to only micro-particles
which already have sedimentation and clogging issue. Thermal conductivity of
nanofluid are measured by transient hot wire method, thermal constant analyzer
technique, parallel plate method, 3 omega method. Various researchers with their
experiments developed different mechanisms for thermal conductivity like Brownian
motion of nano particles, liquid layering, nanoparticles clustering, ballistic photon
transport of nanoparticles, thermophoresis, near field radiation etc.
 Viscosity: - It is an important property of nanofluid in the field of petroleum
engineering. Viscosity affects fluid efficiency on the basis of lubrication, pumping
power, heat transfer, and oil recovery activities. various researchers focused upon
the dependency of nanofluid viscosity on volume concentration, size, shape, and
temperature of nanofluids. All the experiment that was conducted for analyzing
viscous property are done on water-based Ti , Si , CuO, and nanofluid.
Through experiment it was found that increase in temperature reduces viscosity,
viscosity directly depends on particles size. Nanofluid viscosity also increases with
increase in volume concentration. It has also been found that above shear rate the

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viscosity rises with rise in temperature whereas below shear rate viscosity decreases
with increase in temperature.
 Specific heat: - Experiments followed by different researchers for specific heat
analysis. Generally specific heat capacity is measured by using differential scanning
calorimeter (DSC), and modulated differential scanning calorimeter (MDSC).
Enhancement of specific heat is more in liquid phase than solid it is due to formation
of compressed structure around the nanoparticles that forms a percolation network
leads to increase in specific heat and reduction of cost of thermal power up to 50%.
Due to nanolayer effect the specific heat reduces with reduction in size. The
formation of adsorption layer at nanoparticle-base fluid interface causes a growth in
specific heat and if the layer thickness increases it might also increase the specific
heat even further. Nanoparticle volume concentration also directly proportional to
specific heat capacity.
 Pool boiling and flow boiling heat transfer: - These are the types of boiling that is
divided on the basis of phase change during boiling process. Critical heat flux (CHF)
increases with the addition of nanoparticles. By using particle image velocimetry (PIV)
it has been observed that there is some change in hydrodynamic properties when
nanoparticles were added, nanoparticles deposition facilitates CHF in pool boiling. In
addition of 0.001 g/l increases CHF up to 200%. There is a relation established
between CHF and wettability of the fluid and it was concluded that CHF improvement
rate is higher with a higher wettability.
Flow boiling is generally used in refrigeration and air conditioning. The aim of
enhancement of flow boiling heat transfer is to reduce the energy consumption. An
confocal microscopy observation found that nanoparticles deposition on the heat
surface occurred during nanofluid boiling, that changes the fluid wettability. The
wang dhir’s model was used to estimate the ensuing nucleation site density charge
but the coefficient data was not well defined.

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CHAPTETR 4

4.1 Experimental description (set-up) and procedure

Fig 2- 3D model of the experimental set-up in solid work

The experimental set up consist of four major section and are discussed below

1. Cooling side (left0

2. Heating side (right)
3. Cavity enclosure (top)
4. Magnetic setup (bottom)

A well-insulated compressor is kept on the cooling side which is connected to a water bath
having a capacity of 7-8 liters. The compressor cools down the heated water and the range is
set at a temperature of 10˚ C. The heating part consist of a heating coil of 350W for heating of
the nanofluid, the range of heating is up to 80˚ C. The cavity is a square (10×10 cm) and 20cm
long enclosure completely insulated and leak proof having a capacity to hold 2-liters of

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alumina nanofluid. The heat flux is maintained by a mica heater on the left side of copper
cavity wall and the right wall is connected with a water jacket and the constant flow rate is
monitored by the help of a rotameter of desired flow rate range of 150 LPH -300 LPH. The
alumina nanoparticles are of 13 nm average particle size (APS). Transmission Electron
Microscopy (TEM) images have confirmed the size. X-Ray Diffraction i.e. XRD (Rigaku Ultima
IV XRD machine at the center of nanoscience and nanotechnology of Siksha O Anusandhan
Deemed to be University) analysis has confirmed no impurities present in this nano-powder
and also the type of alumina is also ascertained. Each nanofluid solution is prepared by a two-
step method. First, ultra-sonication (at 40 kHz and also heater on) is done using bath type
ultra-sonicator model number ATS 3.5 (from Athena Technology) for 1 hour. This is done to
disintegrate any nano-powder chunks present in the solution. Magnetic stirring is also done
later on if the properties are evaluated later on of the same sample. This mechanical agitation
is also done for one hour. Then following parameters are measured. Here concentration
profile (ppm), electrical conductivity (measured by COM – 80 TDS (Total Dissolved Solids in
ppm i.e. parts per million/Electrical Conductivity or EC in micro Siemens /Temperature or
TEMP in °C hydro tester), pH of the sample (measured by pH tester from Konvio Neer), and all
the major thermo-physical properties e.g. thermal conductivity (Transient hot wire method,
MP-2 thermal conductivity), specific heat capacity and viscosity from Central Institute of
Petrochemicals Engineering and Technology (CIPET), Bhubaneswar, and specific gravity (using
hydrometer by BOMBEY SCIENTIFIC) are measured at equilibrium conditions. All the
thermocouples and measuring devices are calibrated before carrying out the experiments.
Initially, the experiment is carried out with air and distilled water. Then nanofluid of various
concentration (0.01%, 0.025%, 0.05%, 0.075%, and 0.1% by volume) are used. The steady-
state is considered when there is no change in temperatures for both hot and cold walls for
five minutes. Initially constant water temperature bath is set and so cold wall temperature is
achieved after some time but flow continues. Then hot side temperature is set within +5°C of
the cold wall. As a hot wall has constant heat flux, so when it reaches the desired temperature
then heat flux supply will be stopped. The amount of heat can be measured by an energy
meter. After that Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate i.e. SDS (anionic), Cetrimonium Bromide i.e. CTAB
(cationic), and Triton X-100 (non-ionic) surfactants are used at CMC i.e. 2500 ppm, 330 ppm,
and 200 ppm respectively. Surfactants are used to improve the stability of the nanofluid as it
is an important issue in the cavity. Because in cavity bulk motion of the fluid is absent

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4.2 components used with description

1. compressor
2. heater
3. insulation
4. heating element
5. rotameter
6. rpm-meter (RPM- 3201-A2-00, 5-5000 RPM)
7. voltmeter
I- THERM Nx-441
8. ammeter
9. energy meter (Cooling side)

10. temperature controller

11. thermocouple (PT-100)
I- THERM AI-7481
12. LED indicator/toggles/switches
13. Water bath (7-8L capacity) (Heating side)

14. Cooling fans (2 in numbers)

15. Flow valve

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Fig 3 Aluminum oxide nanoparticles Fig 4 Ph meter

Fig 5 Hydrometer fig 6 Magnetic stirring of nanofluid

Fig 7 ultra-sonication of nanofluid

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4.3 Sensor calibration data

1. RPM meter (Table 1)

Reading of reference Average reading of UUC Error

(RPM) (RPM) (RPM)

50 49 -1

100 99 -1

500 498 -2

1000 997 -3

2000 1995 -5

3000 2992 -8

Uncertainty measurement at 95% of confidence level with coverage factor k= 2: ± 1.14 rpm

Environmental conditions

1. Temperature - 23° # ± 2° #
2. Relative humidity 40-60 % R.H.

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2 Temperature controller (Table 2)

Average value of

Reference standard
UUC in Celsius Error in Celsius
In Celsius

0 0.05 +0.05

2 2.10 +0.10

5 5.17 +0.17

7 7.23 +0.23

10 10.35 +0.35

Uncertainty measurement at 95% of confidence level with coverage factor k= 2: ± 1.07° #

Environmental conditions

1. Temperature - 25° # ± 3° #
2. Relative humidity 45-75 % R.H.

Key word

UUC – Unit Under Calibration

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CHAPTETR 5

5.1 Experimental Result and Discussions

Thermal Conductivity of nanofluid is measured by guarded hot plate apparatus as shown in

Fig 2. It has a principle of operation similar to the heat flow meter. Here, this method is
used to measure the thermal conductivity of a liquid. There are three heaters i.e. main heater,
ring heater, and top heater. The main heater (300 W) is at the center of the test liquid cavity.
It is surrounded by a ring heater (300 W) to avoid radial heat loss. There is a top heater
(200 W) above the

Figure 8 Different parts of guarded hot plate apparatus (schematic and actual parts)

test section. This heater prevents heat loss from the top. Both ring and top heaters are mica ring
heaters sandwiched between the plates. The main heater is a ϕ100mm mica heater. There are
thermocouples connected with the temperature indicators (multichannel digital) to measure the
temperature for both the cold and hot sides of the test cavity. The power supplied to each heater
can be measured from voltmeter and ammeter readings. The bottom plate of the test liquid
cavity is cooled using constant flowrate tap water during the thermal conductivity measurement.
There are three spacers (white color) between the top and bottom plates of the test liquid cavity.
At equilibrium ideally, all three heater temperatures should be equal. This method is least
affected by particle sedimentation because the thickness of the loaded sample fluid is less than
1 mm. The thermal conductivity is calculated using the below equation (1).

-.(/012 .' /32 40*5 320/26 7 8)6625/ .' /32 40*5 320/26
&'()*+ , . 9:205 40*5 320/26 /24.260/)62 :205 ;..(*51 <(0/2 /24<260/)62=
(1)

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Figure 9 TEM image of γ-Al2O3 nanoparticles

Figure 10 XRD of γ-Al2O3 nanoparticles

it is clear that these dimensions are not of individual particles rather agglomerated chunks as
evident from the image. So, later on, 718475-100G 13nm nanoparticles are procured from
Sigma Aldrich. The absence of impurities and peaks presence from the XRD image (Fig 4)
confirms that it is a γ-Al2O3 nanoparticle. Now with these confirmatory tests of nanoparticle
characterizations, nanofluid samples are prepared and thermo-physical properties (specific

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gravity, thermal conductivity, specific heat capacity, kinematic viscosity), as well as pH, TDS,
electrical conductivity, are measured.

Kinematic viscosity of nanofluid is measured by the capillary viscometer and using equation
(2) and shown in Table 1.

Table 3 Kinematic viscosity and specific gravity of nanofluids

Nanofluid + Surfactant Kinematic Viscosity (cSt) Specific Gravity

Only Demineralized (DM) 1.2441 0.997±0.001

Water

0.01 % Al2O3 + 0.01% CTAB 1.2524 0.9965±0.001

0.02 % Al2O3 + 0.02% CTAB 1.1984 0.997±0.001

0.03 % Al2O3 + 0.03% CTAB 1.2027 0.996±0.001

0.04 % Al2O3 + 0.04% CTAB 1.2161 0.996±0.001

Kinematic viscosity of nanofluid in cSt = Constant Value from Table 3 (Appendix) × Time
taken in second (2)

For Alumina nanoparticles, water (DM or Deionized) is the best base fluid. The pH for a stable
nanofluid solution is 8. The nanoparticle range is below 50 nm. SDS works best with this
nanoparticle. On-off impulse is better than continuous mode for ultra-sonication because it does
not allow the temperature to increase. The isoelectric point of Al2O3 is 9.1 (pH value). Both
ultra-sonication time and cluster size together have a combined (interaction) effect on the
absolute zeta potential and thus on the stability of the nanofluid. A hybrid nanofluid is a
combination of two or more chemically and physically different nanoparticles in a base fluid.
This nanofluid is still in the research stage and has not been used in industries yet.

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Alumina nanoparticles are between 40 and 50 nm in size as provided by Nano Research Lab,
Jamshedpur. So, they are much smaller than visible light wavelengths. The reflected light from
these nanoparticles are showing the downward motion due to the gravity in Fig 5. The size of
the solid U tube is 6 mm in diameter and white dots are the nanoparticles here. As per our
study, this is the first time experimental flow visualization study using nanoparticles. The
parameters are shown in Table 2 with uncertainty values are shown. The details of the
uncertainty analysis procedure are shown in [17]. Specific heat capacity (Cp) of nanofluid is
measured by modulated differential scanning calorimetry (MDSC) and is shown in Fig 6.

Table 4 Nanofluid measurements by pH meter, COM-80 meter, and guarded heat plate
apparatus

Nanofluid pH TDS Temperature Electrical Thermal

(volume % in (ppm) (°C) Conductivity Conductivity
DM Water) (μs) (W/m-K)

0.01 % Al2O3 6.62±0.01 5±0.1 31.2±0.1 10±0.1 0.6869±1%

0.025 % Al2O3 7.04±0.01 11±0.1 29.6±0.1 23±0.1 0.6940±1%
0.05 % Al2O3 7.82±0.01 13±0.1 35.3±0.1 24±0.1 0.6959±1%
0.075 % Al2O3 7.63±0.01 18±0.1 33.7±0.1 39±0.1 0.7393±1%
0.1 % Al2O3 8.01±0.01 20±0.1 35.8±0.1 43±0.1 0.7498±1%

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Conclusion

There are a very large number of correlations that are developed over the last two decades for
thermo-physical properties of nanofluids. The suitable applications of these correlations have
become a challenging task because the properties depend on many parameters and if one of the
parameters changes then the property will also change. It is wise to test the samples and use
those results for calculations of other relevant parameters. This is done in the present scenario.
In this study, all the major thermo-physical properties and TDS, electrical conductivity, pH are
also measured. Specific gravity remains almost constant at such a low concentration and the
kinematic viscosity of nanofluid with surfactant has a comparatively lower value than the base
fluid in general. Experimental fluid flow visualization is an exciting as well as challenging task
especially when the nanoparticles are present. This study is carried out where gravity is the
dominant force over the others. As φ increases pH also increases i.e. it is gradually reaching an
isoelectric point (most unstable condition) at pH =9.1. So, we can not keep on increasing φ even
though there is an improvement in thermal conductivity values.

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